COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS Martin Adams ¢ June Haighton e Jeff Trim STANLEY THORNES This on “2k WN. F9=XSKE: I ‘OWE© Martin Adams, June Haighton, Jeff Trim 2000 Mlustrations © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd 2000, ‘Tho right of Martin Adams, Juno Haighton and Joff Trim to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them In accordance with the Copyright, Dasigns and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part af this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form ar by any moans, eleciranic or mechanical, ineluding photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in waiting from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may bo obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited of 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WAP OLP. First published in 2000 by Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd Elleuborough House Wellington Street CHELTENHAM GLs01YW Aectalogue record far this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0 7487 35593 0001 02 03 04/10987654321 ‘The publishors are gratoful to the following for permission to use copyright material: Brooklands Musoum Trust Limited, photograph, p.136 Blackpool Pleasure Beach, photographs, pp227, 256 Big Bang Promotions Limited (T/A UK Bungee Club), p203 All other photographs, including eover, from STP Archive Every effort has been made to contact capyright holders. The authors and publishers apologise to anyone whose rights have been overlooked and will be happy (o rectify any errors ar omissions at the earliest opportunity ‘Typeset by Tho Alden Group, Oxford Printed and bound in Italy by STIGE, TurinContents Examination Papers 1 Principles of Mechanics. 1 1:1 Mathonmatical Modlin 2 Applications and Activities _—___ Summa 8 2Bomes What you need to know 7 z a 14 2:3 Modelling Resistance Forces 24 ‘Applications and Actes <<<; Seamer Vectors | ng ‘What vou need to know 28 4.1. Scalars and Vectors 0 3.2 Addition, Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication of Vectors 35, 3 Masini ‘and Direction of Vectors SB 3.5 Vector Algebra 46 foul a 3 Applications and Activities 54 ‘Summary 5 4 Travel Graphs 56 ‘What you need toknow 88 4.1 Distance—Time Graphs 58 4.2 Displacement-Time Graphs __————SSSSSS—S— $55 Spun Tang and Vetotty- Time Grape 7 = Time and Velocity=Time Graphe 4.4 Dimensional Analysis BS Consolidation AW SP TAT ENT a Applications and Activities ‘90 Summary. 30 S.Wectors Wo What you need to know a 5.1 Resolving Vectors into Perpendicular Components a 5:2 Resultant Vectors using Seale Drawings 102 £3 Reasullant Vectors using Trigmometxy 10 5.4 Resultant Vectors usin Resolv a tr idati 120 Applications and Activities 122 Summary 122 iiiaunifs 7 233 ‘What you nood to know 123 Review 75 Rosolving Forces 305, Gonsalidation B75 Applications and Activities 174 TS What vau need to know 176 Applications and Activities 205 Summary 206 a Frieti 20 What you need to know 207 Revise 9.1 Friction ona Horizontal Plane 20 O29 Friction and Inlined Earces 248 9.8 Rough, Inclined Planes 222 9.5, Angle of Friction 232 Consolidation ROO 29 Applications and Activities 240 Sama et 4 Work: Energy and Power zaz What) yo fo know 242 - 0.4 Work Dane aa 10.2 En 250 Te Consent oT ERE rr on of Ene} Consolidation Ag Consolidation B29 Applications and Activities 2a umm zat 11 Hooke's Law and 272 it vou neod to know 272 ‘11.1 Tension in an Elastic String or Spri 273 Usheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material11.2 Fquilibrium Problems 278 TES Niation involving Elaats SUeagS ana SpengS 7 Tea Elastic Potwntiat Ene oir 11s Consarvation of Emcee and ihe Wark Energy Principio ——203 inorgy and Uae Work- Energy PainetpTO Applications and Activities 305, Summary 305 12 Collisions 306 What you need to know 306 Review 306 2.1 Momentum 307 122 bepalee 311 Applications and Activities ‘331 Summary rt Moments What vou need to know 332 1 The MomentofaForoe 8 13.2 Moments with Forces Applied at an Angle 13.4 Couples 349 Applications and Activities 356 Semmay —r 4. Centre of Massa ‘What you need to know 357 Raview 141 Centro of Mass of Particle Systems 358 1: 2Centre nf Mass of Uniform Lamina® and Solids "355 14.3 Suspended Laminas and Rods 374 Hat Centro of Mase using Tatogeattog 75, using Tntogralion a7 146 Sliding and Toppling 380 Consolidation RTF Applications and Activities 390 Seana 5 15 Equilibrium of a Rigid Body 307 What vou need to kage < Le, A force will not always cause motion; it can be used to prevent motion, ‘When a shopping trolley is on a slope, it will roll down the slope. To stop this from happening, the shopping trolley will need to be held. In holding the shopping trolley you must apply a force. Foree holding — the shopping olloy Roll a marblo along a table. Hit the marble from the side with a ruler. Try to hit it at right angles to its direction of motion as shown in the diagram. ‘What happened to the marble? The marble has changed direction. The force you applied with the ruler must have caused this change of direction. z i plan view 8 Urheberrechtlich geschiitzt2 Forces In a cricket or rounders match, the bat or baton is used to apply a force to the ball. This force causes the ball to change direction. A force is most easily defined in terms of the effects it causes. @ =A force can cause an object to speed up or slaw down, @ A force can prevent an object from moving, @ A force can change an object's direction of motion. ‘Types of forces ‘There are twa main types of forces: 1. forces of attraction 2. contact forces. Forces of attraction act at a distance. When a ball is dropped it falls fastor and faster towards the ground. This speeding up must be caused by a force, This attraction force due to gravily is called weight. Other forces of attraction are caused by magnetism and electricity. ‘Contact forces occur when objects are touching each other. When a book is at rest on a table there must be a force preventing the book from falling. This force is the contact force between the table and the book. contact force weight ‘The SI unit of force is the newton (N). A force meter or newton meter can ‘be used to measure the size of a force.‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 2.2 Universal Law of Gravitation ‘The Moon orbits the Earth. The Moon is continuously changing its direction to stay in its circular orbit. This changing of direction must be caused by a force. This force must be a force of attraction because there is no contact between the Earth and the Moon. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) described his work on this force of attraction, His predictions led to the development of a formula to be able to calculate this farce of attraction between different masses. The formula is now called the universal law of gravitation. ‘The universal law of gravitation is given by the formula: Ee ‘What the letters stand for is detailed below: F force of attraction between the two masses (N); G universal gravitational constant (6.67 x 10°" kg-'m? s*); 1m, mass of one of the objects (kg): mz mass of the other object (kg); distance between the centres of the two masses (m), ‘The universal gravitational constant always has a value of 6,67 x 10°" kg”! m’ s~®, provided SI units are used. Overview of method In the worked examples the following method will be used to solve the problems, Step Summarise the information given. 10 rhet2 Forces: Step _ Write down the formula. Step @ Substitute the numbers into the formula, Step@ Calculate the unknown quantity. Break the calculation into stages. Make sure you store the answer to each stage on your calculator. Example 1 Calculate the force of attraction between the Earth and the Moon. ‘The mass of the Earth is 5.98 x 10 kg, the mass of the Moon is 7.38 x 10 kg and the distance between their centres is 3,84 10° m. Take G = 6.67 x 107 kg? m?s-*. d=3,84%10" — -4@ Summarise the Fst information, pom 42 Write down the formula. p— &:87 x 107" 5.98 x 10 x10" 4) Substitute the (3.84 x 10°) numbers into F=200%10°N <4 @Find F. the formula. Example 2 Calculate the force of attraction on a mass of 1 kg at the surface of the Earth. The mass of the Earth is 5.98 x 10" kg and the radius of the Earth is 6.38 x 10° m. Take G = 6.67 x 10°" kg'm's?. Solution G=6.67 x10" m, =5.98 «10 m,=1 << @ Summarise the d=6.38x10° —F: information. F= ot 4 Write down the formula. p= 8.07 x 10°"! x 5.98 x 10" x 1 4 Substitute the (6.38 10°F numbers into F=980N <@Find F the formula. s Mattia Urheberrechilich geschiitComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Machanics Example 3 Venus has a mass of 4.78 x 10 kg and the Sun has a mass of 1,99 x 10°? kg, The force which keeps Venus in orbit around the Sun is 5.44 x 10* N. Calculate the distance between the centres of the Sun and Venus. Take G= 6.67 x 10°" kg"! m?s"*. Solution G=667%10 — F=8.44% 10" 4 @ Summary. m,=4.78x10% d=? am; = 1,99 x 10” 7am 4@ Formula, <4 Substitute. sag xc 107? = 8:87 x10" x 4.78 x 10% x 1.99 x 10% * ee 5.44 x 10" x d* = 6.67 « 107" x 4.78 x 10" « 1.99 x 10° 5.44 x 10% x d? = 6.34 x 10 pbx 10% 54a x 108 = 1.17 < 10" d= 1.08 x 10"'m 4@ Find d. 12 Urheberrec! § Materialft] ‘The mass of the Sun is 1.99 x 10® kg and the mass of the Earth is 2 Forces 2.2 Universal Law of Gravitation Exercise Technique ‘Take G= 6.67 « 10°" kg” m’ s“* where necossary. ‘The masses of two bodies are 4 x 10° kgand 5 x 10*kg. The distance between their centres is 2 « 10° m. Calculate the force of attraction betwoen the two masses, ‘The force of attraction between two masses is 3.67 < 10*N. The mass of one of the bodies is 5.98 x 10" kg and the distance between them is 1,50 x 10"'m. Find the mass of the other body, ‘Tho masses of two bodies are 8 x 10" kg and 4 x 10° kg. Tho force of attraction between the two masses is 2 x 10~*N. Find the distance between the two masses. Contextual ¢ G= 6,67 x 107'' kg"! m' s~* where necessary. 5.08 x 10"* kg. The distance between their centres is 1.50 x 10"! m. Calculate the force of attraction between the Earth and the Sun, assuming the orbit is circular, ‘The Moon has a mass of 7.38 x 10 kg and a radius of 1.74 x 10° m. Determine the mass of an object on the surface of the Moon if the force it ‘experiences is 160N. Mars has a mass of 6.55 x 10" kg and the Sun has a mass of 1.99 x 10" kg. ‘The force which keeps Mars in orbit around the Sun is 1.67 x 10°" N. Find the distance between the centres of the Sun and Mars, if the orbit is assumed circular.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 2.3 Weight ‘When an apple falls off a tree it accelerates towards the Earth. This acceleration must be caused by a force. This force is the force of attraction of the Earth on the apple. This foree is known as the weight of the apple. ‘Tho universal law of gravitation can be simplified for objects on or near the Earth's surface. In the formula some of the variables will remain constant near the Earth's surface. @ Gis always constant. @ =m, is constant for the mass of the Earth. @ = dis very close to being constant. ‘The distance between the centres of the masses will be approximately ‘equal to the radius of the Earth. This is because the object will be close to the surface of the Earth. This means that “ js constant provided that the distance between the object and the Earth's surface stays small compared to the radius of the Earth. For objects close to the Earth’s surface, the law of gravitation becomes: ‘The diagram shows the weight of the object acting downwards, This leads ta the formula for the weight of an object. Note, from the units of G, m and d, it can be shown that the units of g are mss. These are the units of acceleration, a measure of how fast the speed is changing (see Chapters 4 and 6). 4 @ ‘weight = mg (eign = me ‘The units ms stand for metres per second per second. An acceleration of 10m s"* means that the object will speed up by 10 ms" every second. ‘The value of g must be constant because “f* will be constant, The value of | >> represents an the acceleration due to gravity (g) can be calculated by working out the acceleration, value of 22, G=667x10" — d@=6.38 x 10° Note the acceleration - due to gravity is written im, =5.98 x 10% ae 14 theberrechtlich geschiitztes Material2 Forces Gm, B= _ 6.67 x 10-" «5.98 x 10% = (6.38 x 10° g=98ms"(25f.) ‘The value of g is 9.6m s~*, This is the value that this book will use throughout, unless a different value is stated. The value of g= 10ms~* will sometimes be used to make the calculations easier. In such a case, the question will make it clear that you should use g = 10m s~*, Overview of method ‘The method can be broken down into three steps. These steps will be used when solving the worked examples. Step @ Write down the formula. Step @ Substitute the numbers into the formula, Step @ Find the unknown quantity. Example 1 Find the weight of the following masses: a 10kg b 10mg © 2 tonnes. Solution a weight=mg 4@ Write down the formula, weight=10x 9.8 — ¢ @ Substitute the numbers into the formula, weight=98N 4 Find the weight. b 10mg =0.01g= 0.00001 kg. weight = mg weight = 0.00001 x 9.8 weight =0.000098 N © 2t=2000kg weight = mg weight weight= 19 600N Example 2 Find the mass of an object if its weight is 120'. (Take g = 10ms",) <4 Write down the formula. 42 Substitute the numbers. Divide by 10. 4@ Find m. Usheberrechitich geschatztes MIB ia‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 2.3 Weight Exercise Technique [1] ‘Taking g = 10ms~*, find the weight of the following masses: a 7k bd 200kg c 2g d= 10 tonnes e 40mg [2] Find the weight ofthe following masses: a 32k b 347kg c 25g d_ 7.5tonnes e 12mg [3] ‘Taking g = 10ms~*, find the mass of the objects whose weight is given below: a 170N b 0.03N © 12kN 41kN=1000N [4] Find the mass of the objects whose weight is given below: a 49N b 0.196N © 980KN = 4 1kN=1000N Contextual ‘Taking g = 10ms~, find the weight of: a acar, which has a mass of 1.5 tonnes ba bagof sugar, which has a mass 0.5 kg © an insect, which has a mass of 15 mg. Calculate the weight of: a a lorry of mass 40 tonnes b a loaf of bread, which has a mass of 800 g © a feather of mass 50 mg. 16 Urhebertectitlich geschotztes2 Forces 2.4 Contact Forces A table touches the floor at four points. At each one of these points there will be a contact force. The contact forces act at right angles to the floor. ‘These forces are called the normal reaction forces. In general, the normal reaction forces will always act at right angles to the continuous susface. x tM ‘The table is difficult to draw in three dimensions (3D). Does the table have to be drawn in 3D? A two dimensional (2D) drawing could be used to represent the table. This means the reaction forces at two feet can be replaced by a single reaction force. ‘Normal means at right gle or epi How could you model the contact R R, force on a stationary car? The car cannot be modelled as a particle when it is stationary because its length will be important. This is shown by drawing two reaction (te forces. weight When the car travels a distance a much longer than its length, it can 3 be modelled as a particle. The oat diagram shows the weight and contact force if the car is treated as a te particle. weight = mgComplete Advanced Lovel Mathematics: Mechanics Friction When a child goos down a slide, friction will oppose motion. The child can be modelled as a particle because the slide is much longer than the length of the child. The diagram shows the forces acting on the child. F, is used to represent friction. This avoids confusion since F will be used for a general force. If the slide is wet the child will not move down the slide. In this case, the water makes the clothing ‘stick’ to the slide and so the frictional force is increased. Tho frictional force is now big enough to prevent the child from moving down the slide. When the slide is wet, the frictional force must be bigger. Friction can still act even if there is no motion. Friction has a tendency to oppose motion at the point or surface of contact, Friction can prevent objects from moving, but without it most motions that we experience would be impossible. Try walking on a sheet of ice where there is little friction between your shoes and the ice. Friction will be modelled in greater depth in Chapter 9. For the moment, you should beable to draw a frictional force on a diagram. If surfaces are said to be smooth the frictional force can be ignored. If two surfaces are described as rough then a frictional foreo will act. Friction and reaction forces ‘Whon an ordinary ladder is sot up, it touches the floor and the wall. A. diagram to model the situation is shown. Notice that there are two reaction forces because the ladder touches tivo surfaces. The diagram is drawn in ‘2D because the ladder is symmetrical and it is easier to draw. x Fora ladder resting against a window sill: 182 Forces If the ladder slips, in which direction will it move? The surfaces between the ladder, the floor and the wall will be rough. Frictional forces will act to oppose motion. A complete diagram showing all the forces is drawn below. ‘The ladder is assumed to be uniform. Uniform, in this situation, means the weight of the ladder can be assumed to act at its centre as shown. This ntre point is called the centre of mass. Why do you think that ladders cannot be modelled as particles? The length and shape of the ladders are important when solving ladder problems. The distance between the points of action of the forces also matter. Tension and thrust A piece of string is tied to a conker and the other end of the string is held. How can this situation bo represented? Thore must be a force proventing the conker from falling. The only thing in contact with the conker is the string, The string must be providing an upward force on the conker. This force is called a tension. A string is normally assumed to be light and inestensible, Light means that the mass of the string is so small that it can be ignored, Inextensible means the string cannot be stretched. 149iComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Hi you held the conker like this force applied by hand Your arm is also. for a very long time your arm supporting ils own would get tired. This is because weight. your hand is being pulled down by the string, . | Notice that the tension in the string must act inwards towards the centre of the string from both % ends. Tension occurs when the other forces are acting to try to stretch the string. weight ‘The weight of the bridge acts to compress the supports. The supports must produce a reaction. This reaction is called a thrust. Notice that the thrust in the supports acts outwards from the centre of the support towards the ends, Thrust occurs when the forces are acting to try to compress the support. weight weight Air resistance In 1992, Chris Boardman won Olympic gold in Barcelona. He used a specially designed bicycle and wore an aerodynamic helmet. These helped reduce the effect of air resistance, Air resistance is caused by the molecules in air hitting a moving object. This resistance opposes motion. Ifa cyclist is modelled as a direction of motion particle the forces acting are weight, normal reaction, air resistance and the cyclist’s applied force. weight If the object is not moving then air resistance must be zero. This assumes that there is no wind, Two mathematical models for air resistance forces will be met later in this chapter,2 Forces Overview of method ‘The steps involved in drawing clear force diagrams are listed below. Step ® Draw a clear 2D diagram of the situation. Step @ Mark on the weight of the object. Step @ Mark on all normal reactions. These forces always act at right angles to the continuous surface. Mark on all other forces such as tension and friction. Example 1 A car of mass 1000 kg is stationary on a horizontal driveway. Draw a diagram to represent the weight and normal reactions acting on the car, soon fy <0 Diagram. -4@ Normal reactions. ZT t= 1004 ee oot Svea Example 2 A book of mass 0.5 kg is placed on a table which is inclined at 10° to the horizontal. By treating the book as a particle draw a diagram showing the weight, normal reaction and friction. Solution R 4@ Diagram. F, -4@ Normal reaction and friction, MW woight=4.0N 4 @ Weight. weight=0.5 x 9.8 {weight = mg woight~4.9N Urheberrechtlich geschotztCompiete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Example 3 A car is towing a caravan along a straight horizontal road. Air resistance can be neglected because the vehicles are travelling slowly. Mark on all the other forces acting on the car and caravan if: a the vehicles are speeding up b the vehicles are slowing down. ‘The force in the towbar must be a tension. The caravan must be pulled to speed it up, b Ry R, 4@ Diagram. ‘The caravan must be pushed to slow it down, The force in the towbar must be a thrust, 22 Urheberrechtlich geschat2.4 Contact Forces = Exercise Contextual [1] ror each ofthe following situations, draw a diagram showing all the i a lift supported by « cable a child sliding down a slide ‘a crate resting on a horizontal floor a woman standing inside a lift supported by a cable. a b © da Le —> F Copy each of the diagrams. Mark on all the forces. [3] A concrete sphere of mass 30'kg is placed on top ofa pillar for decoration. Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the sphere and pillar. Is the fotcs inthe pillar. a thrust ora tension? Urheberrechtlich geschitztes M&BiaComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 2.5 Modelling Resistance Forces If you put your hand out of the sunroof of a moving car, what do you feel? If the ear goes faster, what happens? If the car slows down, what happens? When you pul your hand outside the car you feel the air pushing your hand backwards. If the car goes faster, the push you feel on your hand increases. When the car goes slower you feel the push on your hand decrease, These forces are all caused by air resistance. The air resistance must depend on the speed with which the object (in this case your hand) is travelling. The actual relationship between air resistance and spoed is complicated. However, as the speed increases, the air resistance increases. ‘The relationship between air resistance and speed can be assumed to be proportional. ‘There are two models commonly used for air resistance, 1. Airresistance is propartional to speed. This can be written in symbols as Ri, ov. 2. Air resistance is proportional to the speed squared. In symbols, this relationship is R, x v*. ‘The proportional symbol (cx) can be replaced by an equals sign ifa constant of proportion is introduced. This means: A, ov becomes Ry = ky and A, x ¥” becomes ft, = kyv? ‘You will normally be told which model to use. If you are not, then use it, v for slow speeds and fi, «x v* for high speeds. ‘Those two resistance models can also be used when the object is moving in liquids and not in air. Example 1 An object travelling at 10m”! experiences an air resistance force of 30N. By modelling the resistance as proportional te speed, find an equation for the resistance. Solution Rav 4 Airresistance is proportional to speed. fy = kv kis the constant of proportion. 30=kx10 Divide by 10. k=3 Ra =3v 4 Replace k in the equation. 24 theberrechtlich geschiit Material2Forces Example 2 A particle travelling at 601m s~* experiences a resistance force of 1800 N. ‘The resistance varies with the square of the speed. Determine: a the model for resistance b the resistance force if the particle travels at 100m s~* c__ the speed when the resistance force is 1250 N. Solution a Rx 4 Air resistance is proportional to speed squared. Rak? 1800 = k = (60)* 1800 = k x 3600 k=05 R=05v? Replace k in the equation. b oR, =05v Ry =0.5 x (100)? R, =0.5 x 10000 Rg = 5000N © Ry =05v? 4 Use the equation for air resistance found in a. 1250 = 0.5 x v7 2500 = v* v=450 Remember + sign. v=50ms™ In this case, the positive square root is taken because the speed must be a positive number. Usheberrechilich geschotztes M&Sial(Complete Advanced Loval Mathematics: Mechanics 2.5 Modelling Resistance Forces Exercise Technique [11] A resistance force is proportional ta speed, The resistance force is 200 N at a speed of 5 ms". Determine: a the equation for the resistance force Db the resistance when the speed is 7ms~' © _ the speed when the resistance is 300.N. [2] resistance force varies with the square ofthe speed. The resistance is 25000 N ata speed of 50 ms‘. Find: the equation which models the resistance force b the speed when the resistance force is 36 000 N ¢ the resistance force when the speed is 35 ms"*. ‘Contextual [1] A car traveling at 15 ms“ experiences a force caused by air resistance of 2250N. a Give two possible models for the air resistance. b Find the equations for these air resistance models. ‘© Which one is the better model to use at low speeds? [2] A batt bearing is dropped into a container full of oil. The ball bearing ‘experiences a resistance force of 0.05 N when it is moving at 0.2ms"*. ‘The resistance force varies with speed. Find: a the equation to model the resistance force. b the speed of the ball bearing if the resistance force is 0.1. © the resistance force if the speed of the ball bearing is 1.5ms~',2 Forces: Applications and Activities The unit of force is the newton, which is named after Sir Isaac Newton, Try to find out more. about the life and works of this physicist, astronomer and mathematician. Produce a short report with your findings. Summary A force can cause an object to speed up or slow down. A force can prevent an object from moving. ‘A force can change the direction of motion of an abject. Newton's universal law of gravitation states ‘An object of mass m has weight=mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity (g=9.8ms~*). The two models for air resistance forces are 1. Air resistance is proportional to speed This is used when v is small, 2. Air resistance is proportional to speed squared This is used when v is large. Tension is caused by stretching and thrust is caused by compression. theberrect chitiztes MAM3 Vectors | What you need to know ‘How to recognise and use angle properties of common shapes. How to simplify expressions given in surd form. ‘How to use Pythagoras’ theorem for right-angled triangles. ‘How to use sine, cosine and tangent to salve right-angled triangles. How to plot points using Cartesian coordinates. eeeee Review fa). 4 AN [er State the size of angle x. & aD ze ‘Name this quadrilateral and state the size of angles y and z, © Two sides of a quadrilateral are known to be equal and parallel. Name the quadrilaterals it could be. d Fora regular hexagon, work out: i the internal angle ii thoexternal angle. Write /50 in the form av/3. 8 ‘Simplify E Simplify V5. Express 6v2 as a single surd. se Urheberrechtlich geschotztes Material3 Vectors | 7om Give the length of a in surd form. Sem Caleulate b to three significant figures. Caleulate the missing sides, x, y and z, in the triangles given. Draw axes stich that 3. . (°) 2 Solution xg a (j) <8 b ( ?) = 6147) +2k It is therefore quite straightforward to change a column vector into unit vector form and vice versa. Example 2 Draw the following position vectors: rl) = Uhebertecttlich geschatztes MSSialComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 3.1 Scalars and Vectors Exercise Technique 1} Draw an arrow on a grid to represent each of the following vectors: om (7) Be (a2) Draw an arrow on a grid to reprosent each of the following position vectors: a= 1i+3j b= 111-13) 3 | Represent the following three dimensional position vectors on isometric dotted papor: “2 a=2i-8)-k -() —5 | Convert the following vectors into unit vector form: -3 “(2 (3 4 5 | Convert the following vectors into column vector form: asiis3 | b=5i-179) = 75 d= 61-114 7k Contextual 1 | a= (Gi+10))km b= (-2i- 59) km The vectors given are in unit vector form, where i is a unit vector due east and j isa unit vector due north. Convert each displacement vector into column vector form. 2).-(1) (2m Convert each displacement vector into unit yector form. Urheberrechilich geschiitztes Material3 Vectors | 3.2 Addition, Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication of Vectors ‘To add or subtract column vectors the corresponding x and y components are added or subtracted. m1), (%) _ (mtn =< ( ) (i) ~ (r th) subascion: (2) - (28) = (87®) Ya Va. JV Vectors written in unit vector form follow a similar approach. Addition: (a,i + byj) + (azi + aj) = (a, + a,)i + (b, + By) Subtraction: (a,i+ b,j) — (agi + baj) = (a, — ay)i + (by — bz) Multiplication of unit and column vectors by a scalar follows the rules for multiplication of brackets. t)-G) d(ai+bj)=adi+bdj 4 Expand the brackets. theberrechtlich geschatztes MES.Complete Advanced Lavel Mathematics: Mechanics Example 2 p= (3) and q= (=) -tnd p+. “ee-()4(2) =(°) a0 ‘The zero vector is written 0 and is the vector whose components are all zero, Example 3 Mfa=2i— 4), write down Ga, 12a and —Za. Solution Ga = 6(2i— 4j) = 121 — 24) 12m = 12(24— 4j) = 244 — 489 7 z ~ 50s 5 i 4) = — 71+ 14) Example 4 a=Si 10) + 3k and b=7i — 3j —k, Work out a+b, a— band 2a— 3b. Solution Vectors with three components obey the same rules of addition and subtraction as vectors with two components. So corresponding components are added or subtracted. a+b = (5i~ 10) + 3k) + (7i-3j-k) = Si + 7i—10j—3j+3k—k = 121-13) + 2k a —b = (5i— 10j+ 3k) — (71-3) —k) = Si 7i~ 10) + 35+ 3k +k = -2i-7)+4k 2a — Sb = 2(5i— 10} + 3k) ~ 3(7i — 35k) = 10i - 20) + 6k - 211+ 9) + 3k = 10i — 211 ~ 20) +9) + 6k + 3k multiplied by that =—li-11j+9k number. Urheberrechilich geschitztes Material3 Vectors | 3.2 Addition, Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication of Vectors Exercise Technique ; aa @--() w=) (SB) t=) a (2) a-ai+3) b=-2i+03) c=si-17 d=-11i- 13) e=-7j Determine: a ate b d-b c c+a [3]==(;) 3 a Write down the following vectors in column vector form: ar or Sr fr -r —2r b Show these vectors ona sketch. ‘¢ What do you notice about all of these vectors? [4] s=-si+0 ‘Write down: a 2s b 10s c -js d -25s [B] p=2i-oj- q=6i- 11) +7k r=-9i4j+3k “() “Q) “Q) Determine: aii -4r ii zp-3r ii Sq +2r bi 10 ii at+2u iii 10u 128 Jiheberechiich geschatztes M&M alComplete Advanced Loval Mathematics: Mechanics. 3.3 Magnitude and Direction of Vectors An alternative way of describing a vector is to state its length and its direction. ‘The vector a= 2i+ 3j can be represented as shown. The length of the ‘vector is called its magnitude, The magnitude of vector a can be written as either [al or a. The magnitude of the vector a can be calculated using ‘Pythagoras’ theorem, la = 2? +97 la|=v2FTe laj=var9 lal = vi3 Ja] = 9.61 (3 s.f.) ora = 3.61 “The direction of the vector can be found by using trigonometry. tano = 2 fand= i = ten" Q) 0= 56.3" (1d.p.) 2 ‘Voctor a has a magnitude of 3.61 and its direction is 56.9° measured anticlockwise from the { direction, Overview of method ‘To convert column vector form or unit vector form into a magnitude and direction use these three steps. Step @ Always draw a diagram. Step @) Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the magnitude. Step @ Use the inverse tangent to calculate the angle.3 Vectors | Example 1 Work out the magnitude and direction of C3 Solution a 4@ Diagram, hyp?=5'+2' 4 Use Pythagoras’ theorem, hyp? =25 44 25 magnitude = 5.39 (3 sf.) lan a=} =tan“*(@)-4@ Use inverse tangent to calculate the angle. 21.8" = 180° - 21.8" 0 = 158.2" (1p) Check: The angle @ looks as if it should be obtuse on the initial sketch above, It is the convention to give the direction of a vector on the x—y plane as the angle it makes with the positive direction of the x-axis. This is positive when measured anticlockwise and negative when clackwise. A ° YL Example 2 If the position vector b = 11i + 4j, what is b*? Solution ba1i+4i * 40 Disgam, ova [bj 11? +4 4 i <4 Use Pythagoras’ b=V137 f theorem. B= 137 o ti x bis the magnitude of vector b.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics. Example 3 If d = ai + bj +.ck then find (dj and the angle it makes with the i, j plane. Solution Ak magnitude = Va? +b? 42 Pythagoras’ theorem, ta) =) (var ee? 4c ld|=VersP re Ia e va V & Use inverse tangent to find the angle. ata (adj Urhebe ilich geschiitztes Material3.3 Magnitude and Direction of Vectors Exercise Technique [71] Fina the magnitude and direction of each ofthe following vectors: 7 ( es) _ ( °) _ (2) Pe \aan2) 97 (az, “A 21 es ( oe) és 21 - aa) (101 = (Gia) = (oi [2] catcutate the magnitude of each of these vectors, and the angle it makes, ‘with the vector i a=121+6V2j b=/32i— v92j ¢ = -0.06i - 0.32) d=6201 +91) = 8.21 [3] = 3i + 4j — 9k and d= —2i— 6j + 10k Work out: a |e b dj © \(e+d)| Contextual [71] cateutate the length and bearing of sach of these displacement vectors: a 6.3km due east, 5km due south bh i4km due east, 4.2 km due north ‘© 10.2km due west, 2.7 km due north, [2] catcutate the magnitude and bearing of each of these displacements given in column vector form. 18 35 a=({2)m b= (_33)im )m [3B] Five forces are defined as follows: Fy =26iN 21 +38/)N Fy = (-12i-18))N Fy = (-16143))N =21)N Calculate the magnitude of each force. For the forces F, to F, state the angle they make with F,, moasured anticlockwise.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics, 42 3.4 Parallel Vectors When any vector is multiplied by a scalar, a vector parallel to the original vector is formed. This means Sa will be Uhree times as longas the vector a, ‘The number in front of ‘This provides a formula for parallel vectors. ais the length scale a Unit vector ‘Two vectors which are parallel must have the same direction. To test for this situation, the unit vectors of each can be found. A unit vector has a magnitude of one and so it really gives just the direction of the vector. Aunit vector can be found by dividing the original vector by its magnitude. A formula to show this calculation is: Example 1 Itp= (3): write down 2p, 4p. ~ Jp and ~3p. What do you natice? wa())-(2) All four vectors are parallel. This is because they are in the form kp where A sketch will show that k isa sealar. these vectors are parallel. Example 2 Ifa = 3i —4j, determine: a the unit vector of a b the vector parallel toa with a magnitude of 17,‘3 Vectors | ‘Solution a ja =a? +4? lal = Vee lal = vVOFTS lal = v25 =5 ia 4 Write the formula for a unit vector. al ptt a= 0.61 -0.8j b parallel vector = a x 17 = (0.61 - 0.8)) x 17 = 10.21 — 13.6) Example 3 -05 2 = ( 5 ue (3 Are vectors a and b parallel? Solution ‘The unit vectors of both a and b can be found. \al= Vos? +25" = v5.54 = 2.354 [b| = V2? 0.2? = V88.64 = 9.415 0.8 a= +2994 (3) 0.2124 0.972 b 2) +9415 9.2) 00 0.2124 ~\ -0.972 a= kb where k= —1. Urheberrechtlich geschatzte‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Example 4 For what value of fare these two vectors parallel? d=(tit4i) e=(11i-7)) Solution For parallel vectors: e=kd ni - 7 = Kiti+ 43) Mi — 7] = Mi + akj j components; -7=4k jak =k 44 Utheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material‘a Vectors | 3.4 Parallel Vectors Exercise Technique 1 | Find the unit vectors for each of the following vectors. a= (3) »=(%) c= 1i+3j d=-2i+0.3) as (a) b= —111~ 19) a Find the vector parallel to a but with magnitude 20. b Find the vector parallel tob but with magnitude 7. ene) ee) Ca) eC) (a) HQ [4] For what value of tare these two vectors parallel? r= (3i+f) 8 = (9i- 12)) 5 | For what value of ¢ are these two vectors parallel? e=(ti-a)) — d=(7i-10)) Urheberrechilich geschitztes MABialComplete Advanced Loval Mathematics: Mechanics. 3.5 Vector Algebra A single letter on its own (with no other notation), is not sufficient to describe or denote a vector. In algebra, single letters stand for numbers. Numbers are scalar quantities. Vectors need fwo numbers to describe their two parts, either x and y components or their magnitude and direction. A lctter in bold type, a, indicates a vector quantity, However, this is not the only way to write a vector. Position vectors ‘The position vector of the point A gives the displacement of the point A from the origin, O. The position vector of the point A.can be written as OA. This way of writing the vector is called end point notation. This is because the points al each end of the vector are used to describe it. The veclor a is often used to represent the position vector of the point A. It is ‘common, therefore to see the statement: OA= oO ‘The lengths (or magnitudes) are also related. |OA| =Ja| =the length of the position vector of the point A. OA =a= the distance of the point A from O. ‘The order of the letters is very important, OA does not have the same ‘meaning as AO. AO=-GA AQ=-a 46 theberrechilich geschiitztes Material3 Vectors I Addition of vectors ‘When two or more vectors are added, the answer is called the resultant. ‘The resultant of two vectors is equivalent to the first vector followed immediately by the second vector. = ‘To find the resultant of vectors a and b, the tail of vector b must join to the head of vector a, The resultant (a + b) is the direct vector from the tail of ‘vector a to the head of vector b. Ss b across tail of vector b a+b b a Subtraction of vectors BE c ‘This diagram shows % AC= A+ BC AB AG A Wis also true that BC =BA + AG Since BA =-AB BC = -AB + AC BE = AC- AB This is vector subtraction, theberrect hatztes MAFia‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics. The parallelogram rule for addition To add a and b, imagine travelling along vector a and then along vector b. ‘Two general vectors a and b are drawn, fo ‘The vectors are added to form a+b by atlaching the tail of A vector b to the head of vector a. ‘The vectors are added to form b +a by attaching the tail of vector a to the head of vector b. b ‘What do you notice about the result of these two additions? Is the addition of vectors commutative? Both these additions can be shown on one diagram. The two pairs of equal ‘vectors make a parallelogram. The diagonal is a+b or b +a depending on the route taken to C. Zero vector Consider this triangle:3 Vectors | PQ + QR + RP must be equal to zero as the overall journey results in a return to the starting point, This is written as: PQ+QR+RP =0 ‘The zero is in bold type to indicate it is a vector. The vector from A to B Lot a= OA and b = OB Example 1 A student has written the following incorrect vector statement. Explain why this statement is wrong and then write it correctly. Solution _ AB isa scalar quantity (the magnitude of AB) and b — a will be a vector quantity. A scalar quantity cannot equal a vector quantity. ‘A possible correct statement is: Example 2 OD = —4i -3j and OF = 101 +4. Find the value of t which makes D, © and E-collinear. oro (2) 2-dimensional vectors.Complete Advanced Lovel Mathematics: Mechanics Solution Gollinear means all the points must be in a straight line. y ‘From the diagram the line OD and GE must be parallel to form a straight line, OD=kOE Condition for parallel vectors. i - 3 =K(101+ 4) 41 3j = 10ki + ty i component: jcomponent: -a=h —3=-0.4t t=75 An alternative method of solution would be to find expressions for the magnitude of each vector and then use the fact that \6B| + |O| =|DE| when the points are collinear. 50 Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material3 Vectors 1 3.5 Vector Algebra Exercise Technique (4) ‘There is a mistake in each of the following vector statements. Find the mistake and then write the correct version of each statement. =2i+5) b jal=v29 c¢ b=-2i-5j d 20 f AB=b-a g h OA=a [2] Ia=3i + 7jand b=2i — j, complete these questions, leaving your answers where necessary in surd form: aoa= b [bj= c b= d= |(a+b)j= e a £ a+2b= g axb= [3] awcpis a square. Which of the following statements are true and which d AD=AB4+CD g AC =D © AB+DC=0 ho [AG] = 180] f JAB] +|BC|=|AC] 4 Whatare the position vectors of B, Cand D? b Give the vectors AC and BD. © Show that AB = DG Given that GA —(~2i —3}) and OB =(5i + £}), determine the value of t when the points O, A and B are collinear, [G] 2 p=2j—ok and q = 11+ j—-K Calculate |p). ql and |p + al. giving your answers to three significant figures. b Ingeneral |al + |b| > [a+b]. Why is this so? ‘When will Jal + |b] =|a+ bl? AB = 61-8) and AC = a Calculate [AB] and [AC]. b If [BC | = 40, what can be said about the points A, B and C? Calculate BC to show that this is true. 18i + 24). DE = 101 — 24) and |DF| = 46. Determine the two possible values of | EF| given that D, E and F are collinear.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Consolidation Exercise A [A] the diagram shows two forces,of magnitudes 4N and 5N, acting at rright angles to each other at a point O, Calculate: a the magnitude of the resultant of the two forces ° oN b the angle that the resultant makes with the foree of magnitude 5N, (UCLES) [2] wo forces (measured in newtons) are acting ata point. They are denoted by the column vectors (_) and (2) referred to the usual rectangular axes. Find the magnitude of their resultant and the angle that this resultant makes with the postive x-axis. A further force of magnitude 5 N is applied so that the resultant of all three forces is denoted by the column vector (3). There are two possible values of a. Find these two values and in each case find the direction of the force af 5 N referred to the positive x-axis. (Mey (3) ‘The vectors a, band care: a=8i+j—4k, b=Ai+(u+2)kande=j+k. a Find the magnitude of the resultant of a and ¢. b Find the values of 4 and y ifa—¢=2b. {NICCEA) [4] A force R acts on « particle, where R= (71 + 16}) N, Calculate: a the magnitude of R, giving your answer to one decimal place, ‘b the angle between the line of action of R and i, giving your answer to the nearest degree. ¢ The force R is the resultant of two forces P and Q. The line of action of P is parallel to the vector (i+ 4j) and the line of action of Qis parallel to the vector (i +j). Determine the forces P and Q expressing each in terms of i and j. (ULEAC) 5 Material3 Vectors | Exercise B ‘The force R is given by the vector Gi + 2j, where the units of force are newtons. R is the resultant of a force P parallel to i and a force Q parallel Find the magnitudes of F and Q. (UCLES) ‘A particle is acted on by two forces, F, and F;, where F, = (6i — 9j) Nand F; = (-i— 39) N. Calculate: the magnitude of F, the angle between F, and the direction of i the resultant of F, and Fs the magnitude of the single force, F,, which satisfies the equation F,+F,4+F,=0. aooe The vector a is given by a = (4 + 5)i - 2j + (4 — 4)k. Find the values of 1 if the magnitude of a is 15 units. (NICCEA) Three forces (i +j) N. (-5i + 3)) Nand 4iN, where i and j are perpendicular unit vectors, act at a point. Express the resultant in the form ai + bj and find its magnitude in terms of 2. Given that the resultant has a magnitude of 5 N, find the two possible values of 2, Take the larger value of 2 and find the tangent of the angle between the resultant and the unit vector i. (AEB)Complete Advanced Lovel Mathomaties: Mechanics Applications and Activities ‘You can use a graphical calculator to convert between formats. magnitude and direction + components. [1] convert these column vectors to magnitude and direction: * (a) * (ia) & Ga) « * (it) « (2) {2] ‘Use your calculator to write down a column vector for the following. ‘vectors: ‘magnitude 40; angle 53.1° ‘magnitude v@; angle 135° ‘magnitude 4/3; angle 210° ‘magnitude 16.5: angle 312.5° aeoe [3] write down your comments, 54 Urheberrechtlich geschitztes Material‘3 Vectors | Summary @ Ascalar quantity has magnitude but no direction. Examples are distance, speed, timo, mass. @ A vector quantity has magnitude and direction. Examples are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight, ‘Vector quantities must also satisfy the parallelogram rule of addition. @ Vectors can be represented in the following ways: = ‘a a a OA aitdj b c @ = The magnitude of a vector is a scalar quantity. ‘The magnitude of a is |a| ora. @ Two vectors a and b are parallel if b is a scalar multiple of a, that is, if ‘b = ka, for some constant k, then a and b are parallel. @ = Vectors can be added and subtracted. The resultant of a and b is the vector which represents a followed by b. @ = When three paints are collinear, vectors joining any combination of two points will be parallel.4 Travel Graphs ees sometimes called kinematics graphs What you need to know ‘The difference between a scalar and a vector. ‘How to calculate the gradient of a straight line. Fora body travelling at constant speed, speed = “istence. total distance travelled average speed = ial lime taken. “How to find the area of a trapezium using }(a-+b)h. ‘The rules of indices. ‘The equation of a straight line is y = mx-+c where m is the gradient and ¢ is the y-intercept. ‘What is meant by the particle model. eee oeeee Review State whether the following quantities are scalars or vectors: aa speed of 70 mph b adistance of 4km on a bearing of 120° © a speed of 15 mph to the south, o Find the gradient of each of the lines shown in the diagram. [3] A cyclist travels 200 m in 16s. Find her speed in ms~', assuming it is constant. >] A car travels 32 miles on the motorway in half an hour and then 3 miles in a built-up area in a quarter of an hour. Find the average speed.4 Travel Graphs Calculate the area of each trapezium. a sm b am 20mm 15mm bm 12mm Use the rules of indices to simplify: see ob F emt dah a e yy f pq?xpd 8 4 he (abt)? a Write down the values of the gradient and intercept of the following straight lines: i y=x+5 fi y=5-2x a e Find the equation of each line shown in the diagram, Write down two characteristics of an object which are ignored when it is modelled as a particle. Urheberrechilich geschiitztes MBWtialComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 4.1 Distance-Time Graphs ‘Suppose a bus sets out from a bus station and takes 20 seconds to travel a distance of 100 metres, through busy traffic, to the first bus stop. It stops there for 7 seconds to pick up passengers and then travels another 150 metres in 10 seconds to the next bus stop. This journey can be shown. ona distance-time graph. Distance travelled (m) ° ” 2 ‘Time taken (5) We can use the distance-time graph to calculate the speed of the bus. We ‘assume that the bus is a particle and that it travels at a constant speed when in motion. __up__ distance gradient =F =e = Speed ‘The distance—time graph can now be used to calculate the bus's speed. For section AB, speed = gradient 109 " Sms! For section BC, speed = gradient =oms"! ‘The speed is zero because the bus is stationary. For section CD, speed = gradient =e =15ms*4 Travel Graphs ‘The speed of the bus is greater from C to D than from A to B, How can you tell this from the graph? The speed és greater when the gradient is steeper on the distance-time graph. Can you think of any way in which the graph is unrealistic? A sloping straight line on a distance-timo graph indicates that the object is moving at a constant speed. It is unlikely that the bus will do this. Changing gears and moving through traffic will mean the bus changes speed as it goes along. It will also need to slow down gradually as it reaches the first bus stop. The graph suggests the bus stops abruptly. An accurate graph for this, motion, would be a curve. However, by assuming the bus travels at constant speed, the mathematical analysis is much easier. Finding the gradient of a curve is more difficult. By calculating the gradient of the straight line, the average speed of the bus has been found. Converting units of speed In 1969, an Anglo-French company unveiled Concorde. This was the world’s first supersonic civilian aircraft, In fact Concorde has a maximum cruising speed of 2179 kmh~'; about twice the speed of sound. When solving real life problems it is often necessary to convert kmh into ms~? and vice versa. This process can be comploted in stages. 2179kmh7! = 2179000mh™* = 2179000 +60m(min)* = 36316.7+60ms* =605ms"' (3s.f.) ‘Those stops may be combined. Overview of method To help solve distance-time graph problems, the method can be broken down into steps. Step @ Sketch the distance-time graph (unless one is given). Step @ Split the distance-time graph into different sections. distance Step @ Use speed = gradient of distance-time graph = Gina total distance travelled or use average speedComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Example Atrain travels at 50km h”' for 25 seconds before stopping at signals. After waiting for 15 seconds it travels on at 60 km h-'. a Sketch a distance-time graph for the first minute of this journey using motres on the distanco axis and soconds on the time axis. bb Find the average speod in km h”!. Solution a The distance travelled and time taken are needed for each part of the Journey. For the first part, convert the speed to ms”!: <@ Split into different ~ sections, 50 kmh’! = 50 x 4000 =13.8ms ‘Using distance = speed x time distance = 13.8 x 25 =347.2m ‘The train then stops, so in the next 15 seconds the distance travelled is zero. For the last part of the journey, convert the speed to m: 80kmh = 80 x 2 =22.3ms" ‘The time for this part is: 60 ~ 25 ~ 15 = 20 seconds ‘Using distance = speed x time distance = 22.2 x 20 = 444m total distance travelled = 347.2 + 444.4 =791.6m = 792m (to nearest metre)4 Travel Graphs ‘The graph can now be sketched. 4 (7) Sketch. ° 25 40 0 Time taken (3) A total distance of 791.6 m was travelled in 1 minute. total distance travelled Total time taken 791.6 7 average speed 4B Use average speed. m(min)* = 791.6 x 2 kmh = 791.6 «55 km =47.5kmh* ‘The average spoed was 47.5 kmh”'. theberrechtlich geschitztes Ma@Aa\Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 4.1 Distance-Time Graphs Exercise Technique [1] convert the fottowing speeds to kmh-* a 64ms! b 140m(min)* [2] convert the following speods to ms”: a 160km ho! bo 85kmh! = e 3] Distance from P (cm) Distance travelled (1 o 4 10 15 25 Time (s) ‘Time (6) Find the speed for each section of these distance-time graphs. [4] A moving object travels 150m in 205, followed by 240m in the next 155. a Sketch a distance-time graph using metres on the distance axis and seconds on the time axis. b Find the speed in each section in: ims” ii kmh* ¢ Find the average speed in: ims? it kmh Contextual {4] a Asprinter runs at 9.6 ms_'. Convert this speed to kmh™*. b Askier travels 450 metres down a slope in one minute. What is the speed in kmh-!? [2] @ A Formula One car travels at 320 kmh™*. What is this speed in ms"? b Sally walks at a speed of 6.5 km h~*. Convert this speed to ms".4 Travel Graphs - ed oi 303550 ‘Time taken (min) ‘The graph shows a salesman's journey to a mooting. He drives from his office in town to the nearest motorway junction, On leaving the motorway he stops for petrol and then completes his journey along country roads. a Find the speed in each section of the journey in km h~*, b Find the average speed in km h~*. On the way to the local shops, Sam stops for 2 minutes to talk to a neighbour. The distance from Sam's house to his neighbour's is 150m and the total distance to the shops is 480 m. Sam walks at 2.5ms"*. a Sketch a distance-time graph of Sam's journey to the shops using metres on the distance axis and minutes on the time axis. b Find the average speed for the journey in kmh”, Ina Land's End to John O'Groats trip, a car travels at a speed of 80 kmh”! for the first 400km and then at 110 kmh” for the next 3 hours, After stopping for an hour and a half for a rest and petral, the car completes the remaining 670 km in a further 7 hours. a Find the average speed during the last part of the journey in: i kmh ii ms? b Find the average speed during the whole journey in: i kmh ii iComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 4.2 Displacement-Time Graphs finishing "4 — En 90 m >< 20 m0 m Jane is competing in a bean bag race at a primary school, Starting from the basket she collects the bean bags one at a time and puts them in the basket. Then she runs to the finishing line. Jane runs at a constant speed of2ms". ‘To show the direction of motion, displacement from the basket can be used instead of distance, ‘This means that displacement is a vector that gives the direction as well as the distance travelled. ‘The displacement-time graph for Jane's bean bag race is shown, Displacement has been measured from the basket. A positive displacement ‘means that Jane is on the bean bag side of the basket. A negative displacement means Jane is on the finishing line side of the basket. A point on the graph shows exactly where Jane is at that particular time. & 8 & Displacement from basket (m) ¢ ‘There are two abbreviations for displacement=time graph. The first uses the symbols for displacement and time, Sa.x-t graph means a displacement-time graph. The second abbreviation takes the form of coordinates. This means a (t, x) graph is also a displacement-time graph. Note that x is now on ‘The first coordinate is the quantity which is drawn horizontally and the —_the vertical axis second coordinate is the quantity on the vertical axis,‘4 Travel Graphs Velocity aa einegelol isp lacoment with time. The gradient of the displacement-time graph gives the direction of motion as well as the speed, The gradient of a displacement-time graph gives velocity. al? gradient = > vay _ displacement velocity - Alternatively, velocity can be defined in terms of speed. In the first part of the bean bag race when Jane is going for the first bean bag: Jane's velocity = gradient of the displacement—time graph io =2ms In the next section when Jane returns to the basket: Jane's velocity = gradient =n Ww ams" ‘The negative sign indicates that she is now moving in the opposite direction. ‘Throughout the race Jane ran at a constant speed of 2ms*! but her velocity varied because the direction varied, In everyday speech the words speed and velocity are used as if they mean the same thing, Mathematically, they are different. Velocity is a vector having direction as well as magnitude. Speed is a sealar having magnitude but no direction. Average speed and average volocity are also different, Here are the definitions. In the bean bag race: total distance = 20+ 20 + 30+ 30 +30 =130m total time taken = 65s average speed = 4 Use average specd = mn) dijtgnen irvalled =2ms* As Jane travelled at 2ms~' throughout the race this is no surprise!‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Now consider the average velocity, When the race started Jane was by the basket and when the race ended she was a distance of 30m from the basket in the negative direction. For Jane’s race the total displacement is ~30m. average velocity = 22 Use average velocity = StL plecement =-0.462ms" (38.6) ‘This is not the same as the average speed of 2 ms”, Inalll the examples which follow the motion isin a straight line. One direction along the line is taken as positive and the opposite direction as negative. Example A particle moves along a straight line so that its displacement, x metres, froma fixed point O on the line at time t seconds is given by: x= <3 forO Find the velocity in each section of the journeys shown in the displacement-time graphs. [2] Draw a sketch of the displacement-time graph for each of the following journeys. In each case, the body starts from a fixed point P and moves in a straight line, Your vertical axis should show displacement from P. a Abody takes 5 seconds to travel 18m in the positive direction. bb Abody moves 25 km in the positive direction in 2 hours. It stops for half an hour and then travels 50km in the negative direction in the next 3 hours. o Displacement from P (m} Displacement from P (cm) For each displacement=time graph, find: i the average spoed ii the average valocity. Urheberr geschiitztes Material4 Travel Graphs BC crosses the time axis proximately 26s. i | Displacement from P (m) © ° & For each of the displacement-time graphs: i find in which section the speed is greatest ii sketch a distance-time graph, using distance from P. [Bi] or the following modols x isin metres and is in soconds, a x=4t for 0<1<10 b x=2tfor0ct = —4ms* positive when the velocity is increasing.(Complete Advanced Lavel Mathematics: Mechanics The acceleration has a negative value because the velocity is decreasing. _A negative acceleration The dog is slowing down. The rate at which the velocity is changing can is often called be given by writing: deceleration or retardation. acceleration = —4:ms~* or deceleration (retardation) = 4m s~* Most questions involving acceleration will have positive velocities only. However, occasionally you may need to interpret results when the volocity is negative. In this case, explaining the acceleration values is a bit trickier. For section DE, acceleration = 38 = -6ms™? ‘The acceleration is again negative but this time the dog is not slowing down. When the acceleration and velocity are both negative, the speed is increasing but in a negative direction. 2 For section FG, acceleration = 6ms ‘The acceleration is in the opposite direction to the velocity and the dog is slowing down. Each graph used in this section has consisted of straight lino segments. ‘This means the acceleration in each section is uniform (constant). This is a simplified model of what really happens, More realistic graphs would have curved sections with the velocity changing more gradually, But curves are more difficult to analyse so the motion will continue to be modelled with straight line segments for the time-being. Overview of method Stop @ Sketch the v-t graph (unless itis given). Step @ Make sure the axes are labelled and the units noted. Step @) Select and apply the formula or formulas to answer the question. displacement = area under the v-t graph acceleration = gradient of v-¢ graph total displacement total time total distance total time average velocity = average speed 764 Travel Graphs Example 1 Velocity (ms) o ‘Time (5) 4 ‘Use the velocity-time graph to: find the initial velocity e find the total distance travelled b find the final velocity f find the average velocity find the acceleration g find the average speed find the total displacement —_h_sketch a speed-time graph. Solution initial velocity = 6ms b final velocity = -3ms"* Using the first 8 soconds of motion, the acceleration is given by the gradiont of the velocity-time graph. 4 @) acceleration — gradient acceleration = —$ = -0.75 ms? ee tee d 4 ofA a & 3 B dbo Z oF * rr ‘Time (s) 3 c Displacement during first 8 seconds of motion is given by the area of triangle OAB. -B displacement = area under displcomentajxsx6—=24m 0o-terenh Displacement during the last 4 seconds of motion is given by the area of triangle BCD. displacement = ~}x 4x 3=-6m ‘Total displacement = 24-6 = 18 m @ and @ are already complete. ‘The displacement is negative because the volocity is negative. ‘The area is below the time axis,‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics © Total distance travelled = 24 +6 =30m total time avorage speed tab distance _ 8 Mee Spee Total time h Ze & i a ° 7 7 ee Notice that the speed on the speed=time sketch is always positive. Time (s) “The sketch shows the velocity=time graph for a forklift truck as it transfors goods from ono part of a warehouse to another, Find the value of u if the truck travels 60 metres. ‘Solution Displacement is given by the area of trapezium OPQR. <4) displacement = area under area of trapezium OPQR = 60 the vt ih. (18 Bale on = area = }(a+b)h 20u = 60 Divide by 20. us3 78 Urheberrechilich geschatzt4 Travel Graphs 4.3 Speed-Time and Velocity-Time Graphs Exercise Technique r ‘Velocity (m s“") For each of the velocity-time graphs, find: the initial velocity the final velocity the total displacement from the starting position the total distance travelled the acceleration in sections whore the velocity changes. <«“gERO [2] A particle starts from rest and accelerates toa speed of 12m" in Gs, The particle then travels at constant speed for 6s before decelerating to rest in 445, Assuming that all the motion isin one direction along a straight line: a sketch a speed-time graph for the motion b calculate the distance travelled, acceleration and deceleration of the particle.‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics. [3] An object travels in a straight line with constant velocity 15 ms~' for 40s, Ii then accelerates to a velocity of 20 ms~' in the next 25 5. a Sketch a velocity-time graph, b Calculate the distance travelled by the object. Find the average speed. A body starts from rest and travels in a straight line, accelerating to a speed of 8cms~ after 2s. After travelling at this speed for 3. it decolerates, coming to rest after a further 4s. It then moves in the opposite direction reaching a speed of 6 cms~' after another 3s. a Sketch a (t,v) graph for the motion, b Calculate the displacement of the body from its starting position at the end of the motion described. ‘What is the total distance travelled by the object? Calculate the acceleration of the body in each part of the motion. ‘The velocity-time graph shows: the motion of a body which travels a total distance of 100m. a Find the value of T. b Find the acceleration. Velocity (m s-!) ‘The motion of a particle is modelled by the (¢. v) graph. If the total distance travelled is 28m, find: a the value of u b the acceleration in each part of the motion, vims) Urheberrechilich geschdtztes Material4 Travel Graphs ‘Velocity (ms"*) Time (s) ‘The sketch models the velocity-time graph of a bus as it stops to pick up passengers at a bus stop. Calculate the retardation of the bus. Calculate the acceleration of the bus. For how longis the bus stationary? ‘How far does the bus travel while decelerating? ‘How far does the bus travel while accelerating? ences [2] tthe sketch models the motion of a ball which is thrown up into the air and then caught. a Describe the motion briefly. b Calculate the acceleration. ¢ Find the height reached (above the point where the ‘ball starts). [3] Acoach accelerates from rest to a velocity of 15 ms”' in 6 s and travels at this velocity for 8 s before stopping at a road junction. The total time takon is 20s. Assume the motion is ina straight line and the acceleration and deceleration are uniform. Sketch a velocity-time graph. Find the acceleration. Find the deceleration. Find the total distance travelled. aoee Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes M&ia(mst) Sally goes to a garden centre to pick up some gravel that she has ordered. ‘The (t, v) graph shows the journey as she walks from her car to collect the gravel and pulls it back om a trolley to the car. a How far is it from the car to the gravel? bb How long did it take Sally to load the gravel onto the trolley? © Find the value of T. [5] Nasir kicks a ball straight at a wall. The ball starts at 8m s~* and reaches the wall 0.6 later travelling at 7.5 ms~'. The ball rebounds from the wall at6ms-! and returns to Nasir travelling at 4 ms~'. Assume Nasir has not moved. a Sketch a velocity-time graph for the ball's motion with the positive direction towards the wall. b Find the distance between Nasir and the wall. Find the time taken for the ball to return from the wall to Nasir. [6] The velocity, rms"*, ofa battery operated toy racing car is modelled by: v=05t for0 o T ar ar ar ST 18) The v—t graph shows the speed of a particle during the course of its motion from time f = 0 to t = 5T seconds. Given that the total distance travelled by the particle is 48 m, calculate: a the value of T b the initial retardation of the particle, (UCLES) 2) « cp E x G 3 no we uw Urheberrechilich geschttztes Material4 Travel Graphs ‘The (¢, x) graph of a toy train moving on straight rails is as shown in the diagram. The distance x is measured in metres and the time f in seconds. ‘The coordinates of the points marked are A (3, 0.2), B (11, 1.8), € (13, 2.0), D (20, 2.0), E (22, 1.8), F (34, 0), G (40, 0). The lines AB, CD, EF and FG are all straight line segments. Find the speods when t = 5, 5,t= 25, Sketch the (t, v) graph and describe, in words, the motion of the train for 0 0 for all values of t and find the least value of |a|. c Ifb =(t—2}i +4 find, to three significant figures, the values of f for which [a] = |b]. 112 Material Urheberrechitich geschiit5 Vectors It 5.6 The Scalar Product ‘The multiplication of a vector by a scalar has been met already. The Sve Section 3.2. scalar product is a method of multiplying two vectors together to get a scalar answer. The answer is a single number, not a vector. It is defined as follows: (RB eb cos 0 where (is the angle between the two vectors a and b, if they stemmed out from the same point as shown, \a7 Example 1 Find the scalar product of a and bas shown in the diagram, if [a] = Sand |b| = Solution ab = |al [b|cosd =5%7 x cos 60° =35x3 =17} The scalar product of unit vectors Since |i] = |j] = [k| = 1 and the angles between any pair are either 0° or 90", several important relationships can be found. ii=1x1xcoso" i] =1 and cos 0° =1 =1 Similarly jj =1 and kk = 1. iy cos 90° =0 1x 1 cos 90° Similarly ik = 0 and jk = 0.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 114 Commutativity As ordinary multiplication is commutative: ab=abcos? = bacosé =ha = ab=ba Scalar product is commutative. Scalar product of vectors in component form From the properties already established for i and j unit vectors above, the following result can be deduced. (ai + bj) (cl + dj) =a0-+ bd If the brackets on the left hand side are multiplied out: (ai + bj) (ci + di) = aici + ai.dj +bj.ci + Bj.dj chitadij+boitbdj 4 ii=jj—1 and = ae(1) +ad(0) + be(0) +ba(1y b= ji=0 =0c+bd Similarly, in column vector form: a\ /e (2)(¢) naenks ‘Those properties can be extenclod to three dimensions as follows: (ci-+ b+ ANAL +e + fk) = ad + be tof 1\ (Pp m|.(q] =lp+mq+nr n} \r The magnitude of a column vector, or a vector in component form, can be worked out by Pythagoras’ theorem. This allows the angle between any two vectors to be calculated. Overview of method Step @ Find the magnitudes of the two vectors. Step @ Calculate the numerical value of the scalar product. Step @ Substitute this information into a.b = ab cas @. Step @ Rearrange and solve to obtain 0. Urheberrechilich geschdtztes Material5 Vectors I Example 2 § # Find the angle between a= ( ‘) and b= ( s) 5 -3 -2 ‘Magnitudes: lal = 9/2? +7? + (-a)* = V59 [b| = 5? +07 + (-2)" =v Calculate: 4@ Find the magnitudes. ay f o-( “\( ) iss roe -3 2, =5+0+6 =11 Substitute: a.b = abcost 11 = ¥59V20c0s0 ©=—-43) Substitute into a.b = abcos u Vanya" aes o=cor'(e gs) 4 Solve for 0. = 74.6" (1d.p.) Urheberrechtlich geschatztes MlComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics, 5.6 The Scalar Product Exercise Technique 1 | Find the scalar product of the following pairs of vectors. H()*Q) (3) 2G) vmla}e(a) 2 | Find the numerical value of a.b, if: —4j and b 6i+2j) and b c asi+j+kandb j, 8 = 60" V27 0 = 172° © [al = 33, |b| = vT4,0= 16° | By using the scalar product, find the angle botween each of these pairs of vectors. ‘Sketch each pair of vectors to confirm that your answers are reasonable. 5 | Calculate the size of the angle between each of these pairs of vectors: a a=2+3+k = b=-i ~5)+7k 8 4116 Urheberrechilich geschiitzte5 Vectors I! 5.7 Uses of the Scalar Product Perpendicular vectors Ifa and bare non-zero perpendicular vectors then = 90°, a.b = abcos 90° ab=0 So for any perpendicular vectors, a.b = 0. aE Example 1 For what value(s) of t is the vector 2ti + (t + 6)j perpendicular to ti ~ 7? Solution For perpendicular vectors: (2ti+ (t+6)}).i-7)) =0 2 —7(t+ 6) =0 2t —7t-42=0 4 This does not factorise so use the quadratie formula. 1) 2£ VP = aR 2B) = 2x2 _ 7+ VAT 356 - + 7+ J385. 4 6.66 or [=-3.16 ‘The component of one vector in the direction of another The scalar product enables the component of one vector in the direction of : F another vector to be found but without having to find the angle between them. Example 2 What is the component of (7) in the direction of b = (i) theberrechtlich geschatztes MAiaiComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics d is the component of vector a in the direction of vector b. d=acos0 b d=acnsd x _abcos 0 a ab 4-3 For this formula a.b and b need to be found. b= |b) = Jats = Vv65 mt) =10+7 a = 2.85 (35.6) ‘Looking al the diagram, since b = /65 = 8.06, the answer for d seems reasonable. 118 Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes5 Vectors It 5.7 Uses of the Scalar Product Exercise Technique Identify the pairs of vectors, from those listed below, which are perpendicular. ‘ ef) #2) Ea) a) ) (0) s=(m) =) [= b Find the magnitude of the component of a, in the direction of b, where a = 41+ 2j and b = 61 —j. b Similarly, find the magnitude of the component of ¢ = —2i + 54 in the direction of d =~ i- 7}. Bs) aa) Seon wba yahical bie pepeadicdlunis tevecior (i) b For what value of tis v perpendicular to the vector ( oy c its (3) forwhat values of tare v perpendicular to's? 4i aj and b= a — 205 a Whatis the angle between a and b when: i t=. iit b For what value of tis the angle between a and b equal to 90°? 5 | Find the values of 4 for which the angle between i + 31+ 2k and 2j +ik is: a 90° b 60° Urheberrechtlich geschiitComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 120 Consolidation Exercise A ‘Three forces 5i + 4j N, 7i + 11j N, 8i + 6j Nact at a point. Find: a the resultant of the forces in the form ai + bj b the magnitude of the resultant ¢ _ the cosine of the angle between the resultant and the vector i + 3). (WJEC) 12N 20N 2vaN a 4 Three forces with magnitudes 2V3N, 12N and 20N act at the point A in the directions shown on the diagram. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force and the angle that its direction makes with AB. (WJEC) An expedition travels from the base camp at A to a new point B, which is 25 km from A ona bearing of 072°. a Write their displacement vector, Al, as a column vector where the top component is the distance in km travelled due east and the bottom component is the distance travelled due north. ‘The expedition travels on from B to C, which is 32 km from B, ona bearing of 195°. b Write BC as a column vector. ¢ Find in column vector form the displacement vector AC. _ d_ Calculate the distance and bearing of the direct return journey, CA, that will take them back to the base camp, giving the distance to three significant figures and the bearing to the nearest degree. Exercise B PN i 50N Forces of magnitudes 50N and PN act on a particle in the directions shown in the diagram. The resultant of the two forces is at right angles to the direction of the force of magnitude 50 N. Find P, (UCLES)5 Vectors It 2] A particle is acted om by two forces F, = Si ~6j + 2k and F, = —3i+5j—6k a Find the resultant force on the particle in vector form. b Find the angle between the forces F, and F,. ‘The diagram illustrates the movements of a group of walkers in the moors. a They walk first from O to A. Taking i and j as unit vectors in directions due east and due north respectively, write OA as a vector in component form. i” b They subsequently walk from A to B. Write AB as a vector in component form. Hence find OB in vector form. ‘They now wish to plan their return journey. What is the distance xkm and the bearing 0°? as Urhebertechtlich geschitztes #@MriaComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Applications and Activities fA] Design. mountain rescue game that uses vectors. [2] Design a set of cards using parallel vectors. Card gumes such as snap and matching the paralle! vector cards can then be played. [3] write computer programs or programs for a graphical calculator to: a add two vectors together b find the unit vector of any vector ai + bj ¢ find the length of a vector using the sine rule find the length of a vector using the cosine rule, Summary @ Vectors can be resolved into two perpendicular components. © The resultant of two vectors can be determined by resolving, and the ‘mognitude and direction can be found from a scale drawing or by using the sine and cosine rules. @ The resultant of more than two vectors can be determined by resolving, using the polygon rule of addition to complote a scale drawing or by repeatedly applying the sino and cosine rules. @ The scalar product is where @ is the angle between the two vectors a and b. @ = Ifthe scalar product of two vectors is zero then the vectors are perpendicular and vice versa.6 Uniform Acceleration What you need to know The definitions of displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration, How to caleulate the displacement and acceleration from a velocity-—time graph. How to use formulas to find an unknown quantity. How to solve quadratic equations by factorising. How to solve quadratic equations using the quadratic formula. How to simplify surds. How to add vectors in column and i, j, k forms. How to find the magnitude of a vector. Review Copy and complete the following table of definitions. 2 | A car joins a straight motorway with a speed of 20ms~! and accelerates to a speed of 30ms"! in 20 seconds. a Sketch a velocity-time graph. b Find the acceleration of the car. Calculate the distance travelled by the car. Mo=d +ef, find c whend =2,¢=7 and Ia=}(b + od, find b when a = 21,6 =4andd =7. Ww? = x? + 2yz, find x when w = 26, y= 4 and ¢ Id=eh + 4gh*, find h when d = ~80, e= and g 2.5. 10. nore 123,Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 4 | Solve the following equations: a F-7t=0 b P-st-50=0 c¢ P=4t+12 [5 | Solve the following equations, giving your answers correct to three significant figures: a ox410e¢2=0 b x*=8x4+10 c 3x? 44x-5=0 [6] simptity the following surds: v98 a V5 b VF c veixv d Te 7 cama (.3)6= (pea sib 85— 7h and d= 21+ 35a, a ath b 4b c ct+2d 8 Given a= (_}),and b= —2 +3) 4k, caeulates a fal b |b] 124 Urheberrechilich geschitztes Material6 Uniform Accelaration 6.1 Uniform Acceleration Formulas When the acceleration does not change, it is said to be uniform or In this section you will constant. ‘To make sure the acceleration is uniform, two conditions must study kinematics in one be met. The conditions are: dimension 1, the size or magnitude of the acceleration must be constant 2. the direction of the acceleration must be in a straight line. Ifthe direction was changing then the acceleration would no longer be constant. This is because acceleration is a vector quantity and so both the magnitude and the direction of the vector must remain the same. When a car joins a motorway, it already has an initial speed. The driver ‘will press the accelerator and the vehicle will speed up. How long would it take for tho ear to accelerate to its final speed? So far, the only way of analysing this situation is to draw a speed-time graph. This method can be time consuming and so an alternative method using formulas may be quicker. The car can be modelled as a particle and the acceleration can be assumed to be constant. If the car is travelling along a straight motorway, the speeds can now be treated as velocities because the direction of motion is assumed to be the same. By using letters to represent the variables, the uniform acceleration formulas can be derived. Velocity (m 5-1) ° t Time (5) The graph shows the car with initial velocity, ums"!, accelerating uniformly to a final velocity, yms~'. The time taken for this change in velocity is ( seconds. The acceleration being uniform means the velocity~ time graph is a straight line. The gradient of the graph will give the acceleration of the car. gradient =~ {t) “Multiply by ¢, [2] Addu. 125,Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics. 126 Neat, the displacement s metres, will be given by the area under the graph. The shape of the graph is a trapezium. s=](u4vyt (3) ‘By using equations {1}, [2] and [3], two other formulas can be found. First of all, replace v in equation [3] using equation (2). sa}utuit << Replace y with u+at, s=}(utu+ane s=3(2u+ane s=ut+tot* ‘The next formula is derived by replacing t in equation (3). To do this, equation [1] must be rearranged to find ¢ first. at=v—u geht a s=}(u+v)t € Replace t with s u+v9( vou a 2as = (u+v)(v —uy 2as =v? -u visu? +2as ‘The four formulas which have been derived are: ee ey Hier HEE 20s ‘These formulas can only be used when the acceleration is constant (or is, assumed constant). These equations are really vector equations and 80 v, u,aand s should be written as v, u, a and s. The vector notation is omitted for most cases. For two and three dimensional motion the vector notation will need to be = used. In these situations, the displacement, velocities and acceleration can either be in column vector form ar i, j and k form. To help you to choose the correct equation use the table on the next page. ‘The equation needs to be the one that contains only the data you have and the quantity you need to calculate, Sometimes it is easiest to choose the formula by looking at the quantity you do not need. Look at the crosses in the table. rheberrechtl schiitztes Material6 Uniform Acceleration ‘In general, do not work out quantities that you are not asked for in the question. This will save you time and reduce the chance of mistakes. All the equations need u. If you are not given u then you will have to find w first. This will mean you cannot avoid using two equations. ‘Overview of method Step @ State the positive direction. Step @_ Summarise the information given. Step @ Select one (or sometimes two) of the formulas. Use the table given to help you. Step @ Substitute the numbers. Step @ Calculate the value required. Example 1 Find the final velocity, if the initial velocity is 2m" ', the acceleration is 4ms™, and the time of travel is 5s. Solution > Positive direction 4) Positive direction stated. —> ims? —— 2anms v=? us2ms' as4ms? ¢=5s <@Summarise the information. veutat 409) Pick the formula. veryaxs 4@ Substitute the numbers. v=24+20 vezams" 4 Calculate v. ‘The equation v = u + af is chosen since s is neither asked for nor given. Jtheberrechiich geschatztes Mz‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Example 2 Find the initial velocity, if the acceleration is 3ms~* and the time taken to ‘travel 10 m from the starting position is 4s. Solution > ponitive direction <4. State positive w direction. t=4s 42 Summarise the ‘information. ssut+ Jae 4 Select the formula, 10 sux 443% 3x 4? <@ Substitute the numbers. 10=4u +24 4@ Calculate u. <1 4u -35=u u=—35ms! ‘If the initial speed of the particle was required, the answer would be 3.5ms7!. Example 3 Acar travels with a constant speed of 42 ms~' along a straight motorway. It passes a stationary police car which sets off in pursuit of the speeding ‘vehicle 2s later. The police car accelerates at 6m s~*. How long afler being ‘passed does the police car take to draw level with the other car? Leave your answer in surd form. Solution ‘When the cars draw level, they must have covered the same distance, ‘Their displacements must be equal. So expressions for the displacements of both cars need to be found. > Positive direction 4 @ Pasitive direction —> oms? oa) stated. —— amet 128 theberrechtlich geschiltztes Material6 Uniform Acceleration u=42ms! a=0ms? v=42ms! t=T s=? 4@Summary. Lot the time forthe cars ssuts tor 4 Formula. to draw level be T. s=42T+0 40 Substitute. s=4ar 4 Find an expression for s. > positive direction —> omst w — > oms* Ve. u=Oms' a=6ms* t=T-2 s=? s=ut+lat $=0+})x6 x (T-2)? s=9(T-2y “The cars will draw level when the displacements are equal. O=T-18T+4 b + VbF = sac p 18+ V324 = 16 ~ 2 18+ V308 T=92V7 T=94+V7 Utheberrechtlich geschiComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 6.1 Uniform Acceleration Formulas Exercise Technique [1] ‘the descriptions below are for particles travelling ina straight line with 130 uniform acceleration. a Find the final velocity, if the initial velocity is 5ms~' and the acceleration is 4ms~* for a time of 7s. bb Find the final velocity, if the initial velocity is 50 ms“, the distance travelled is 180 m and the acceleration is 2.5m s™*. ¢ Aparticle accelerates from an initial speed of ms”! toa speed of 10ms"' in atime of 3s, Work out the distance travelled, dA particle initially travels with a velocity of 3 ms~'. Itaccelerates at 1.5ms* for 50s. Calculate the distance travelled. A particle moves 350 m in 50s alonga straight line, If its initial velocity is 2ms~* and the acceleration is constant, calculate: ts final velocity bits acceleration, Abody accelerates from rest at 3ms" along a straight line. If its final velocity is 21ms"', find: a the time taken b the distance covered. A particle accelerates at 4 ms~* along a straight line, The initial velocity is ams". Find the time taken if the distance travelled is 24m. An object accelerates uniformly from 2ms~* to 10ms~* alonga straight line. During this acceleration the object travels 48m, Work out: a the time taken b the acceleration of the body. An object decelorates uniformly at 4m s~? along a straight line. If the body has travelled 200 m and its initial velocity is 50m s~', find: a the time taken b the final velocity, Abody accelerates at 2m s~*. Its initial velocity is 2ms~'. Leaving your answers in surd form, find: a the time taken for the body to travel 10m from its starting position b the time taken for the body to travel 20m from its starting position. A particle X, travels with a constant velocity of 6 ms~' alonga straight line. It passes a particle Y which is stationary. One second later particle Y accelerates at 2ms~?. How long after being passed does it take for particle Y to draw level with the particle X? Leave your answer in surd form.6 Uniform Acceleration Contextual ‘Acar travelling along a straight motorway overtakes a lorry by accelerating from 20ms~* to 25 ms“. This overtaking manoeuvre takes 105. Calculate the acceleration of the car assuming it is constant throughout. {2] Aroller coaster is accelerated along a straight track, from rest to 26 ms" over a distance of 100 m. How long does it take for the roller coaster to travel this distance? Work out the acceleration of the roller coaster. Leave ‘your answors as fractions. An aeroplane lands on a runway at 60m 5~'. If the plane takes 1.5km to come to rest, calculate: a the time taken for the aircraft to stop b the acceleration of the plane (assuming it is constant). [4] A train accolerates at 0.5 ms~* along a straight track. It covers 0.5 km and has a final velocity of 25 ms™'. Find, in surd form: a the initial velocity of the train b the time taken to travel the 0.5 km. [5] A roller coaster desconds a straight slope. Its speed at the top of the slope is 2ms" and its acceleration down the slope is 5m s-*. Ifthe slope is 50 m long, find (leaving your answer in surd form): a the time of descent b the final velocity of the roller coaster, G | Aorry brakes to stop at a red traffic light. The initial speed of the lorry is 10 ms“ and the distance covered while braking is 120 m. Work out the deceleration the brakes cause. State any assumptions you have made. 7 | Acar travels with a constant speed of 40 m’s~ along a straight motorway. It passes a stationary police car which sets off in pursuit of the speeding vehicle 1 later. The police car accelerates at 4m s~*. How long does it take for the police car to draw level with the other car? Leave your answer in surd form.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 132 6.2 Free Fall Under Gravity Cochem Castle in Germany has a well to provide the castle with fresh water. To show how deep the well is, the tour guide pours some water into the well. The splashes of the water reaching the bottom of the well ‘can be heard 5 seconds later. The tourists gasp in astonishment. ‘Why does the water accelerate in the first place? The acceleration is caused by the attraction of the Earth on the water and is called the acceleration due to gravity. The value of the acceleration varies slightly around the Earth's surface but it can be taken as 9.8 ms~* to two significant figures. Sometimes, a value of 10m s~* is used to make the calculations easier. This introduces an error of about 2%. This is normally acceptable because of the other errors present and the assumptions being made. In this book, the value of the acceleration due to gravity will be taken as 9.8 ms? unless the question states a different value is to be used. ‘The tourists know the well sounds doep, but how deep is it? To answer this question the uniform acceleration formulas can be used to calculate the depth. We can assume that the water starts from rest and that the acceleration due to gravity is 10 ms~*. Air resistance will be ignored and_ the water will be modelled as a particle. 1 James france positive direction. w =" a=Wms* t=5s +}x10 xs? 25m So the well is about 125m deep. This depth can only be approximate due to the assumptions boing made and the accuracy of the measurements.‘6 Uniform Acceleration Overview of method Step @ Drawa clear diagram. Step @ State a positive direction. Step @ Mark on the displacements, velocities and accelerations. Step @ Use the uniform acceleration formulas, Example A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 14 ms~'. Calculate: a the maximum height the ball will reach above its starting position b the time the ball takes to reach its maximum height. Solution 40 Diagram. <9 Mark on displacements, 9 fomst velocities and accelerations. ! 42 Positive direction stated. t positive i foonet or | -0.8ms% direction 1 4) ! I & fume a u=14mst -9.8ms* v=Oms! ‘The maximum height will be reached when v = 0 ms~', This will be the point where the ball will stop before falling back down again, wsu"+2as << @ Use the uniform acceleration formulas. O= 147 42x (-9.8) xs O = 196 — 19.65 19.65 = 196 s=10m b u=14ms a=-98ms? v=0m t=? ve=utat O=14+(-98)xt O= 149.8 Qat= 14 Divide by 9. tatys a= 8-9-1 BaComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics. 6.2 Free Fall Under Gravity Exercise Technique [1] An abject is dropped from a height of 98m above the ground. Find: a the time taken for the object to hit the ground ‘b the velocity of the ball when it hits the ground. [2] An abject is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 24 ms“. Taking g=10ms™, find: the maximum height the object reaches the object's velocity when it returns to its starting position the object's speed when it returns to its starting position the time taken for the object to return to its starting position. moos [3] A particle is dropped. The particle hits the ground with speed 50ms~'. “Taking g = 10ms-*, calculate: athe height from which the particle was roleased b the time taken for the particle to hit the ground. (4] An object is thrown vertically upwards. It takes 7 s to return to its original position. Taking g = 10ms~*, calculate: a the speed of projection (initial speed) b the maximum height reached by the object. {5] A particle is projected vertically upwards with a speed of 19.6 ms"'. a Calculate the time taken for the particle to: i reach 14.7 m above ils starting point fi be at 14.7 m above its starting point for the second time, b How long will the particle be above 14,7 m? “An object is thrown vertically downwards with a speed of 14ms~', Taking g= 10ms~, calculate: athe distance travelled in 17s b the object's speed afier 17s. [7] A particle is thrown vertically upwards with speed 20m s~*. Two seconds later another particle is thrown vertically upwards fram exactly the same place. Its initial velocity is also 20 ms~*, How long after the first particle ‘was projected, do the two particles collide? (Take g = 10ms~*,) 134 Urheberrechilich gaschtitztes Material6 Uniform Acceleration Contextual A diver steps off a 101m high diving board, Calculate: a the time taken for her to enter the water b the speed with which she enters the water. A stone is dropped from a cliff top. The stone hits the beach below after 2.58. Taking g = 10ms™, find: a the height of the cliff b the speed with which the stone hits the beach. A football is kicked vertically upwards, It takes 4.9 to return to its starting position. Find: a the speed of projection of the football b the maximum height the football reaches. A parachutist steps out of an aeroplane and her parachute opens 3 seconds later. Taking g = 10ms~“, determine: a the vertical distance she has fallen when her parachute opens b her vertical speed when her parachute opens. State any assumptions you have made. Ina game of netball the umpire throws the netball vertically upwards from a height of 1.2m. A player catches the ball 0.8 s later at a height of 2m. Taking g = 10ms™*, determine: a the speed with which the umpire threw the ball b the speed of the ball when it was caught, A diver jumps off a 5m high diving board. The diver enters the water 1.5 s later. Taking g = 10m s~*, work out; a the spoed he generates in his jump b his maximum height measured from the tap of the diving board © th speed with which he enters the water. A basketball is thrown vertically upwards at a hoop. The maximum height of the ball is 3m. If the ball was thrown at a height of 1.5 m, calculate: a the initial velocity of the ball 1b thotime taken for the ball to return to 1.5m. 135,‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 6.3 Vectors and Uniform bis seta study kinematics in two Acceleration Formulas and three dimensions. The bomb ts given an initial horizontal velocity by the aircraft. The bomb then falls under a gravity and is slowed down by air resistance. The Heeb cane RS or three dimensions and so vectors need es the bomb. Overview of method ‘The method for solving vector problems with uniform acceleration can be broken down into steps. Step Summary of the information. Step @ Select the vector formula. Step @ Substitute the vectors into the formula, Step @ Calculate the unknown quantity, Example 1 An aircraft has an initial velocity of (90i + 90j) ms~' and a final velocity of (100i + 100j + 30k) ms~'. The time taken for this change to occur is 100s. Find: a tho constant acceleration of the aircraft, in i, j and ke form b the magnitude of the acceleration c the vertical height that the aircraft has risen, Solution a u=(90i + 90j)ms"! v= (100i +100j+ 30k)ms"' <@ Summary, t=100s a=? utat 4.2 Select the formula. 100i +100} + 30k = 901+ 90}+100a 4g) Substitute. 100i + 100 + 30k — 901 — 90) = 1000 44 Calculate a 101+ 10) + 30k = 100a a= (01+ 0.1) +0.3k) ms? 136 theberr it Aaterial6 Uniform Acceleration la) = Vo.zF + 0.17 0.3" lal = VOT {al = 0.332ms~* (3s.f.) = (901 +90j)ms"' v=(100i +100j+ 30k)ms' << @ Summary. 005 s=7 (us vie 42 Select the formula. (90i + 90j + 100i + 100j + 30k) x 100 49) Substitute the vectors. $= 50 x (190i + 190j + 30k) 4 @ Calculates. 5 =(9500i + 9500) + 1500k) m So vertical height = 1500 m Example 2 ‘An object has an initial velocity of (-2) ms~* anda final velocity of “1) ms". The final displacement of the particle from its initial position is (189) m, Work out the time taken to reach that position. Solution 5 15 100 u=[-2}ms* v={ iw)ms' s=( 160}m t=? 7 -15, —80, sain 4D Select formula, 100 5 15 160 | = ; -2)+[{ 10] -4.@ Substitute vectors 80 7 15 into equation. ee pare t8O\ gf 30 both sides. The vector Meat ede oon the RHS of the = se: ‘equation is multiplied jt=10 4 Calculate t. by 10 to get the one on iniae's the LHS, Therofore f= 10. 137, mrial Utheberrechtlich geschitt(Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 6.3 Vectors and Uniform Acceleration Formulas Exercise Technique 1| A particle moves with a velocity of (94 — 12j) ms~'. Determine the speed of the particle. 2 | A body with an initial velocity of (—4i + 5jJm s" accelerates at (2i + 6j) ms“ for 3s, Calculate: a the displacement of the body from its original position b its final velocity its final speed. [3 | A particle accolerates from (6i + 7] — 14k) ms" to (201 + 28) — 49k)ms™* at (2i + 3j — 5k)ms"*. Calculate: a thetime taken b thedisplacement from the initial position. | An object accelerates from (-]) ms to (3) ms! in 2s, Determine: a the acceleration of the object in column vector form b the displacement of the object from its starting position. | A particle accolerates from (#) ms~ to (-#8) ms“. Duging this acceleration, the particle's displacement changes by (;*) m. For how long did the acceleration last? [6] A body's displacement is changed by (-3) min 3s by an acceleration of (4) ms*. Find: a thebody’s initial velocity b the body's initial speed (in surd form) the body's final speed (in surd form). 138 Urheberrechtlich geschttztes Material6 Uniform Acceleration Contextual 4] An aircraft has an initial velocity of (101 — 20j) ms! and a final velocity of (15i — 30j — 20k) ms~'. The aircraft accelerates uniformly and it takes 10s for it to complete this acceleration, Determine: a its acceleration b the decrease in the vertical height of the aircraft during this acceleration. [2] Atong jumper has an initial velocity of (04 + 4k)ms" and her acceleration is (-0.5i — 10k) ms~*. She remains in the air for 0.8 s. Find: a herfinal velocity b herfinal speed c the horizontal distance she covers. [3] A gky diver has an initial velocity of (38) ms“? and a final velocity of _#) ms", The acceleration of the sky diver is (-i)ms~*, Find: athe time taken for this change in velocity b the displacoment of the sky diver from the starting position. Ahot air balloon changes its displacement by (—360i + 540) ~ 210k) min 30s. Its acceleration can be assumed to be constant throughout its motion at (—i + 2j — k) ms~*. Determine the initial velocity of the balloon. [5] Along jumper has an initial velocity of ('t) ms~*. His acceleration during his jump is (<0) ms"? and the jump lasts for 0.85. Find: a his final velocity b his final speed c the horizontal distance he travels. Urheberrechtich geschitztes MABiaComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Consolidation Exercise A [11] Acar is moving along a straight road with uniform acceleration. The car passes a check-point A with a speed of 12 ms”! and another check-point C with a speed of 32 ms~*. The distance between A and C is 1100m. a Find the time, in seconds, taken by the car to move from Ato C. b Given that B is the mid point of AC, find, inms~ to one decimal place, the speed with which the car passes B. (ULEAC) [2] two umps are to be installed on a road to prevent trafic reaching speeds greater than 12ms~* between the humps. Assume that: © the speed of the cars, when they cross the humps, is effectively zero; @ after crossing a hump, they accelerate at 3ms = until they reach a speed of 12ms-!; @ as soonas they reach a speed of 12m s~*, they decelerate at 6ms™* until they stop. 4 Asimple model ignores the lengths of the cars. Use this to find the distance between the humps. 1b One factor that has not been taken into account is the length of the cars, Revise your answer to a to take this inte account, giving your answer to the nearest metre. You must state clearly any assumptions that you make, (AEB) Aball is projected vertically upwards with an initial speed of 14.7 ms", Find: a its greatest height b the time taken to reach its greatest height ¢ its speed 2 seconds after projection. (WJEC) [4] A batsman hits a cricket ball which bounces for the ist time on the boundary line, The vector (5) is the unit vector in the horizontal direction and ({) is the unit vector in the vertical direction. The origin is at the batsman’s feet. The ball has initial displacement (1) metres, acceleration (.{14) ms~* and initial velacity (3¢) ms“. Find expressions for the velocity and displacement f seconds after the ball has boon hit, 1b When the ball hits the ground the displacement is given by (3) metres, Find the value of t when this happens and deduce the distance to the boundary.6 Unitorm Acceleration © A fielder is now put on the boundary line so that the ball will be stopped if it is not more than 3 metres above the ground when it passes his position. On the assumption that the horizontal component of the initial velocity remains at 15m s~*, find the minimum vertical component of the initial velocity for the ball to g0 over the field: oun A particle P is projected vertically upwards, with speed 16m s~', froma. point at ground level. Ignoring air resistance, calculate the maximum as 2 height reached by P. (Take g = 9.81 ms.) facies A stone is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 10ms~*. Two seconds later, a second stone is thrown vertically upwards from exactly the same point with a speed of 10 ms", Calculate the time at which the stones collide. A sack of mass 7kg is at point O on a cliff-top and joined by a slack rope toa point A, 25m. 7 vertically above Q, The sack is thrown at 4ms~! horizontally from O. Thus, taking O as the origin, e x-axis horizontally in the direction of the throw Yl and y-axis vertically upwards, A has a position vector (35) m and the initial velocity of the sack is ({)ms. a Find, as column vectors i the velocity ii the position vector of the sack after f seconds, while the rope remains slack. (Take g= 10ms-*.) b Show that when the sack reaches 25 m below O its position vector is (48) m, and that its velocity is then in a direction directly away Eu t (ocseB) Show that a spood of 72kmh” is equivalent to 20m s~ A racing car, moving with constant acceleration along a straight strotch of track, passes a fixed marker A with speed 72km h”!. Two seconds later it passes a second fixed marker B. Given that the distance AB is 45 metres, find the acceleration of the car. A third marker C is situated near the end of this section of track. Given that the speed of the car as it passes C is 216 kmh”, find the time taken by the car to travel from A to C. ay the car to travel from A to (NEAR aaComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Applications and Activities ‘Velocity (mst) Use the graph to find a formula for: a the acceleration, a, and hence the final velocity in terms of u,a and t b thedisplacoment, s, in terms of u, v and t, Using your equations from parts a and b, derive: cc thedisplacement in terms of u, tand a the final velocity in terms of u,a and s the displacement in terms of v, tand a. ° — Sleeping policemen can be used to control the speeds of cars. Work out the distance between two sleeping policemen to keep the traffic speed below 30 mph. State any assumptions that you make. 3 | By dropping different objects, calculate estimates for the acceleration due to gravity. Try to explain why they are not all exactly the same. 4 | A ball rolls down a slope. By measuring the time taken for the ball to travel different distances, work out the acceleration of the ball. State any assumptions that you make, ‘Try to fit a curve te your points. 142 Usheberrechilich geschtitztes Material6 Uniform Acceleration Summary ‘The four uniform acceleration formulas are: ‘The two conditions that must be met (or assumed to be met) before the ‘uniform acceleration formulas can be applied are: 1, the size or magnitude of the acceleration must be constant 2, the direction of the acceleration must be in a straight line. ‘During free fall uncer gravity the acceleration is the acceleration due to gravity, g= 9.8m 5, ‘The three uniform acceleration formulas for two and three dimensional ‘problems are:144 7 Equilibrium What you need to know ‘The meanings of the words rotation, enlargement, reflection and translation. ‘Pythagoras’ theorem for right-angled triangles. Sine, cosine and tangent for right-angled triangles. ‘How to find the resultant of two or more vectors. How to use the sine and cosine rules for any triangle. e e@eee Review ‘The following descriptions of transformations describe an enlargement, a rotation, a reflection and a translation, Which is which? moves without turning, changes size but not shape turns but stays the same size the lines joining corresponding points on object and image have a common perpendicular bisector. (2). b 12 14 12 x 6 Calculate the lengths of the sides indicated, leaving your answers in surd form. 3 18 cm Q . r 2G oem Caleulate x, yand 2. = aeooe § Material7 Equilibrium 4) a= (_}) nae - (=) catcaatea + band draw a sketch to illustrate your answer. b Whatis the sum of a vector of length 5 units, due south west and a vector of length 11 units on a bearing of 100°? Give your answer as a length and beasing. b Calculate the sum of a and b, where |a| = 5 units and |b] = 11 units, stating the length of a +b and the angle this vector makes with a. Find tho longths of the sides marked x and y. B Cc 2 ips ™ A Calculate the length BC. P Find the two possible values of 8, In both cases state the third angle and the length of PQ. Urheberrechtlich geschitztes MAB iaComplete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 146 7.1 Equilibrium under Concurrent Forces Equilibrium Equilibrium is the name for the state where a number of forces are in balance, A set of forces acting on a particle will either cause a change in its motion or no change, When there is no change in motion, a particle is said to be in equilibrium. Clearly there would be no change if no forces at all wore involved. However, there are cases where a number of forces are acting, but the overall effect is the same as if no force is acting. For equilibrium the resultant of the forces acting must be zero. This gives the mathematical method for dealing with equilibrium problems. The sum of the forces will equate to zero if the system of forces is in equilibrium. For the fourforces acting on a particle: F, +F, +F, +P, =0, for the particle to be in equilibrium. Fy R ‘There are two types of equilibrium. When an object is stationary and remains so under the action of several forces, this is described as static equilibrium, Alternatively, an object may be moving with constant velocity and continues to do so under the action of the set of forces. This is referred to as dynamic equilibrium. In both cases the resultant force ‘equals zero. The resultant force is found by adding all the forces acting on the object together. The fact that the resultant force is zero means the forces must cancel with each other. ‘Concurrent forces i ‘The word concurrent means acting at the same point. When concurrent forces are referred to, the forces are all acting at the same point. fan “object is modelled as a particle then all the forces acting on the object are Recall that « particle is a considered to be acting concurrently. point object. See section 1a.7 Equilibrium Column vectors and unit vectors ‘When the forces are given in column or unit vector form, the forces can be added together to find the resultant force. This resultant force must be zero for the particle to be in equilibrium, Overview of method ‘The following steps will be used to solve the worked examples. Step @ Add the forces and put equal to zero. Step @ Solve the vector equation. Example 1 An object is in oquilibrium under the action of the following three forces: (2)™(-a1) some (3) Calculate a and b. Solution ()-(.2)-(0)=(0) «exergmgrm ea 42 Solve the vector equation (x component). b-4=0 42 Solve the vector equation (y component). boa ‘The value of @ has to be negative to balance out the 2 and 4 in the other two forces. Example 2 Three forces, F;, F, and F; are in equilibrium. If F; = 12.5i + 16.7) Nand F, = —22.01 — 4.6) N, what is F, and what angle does it make with the positive x-direction? Solution For equilibrium: (12.5: + 18.7)) + (—22.0i — 4.6)) + F, =0 4@ Vector equation. 9.51 4 14.4) + F. 4@ Solve the equation. Fy =9.5i- 14.17 Add 9.5i and subtract 14.aj.Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics = tan" (H82) O=56.0° je measured anticlockwise from the x-axis should now be a= 360° — 56.0" 2=3040°(1d.p.) Example 3 A body is in equilibrium under the action of forces: P N, (31 + 4j— 7k) N and (2i — 4j + 3k) N, Express P in component form and find the angle it makes with the z-axis. Solution “The resultant will equal zero because the body is in equilibrium. P+(3i+4)—7k)+(2i —4j+3k)=0 4@ Add forces and put ‘equal to zero, Pi(5i—4k)=0 4 Solve the equation. P=(-5i+4k)N P is in the x-z plane so this plane can be drawn on its own. (is the angle with the z-axis: tan = 4 = tan (3) O=513' (1dp) 148 Urheberrechtlich ges chit Use trigonometry to find the angle; adj =9.5, opp = 14.1.7 Equilibrium 7.1 Equilibrium under Concurrent Forces Exercise Technique A particle is in equilibrium under the action of the following three forces: (73) ™(.,) ¥om (5) a Find aandb. b What is the magnitude of this third force? A particle is at rest in equilibrium under the action of the three forces ~ (7i + 2j) N, (ci — 59) Nand (-3i — dj) N. a Find cand d. b Calculate the magnitude of each force to throe si icant figures. Forces of 12i Nand (—8i — 16)) N act on a particle. A third force P is to be added in order to produce equilibrium, a Find Pin the form ai + bj. b Calculate the magnitude of P and the angle it makes with the positive idirection. r+(a)*(s) =o Find F in column vector form. Calculate the magnitude of F. Find the angle F makes with the x-axis. Draw a sketch of this triangle of forces in equilibrium, meee A particle is al rest under the action of the four forces (5i + 19}) N, (121 — 159) N, -14j Nand (ai +B) N. a Find the values of aand b. b Calculate the magnitude of the force (ai + bj) N. © Determine the angle between (ai + bj) Nand the i direction. A body is acted on by the following forces: 20i N, (~11i ~ 8j) N, (3i — 149) N and (~7i + 17)) N. The addition of a fifth foreo, P, brings about equilibrium. a Find P in the form xi + yj. b Calculate the angle P makes with the 20i N force. 149‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics [77] tthe action of the following three forces an a body results in equilibrium: (-9i + j — 7k) N, (31 + 10k) N and (ai + bj + ck) N. a What are the values of a, b and c? b Calculate the magnitude of (ai + Bj + ck) N. A particle is in equilibrium when acted upon by these three forces: ZN, (218i ~ 6j + 9k) N and (2i ~ 2j— 7k) N. a Find Z in unit vector form. b By using the scalar product, find the angle Z makes with each of the other two forces. Contextual [1] the tower part ofa radio mast is held in equilibrium by three horizontal cables, The cables can be assumed to be light. The tension forces in two of the cables are (10i — 2j) N and (-5i + 6j) N. @ State the third tension in the form ai + bj. b What is the magnitude of the tension in the third cable? What angle does the third cable make with the i direction? ns in four telephone wires attached to a telegraph post are ‘Li + 6j) N, (—3i — 18j) N and (ai + bj) N. The four forces a Find the values of a and b. b Calculate the magnitude of (ai + bj) N. Atent pole is held in equilibrium by guy ropes whose tensions are (3 + 5j — 8k) N, (—2i — j — 5k) N and PN. The thrust in the tent pole is 20k N. a Express P in the form ai +bj +ck. b Find the magnitude of P, © What is the angle between the force P and the tent pote? Four children are playing a four-way tug of war. Two skipping ropes have been knotted in the middle and each child is holding an end of one rope. ‘The ropes are not at right angles. They prepare to take the strain before the competition begins. Three of the forces exerted are: 181 N, (3i — 14j)N and (i+ 12)N. a What must the fourth force be, to achieve equilibrium? b Calculate the angles between the ropes, showing them clearly on a sketch. Which force has the smallest magnitude? 150 fi7 Equilibrium 7.2 Equilibrium and the Triangle of Forces What is the least number of forces that can produce equilibrium? oF A body is acted on by just one force, F. The resultant force must be equal to this applied force F. For the body to be in equilibrium, the resultant force must be zero and so the force F must be zero. [F | =0 for equilibrium ‘This means that a particle cannot be in equilibrium if just one force is acting. If two forces are acting, where must the second force be placed in order to keop the body in equilibrium? The two foress must be equal in magnitude and act in opposite directions. Fy 1 160° IFil =1F.I If the action of a set of three forces on an object produces equilibrium, the resultant force must be zero. A set of three vectors whose sum is zero can be shown as a triangle of vectors where the three arrows follow round in order. Fy Fy Fy n i Fy Saari aa ; te Fr In asimilar way, three forces can be drawn to form a triangle. Then, the geometry of the triangle can be used lo answer the questions, A scale drawing of the vector triangle could be made, with geometrical equipment. The required information could then be measured from the diagram. As with all scale drawings, the accuracy is improved by choosing the largest sensible scale. Tee chats 154,Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics ‘Overview of method Stop @ Draw a rough freohand sketch first. Sometimes only a Step @ Choose a suitable scale. sketch of the triangle of Step @ Accurately construct the known parts of the force triangle, forces is required. Step @ Measure the required information, remembering to convert lengths. ‘Use the freehand sketch to determine a scale which will produce the largest diagram that will fit on your page. Example 1 A Christmas decoration is suspended by two wires. Two equal tension forces in the wires each act at 110° to the weight force. Sketch a force ‘diagram and the associated triangle of forces. Solution T T. aio" 110" Example 2 A force of 15 N acts at 85° to a force of 20 N. By scale drawing, determine the magnitude and direction of the force which must be added to produce equilibrium. Urheberrechilich geschtitztes Material7 Equilibrium 18N 20N ? A scale of 1 cm to 2 newtons seams reasonable. <4 2) Choose a suitable scale, Now carefully construct the angle of 95° and the lengths, to scale, <4 Draw to scale. x 4@ Measure values. 20N Measure x and 0, ‘X= 26.0 Nand @= 50° The third force has magnitude 26.0.N and acts at an angle of 130° to the 15 N force. Utheberrechtlich geschitztes MSS ia:Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 7.2 Equilibrium and the Triangle of Forces Exercise _ Technique 1| a Draw a force diagram for a particle of mass 5 kg, at rest in equilibrium on a horizontal plane, b How many forces are acting? © — What is the magnitude of each force? A particle is acted upon by four forces, as shown. All forces have non-zero magnitudes, IfF, + F: +F, +F, what can be said about the particle? Fy 3) a Draw the force triangle corresponding P to these three forces, if they are in a equilibrium. Remember to label the angles carefully. b Draw the force diagram corresponding to this triangle of forces. Label the angle between each pair of forces. [4] A particte is acted upon by three forces, These are: a force vertically downwards of W newtons, a force of P newtons acting at 150° to W, and a force of Q newtons acting at 100° to W. a Draw a force diagram of this situation, ‘The particle is in static equilibrium. bb Draw an appropriate triangle of forces, labelting all the internal angles. 1547 Equilibrium [5] A particle is in equilibrium under tho action of three forces. One has ‘magnitude 7.4 N. A second, of magnitude 11.3 N acts at 67° to the first force. a Draw this triangle of forces to scale. b From your diagram, find: i the magnitude of the third force ii the angle between the direction of the third force and the 7.4 N force. Three forces, of magnitudes 280 N, 175 N and 160 N, are in equilibrium. By choosing a suitable scale and using a pair of compasses, draw a suitable triangle of forces. Determine from your diagram the angles between the lines of action of the three forces, correct to the nearest degree. Contextual An object sinks through water at constant speed. Draw a diagram of the forces acting. b The mass of the object is 10kg. What are the magnitudes of the forces acting? © What assumptions have been made? force friction Wile Acrate of mass 40 kg is at rest on a horizontal surface. A force is applied bby pulling om a horizontal rope. Complete the force diagram. b The crate is pulled along at a constant velocity, and the force applied is 10N. What can be said about the magnitude af the friction? ¢ What aro the magnitudes and directions of the other two forces? A microphone is suspended over a concert platform by two wires, each inclined at 20° to the horizontal. a Ifeach wire has the same tension, T newtons, draw a fully labelled force diagram, b Convert this into a triangle of forces, labelling all the internal angles. As part of a sculpture, a metal ball of mass 2.6 kg is supported by two light rods. One rod is inclined at 38” above the horizontal, and the magnitude of the thrust in it is 30N. Find, by scale drawing, the magnitude of the thrust in the second rod, and the anglo it makes with the horizontal,Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics 7.3 Trigonom and the Trisngle of Forces ‘Scale drawing is one method for solving triangle of forces problems. ‘However a more accurate solution can be obtained by using trigonometry. Ttis important to draw a clear diagram of the triangle of forces with all the lengths and angles correctly calculated. The next steps will depend upon whether one of the angles is 90° or not. If the triangle contains one right angle, all the calculations will involve simple trigonometry or Pythagoras’ ‘Aheorem, If none of the angles is 90°, then the sine rule or the cosine rule will be used instead. ‘Overview of method Step @ Draw a clearly labelled diagram. Stop Apply trigonometry, Pythagoras’ theorem or sine and cosine rules. Step @ Solve to find the required information, Example 1 P A particle is in equilibrium under the forces shown. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force P, stating the angle it makes with the 13. N force. Solution P an 4 Diagram for the triangle of forces, 13N [P| = Ve? +13? 42 Use Pythagoras’ theorem. = ¥233 = 15.3N(3s8.£) tand =f 43) Use trigonometry to calculate the = tan" (8) Ghscios: or arctan( O= 31.6" (1 dp.) 156 Irheberrechtlich geschdtztes Material7 Equilibrium Referring to the original diagram: aN a+ 0=180' = 180° —0 = 148.4" (1 dp) P has magnitude 15.3 N and acts ina direction 148.4" anticlockwise from the 13 N force. Example 2 ‘Three forces, with magnitudes 6, 11 and 15 N, are in equilibrium. What are the angles between them? Solution ‘This time the triangle of forces can be drawn first. 8 e 15N 4@ Diagram, aNa A uN ; c By the cosine rule: 4.2 Use the cosine rule. 2 Peete _ iy 15'= 8? 4@ Solution. cos = Ta IS cosA = 0.8545 Aon Yaa cee A=31.3" (1d.p.) Once again, store the: exact answer for later BZ Urheberrechilich geschiitztes(Complete Advanced Lavel Mathematics: Mechanics Now by the sine rule: sinB sinA A 8 11 x sin31.3° 8 =sin7) ‘11 x sin 31.3" basin ("saan sinB = B=45.6° (1dp.) Using the angles ina triangle: C= 180° - 31.3" — 45.6" = 103.1" (1d.p) 15N uN 148.7" an Angles between the forces are 76.9°, 146.7" and 134.4° as shown. 158 Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material7 Equilibrium: 7.3 Trigonometry and the Triangle of Forces Exercise Technique (1) a an bx J S— wW SN. Each diagram shows a particle in equilibrium under the action of three forces. Find the magnitude of the unknown force in each case, together with the angle it makes with the 15 N force. 2.| For this triangle of forces in equilibrium, find the magnitude of X in surd form and the angle with the 18 N force, correct to ‘one decimal place. 18N 3 | A particle is at rest in equilibrium under the action of forces of magnitude 23 .N, 18 N and 12 N. Find the angles between their lines of action. | The three forces shown hold a particle in equilibrium. a Whatis the magnitude of P when: e 2N i @=60° ii 0=90° iii 6=120" bb Whatis the value of when: i P=10N P ii P=16N iii, P=10N BN, Urheberrechtlich geschtiztes VB@ria‘Complete Advanced Level Mathematics: Mechanics Contextual 1 | Accrate is being pulled along horizontal ground at a constant speed by two horizontal ropes at 90° to each other, There is a horizontal resistance force. The tension in one rope is 14 N and the tension in the other is 12.5 N. What must be the magnitude of the resistive force, and what angle does it make with the 14 N force? ‘Two children are holding one end each of a skipping rope. Their dog is holding part of the rope in his teeth and is pulling away from them. The three forces are temporarily in equilibrium. The angle between the two parts of the rope is 75° and the two tensions are 8 N and 11.N. a What is the magnitude of the force exerted by the dog? b What angle does this force make with the 8 N force? [3 | As part of an experiment, three students attach force meters toa metal ring and exert forces that keep the ring in equilibrium. The forces are noted to be 6.8 N, 8.2 N and 5.9 N. What must be the angles between these forces? 4 | A spider of mass 0.03 is at rest in equilibrium part of the way along a single thread of silk. The angles betwen the silk thread and the weight force are 85° and 107°, Determine, by using the sine rule, the tensions in each part of the silk. 5 | A parachute jumper descends with a constant velocity for a certain part of his motion. Throe forces are acting; the weight of the man (including his equipment), the tension due to the parachute, the force of the air current (acting in a horizontal direction). If the mass of the man is 95 kg and the air current produces a force of 150'N, what is the magnitude of the tension and its angle from the vertical direction? 160 Urheberrechilich geschtitztes Material7 Equilibrium 7.4 Lami’s Theorem For three-force problems, a force diagram is replaced almost immediately with a triangle of forces. It would be more convenient if the mathematical method worked for the original force diagram. Where three concurrent forces are involved it has been necessary to use the trigonometrical formulas to calculate the unknown forces or angles in our vector triangle. The following method allows that to be done without the need to redraw the picture first. Lami’s theorem For the forces P, Qand Ri. at angles 2, 6 and y, Q as shown: P a This formula only applies for systems of forces that are in equilibrium. Overview of method Stop © Draw a clear force diagram. Step @) Substitute the known values into Lami's theorem, Stop @ Rearrange a pair of terms where three values are known, to salve for the other value. Ifall three terms contain an unknown value, then a different method should be used. Example An object is held in equilibrium by x three forces, as shown. Use Lamis theorem to find a and X. my 50" 75NComplete Advanced Level Mathomatics: Mechanics Solution Draw a clear force diagram. 75N ‘The angle between the 20 N and 75 N forces is (300° ~2). ‘Using Lami’s theorem: x zo 75 ‘ ‘Win@oo" —a) ~ sina ~ sin6o" <4@ Substitute into Lami’s theorem. 4 Solve for x. 20 x sin 60° = 75 x sina BO sn OO" a 0.2309 = sina 2= 134° (1dp) ‘This angle cannot possibly produce equilibrium, since « must be bigger than 90° to produce equilibrium. Another solution can be obtained from a sketch of the sine curve. 4% = 180"— 13.4° = 166.6" Now solve for X: x sin(300° — a) sin60" tenes 7 x — 73x sin(300° — 166.6") 2 = 166.6" but usothe sine stored value. | 75 x sin 133.4" 1S X = 63.0N (3s..) 162 Utheberrechitich geschitztes Material7 Equilibrium 7.4 Lami’s Theorem Exercise Technique a Q boR s as" aN 59° 143° 152° P 400N For each system of forces in equilibrium, use Lami’s theorem to calculate the magnitudes of the forces marked with letters. [2] Avodyis in oquilibrium under the, action of three forces, as shown. Calculate the magnitude of F e when: i @=50° li @=80° iii @=100° b Calculate @ when: i F=12N li F=16N iii F=6N 16.5. A force of 38 N is in equilibrium with twe others, whose lines of action are at 118° and 132” to the 38 N force, What are the magnitudes of the other two forces? ES} Calculate |¥| and |Z|, when: x a |X| =190N b |X| =46N Urhe errechtlich geschiitzteComplete Advanced Lavel Mathematics: Mechanics Contextual Two children are playing on a simple swing made from a rubber tyre on the end of a rope. One child helps the other to start swinging by pulling the tyre to om a The tyre has a mass of 50 kg and the child seated in the tyre has a mass of 20kg. What horizontal force is neodod to hold the tyre in equilibrium so that the rope is at 25° to the vertical? What will be the tension in the rope? b The two children swap places and the mass of the child who is now on the tyre is 35kg, If the rope is only deflected to 20° from the downward vertical to attain the starting equilibrium position, what is the magnitude of the horizontal force and the tension in the rope? © What assumptions have been made in modelling this situation? ‘A camper has set up a toreh in his tent by attaching it to the horizontal ridge pole, using two pieces of string. The lengths of string from the torch to the ridge are 2 cm and 21cm, They are tied to the ridge pole so that their ends are 35 cm apart. Calculate the angles the two strings make with the vertical direction. b If the mass of the torch is 300g, what will be the tensions in the two strings? G Before going to sloop, the camper hangs his watch on the end of the torch. If the mass of his watch is 15 g, what are the two tensions in the strings? [3] As part of a rescue operation, a man is lowered on a cable, down a cliff 164 face. At one point in his descent, he rests in equilibrium, so that the cable sat an angle of 3° to the vertical. His legs are braced against the rock face atan angle of 65° to the cliff. The tension in the cable is 870 N. a What is his mass? b> What is the magnitude of the thrust in his legs? s Material