Motivations behind the adoption of new mobile ICT products

Essay following the PhD summer school on Political Economy of ICT

Next Generation Mobile Media

Alexandre Fleury
Aalborg University
amf@es.aau.dk

September 30, 2009

Abstract
This document elaborates on the issue of motivational factors introduced partly in the paper
I presented during the course. I examine here the most common theoretical models and their
application to explain the individual factors that drive consumer adoption and usage of technology
in general and of next generation mobile media services in particular. The Technology Acceptance
Model appears to be the most popular approach, although its limitations might call for the design
of new models adapted to the emerging mobile media landscape.

1 Introduction
Knowing consumer incentives for adopting and using mobile technologies and services is crucial in
order to understand or anticipate the success or failure thereof. This is an important aspect of
my PhD thesis, which aims at studying the end user experience with mobile rich media services.
Understanding the motivations driving the adoption and usage of mobile media services as well
as the constraints preventing their use would indeed help explain the reasons behind a positive or
negative experience.
During the summer school on the political economy of next generation mobile media, lecturers
and participants presented and discussed their perspective on the definition of the new environ-
ment surrounding Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and the role of the various
contributors to the system in influencing this environment. Insights were provided from various
perspectives, ranging from infrastructure considerations to regulation issues. Eventually the ac-
tors’ decisions and actions in the environment has an influence on the final consumer’s decision to
adopt and use ICT systems. It is therefore essential to investigate the personal factors affecting
individuals and how these factors relate to the overall environment.

1.1 Definition considerations

According to W. Melody’s presentation on “Political Economy of ICT”, the driving forces and
interactions at play in the new ICT environment are organized according to Figure 1. It should be
noted that end users were originally not included in the diagram. One of the reason for omitting
explicit mention of end users is that their place on the diagram depends on the interest of the
person who interprets it. For instance, this paper considers end users as mobile media services
consumers hence interacting primarily with the technological applications, while being indirectly
influenced by economic and regulative forces.
Additionally, W. Melody uses the notion of knowledge economy to describe the type of economy
that relies on the interdependence between information and communication. As described in [16],
knowledge economies include the following characteristics:
Information infrastructure facilitating next generation knowledge economy activities
Information content generation and use, including Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) issues
Human capital as the principal producer, repository, disseminator and applier of information
and knowledge
Applications increasing productivity by improving capability, reducing transaction costs and
stimulating structural changes within organizations, industries and markets

1
 Structure and efficiency of new knowledge economy markets
International trade and its significance to a global knowledge economy
Furthermore, M. Fransman proposed the analogy of an ecosystem to represent the new ICT
economy illustrated in Figure 2. The four actors depicted in the diagram are either creators or
users of knowledge, and can alternatively be organized in layers, represented by the number above
each actor. The analogy between ICT and biology can be justified by the symbiotic nature of the
relationships between the various actors of the system.

Technologies Economy
4
consummers
Applications Prod/Services
3
2 platform,
network content &
operators applications
providers
Regulations
1
networked
element
Policies providers

Figure 1: The driving forces and their interaction, Figure 2: The four players and six symbiotic relation-
adapted from W. Melody ships in the new ICT ecosystem (source: [9])

1.2 Contribution scope

Numerous factors impact the consumers’ decision of adopting and using technology. The emphasis
of the work presented here is put on the individual motivations that influence consumer adoption
of technologies in general and next generation mobile media services in particular. Economic and
regulative drivers are eclipsed as it would require further research to integrate them in the broader
picture of the full new ICT ecosystem.
Additionally, in the perspective of including this work as part of my PhD thesis, my personal
interest on the end user point of view influenced the choice of focus for this work.

1.3 Outline
This document first presents in Section 2 a review of user acceptance theories and how each could
be applied to measure the acceptability of mobile rich media services. Then these methods are
evaluated in Section 3 in the light of empirical studies where their application has been reported
and assessed. Finally, Section 4 concludes on the combined results of those studies and open for
possible further research.

2 Theories exploring user adoption of technology

An extensive literature originating from sociology, psychology and social psychology has described
theoretical methods designed for investigating the drivers of technology adoption by consumers.
From the Theory of Reasoned Action to the Unified Theory of Action and Use of Technology, this
section briefly summarizes six popular approaches in use since the 1960s. Benefits and limitations
of the theories are also presented.

2.1 Theory of Reasoned Action

As depicted in Figure 3, the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) postulates that individual behavior
is driven by a behavioral intention, which is the composition of an attitude towards the behavior
and a subjective norm ([7]).
The attitude toward a behavior is defined by the individual’s positive or negative feelings about
performing the behavior. Determining this attitude consists in assessing the consequences of the

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behavior and the desirability of reaching these consequences. The attitude towards behavior can
therefore be measured as the sum of the products of consequences by their desirability.
The subjective norm corresponds to the assessment of how much the individual believes close
peers think the behavior should be performed. Additionally, subjective norm depends on the
individual’s willingness to satisfy the close peers’ wishes. The subjective norm can therefore be
expressed as the product of the individual perception by the willingness to please close peers,
summed for all peers considered.

Attitude towards
act or behavior

Behavioral
Behavior
intention

Subjective norm

Figure 3: Representation of the Theory of Reasoned Action, adapted from [8]

The first main limitation of TRA is the difficulty to actually distinguish attitude from norm, as
it has been argued that attitudes can be perceived as norms. The second critic expressed against
TRA concerns its assumption that behavioral intention comes with freedom to act whereas in
practice act is usually constrained. Additionally, TRA has not been designed specifically with IS
in mind and focuses on individual only; it does not consider economy-related factors.

2.2 Theory of Planned Behavior

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) reproduces most of TRA, although in TPB behavioral
intention is also function of perceived behavioral control. This addition aims at removing the
assumption of freedom to act associated with behavioral intention in TRA and other models ([7]).
In this model, behavioral control describes the individual perception of the difficulty to perform
a behavior. Additionally and contrary to TRA, the three components of behavioral intention
influence each other.

Attitude toward act

or behavior

Behavioral
Subjective norm Behavior
intention

Perceived
behavioral control

Figure 4: Representation of the Theory of Planned Behavior (source: [1])

TPB is a more complete model than TRA and is more management relevant as it focuses on
specific factors influencing user adoption and usage. However, like TRA it is not IS oriented and
does not consider economy-related factors.

2.3 Technology Acceptance Model

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is an adaptation of the TRA for the field of Information
Systems. As depicted in Figure 5, it discards the attitude construct and focuses on extrinsic
(perceived usefulness) and intrinsic (perceived ease of use) factors to determine the behavioral
intention of use, which leads to the actual system use ([3]).
According to the theory’s originating authors, perceived ease of use directly impacts both the
behavioral intention of use and the perceived usefulness.

3
 Since its publication TAM has been widely adapted to fit various experimental conditions by
introducing additional or alternative factors to the original model presented here. Examples of
specific adaptations are provided in section 3.

Perceived
usefulness

Behavioral
Actual system use
intention to use

Perceived ease of
use

Figure 5: Representation of the Technology Acceptance Model (source: [4])

TAM offers several advantages over the other models. For instance it appears more robust and
parsimonious in explaining IS adoption behavior. Additionally, it has been the most influential
model as hundreds of empirical studies used the TAM or an adaptation of it to their own evalua-
tion conditions [14]. Nevertheless, TAM includes the same shortcoming assumption on behavioral
intention implying freedom of act as TRA. Additionally, TAM does not consider economy-related
factors and excludes the possibility of influence from institutional, social and personal control fac-
tors. Finally, TAM has been criticized on its applicability outside the workplace environment for
which it has been originally created.

2.4 Motivation Theories

Psychological research has contributed to the attempt of understanding individuals’ motivations for
adopting information technology. The approaches figuring on the long list of models developed by
researchers generally distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic factors. On the one hand intrinsic
motivation focuses on the process of performing an activity. Perceived enjoyment, perceived fun
and perceived playfulness are common sources of intrinsic motivations. On the other hand extrinsic
motivation put the emphasis on the performance of the activity in helping achieving outcomes
considered valuable. Perceived usefulness is the most commonly used extrinsic motivation factor
([5]).
Additionally, motivation relies on the concept of self-control (or self-motivation) which measures
the willingness of an individual to gather intellectual faculties to perform a given task. For instance
[24] describes the expectancy theory that defines motivation as a combination of:
Valence the value of the perceived outcome
Instrumentality the belief that completing some actions enables achieving the outcome
Expectancy the belief of being able to complete the actions
Another interesting and relevant concept is the affect perseverance, described in [22]. It pos-
tulates that an emotional preference continues even though the source of the original emotion has
been removed. This concept is particularly useful when adapting a system which already received
positive feedbacks; its users may be willing to remain positively attached to it, although some
functions have been modified or removed.

2.5 Diffusion of Innovations Theory

As depicted in Figure 6, the Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI) segments a population according
to its willingness to adopt innovations. From innovators to laggards, each group presents a set of
distinctive characteristics, as follows:
Innovators venturesome, educated, multiple info sources
Early adopters social leaders, popular, educated
Early majority deliberate, many informal social contacts
Late majority skeptical, traditional, lower socio-economic status
Laggards neighbors and friends are main info sources, fear of debt

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 Early majority Late majority
(34%) (34%)
Early adopters Laggards
(13.5%) (16%)
Innovators
(2.5%)

Figure 6: Population segmentation according to the Diffusion of Innovations Theory (source: [21])

Additionally, DOI establishes diffusion as the process of communicating innovation through

certain channels over time among the members of a social system. This process follows the following
five steps:
Knowledge person becomes aware of an innovation and has some idea of how it functions
Persuasion person forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation
Decision person engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation
Implementation person puts an innovation into use
Confirmation on evaluates the results of an innovation-decision already made
DOI claims that IS implementation success depends on three factors: technical compatibility,
technical complexity and relative advantage. Further research adapted this model by adding vol-
untariness, image, result demonstrability, visibility and trialability ([21, 17]) as factors impacting
the adoption of IS. However, research has later demonstrated that the three factors used in the
original model (depicted in Figure 7) exert the most influence over adoption.

Technical
Technical Relative advantage
complexity
compatibility (perceived need)
(ease of use)

IS implementation
success
(adoption, infusion)

Figure 7: Representation of the Diffusion of Innovations Theory (source: [21])

2.6 Unified Theory of Action and Use of Technology

The Unified Theory of Action and use of Technology (UTAUT) is an attempt to explain both user
intention to use an Information System and subsequent usage behavior. It was developed from the
review of eight models previously used to describe IS usage behavior. In addition to the models
presented in this document, the models are a combined theory of planned behavior/technology
acceptance model, the model of PC utilization and the social cognitive theory ([23]).
According to this theory, an individual usage behavior is driven by behavioral intention and
facilitating conditions, where the latter is very close to perceived behavioral control from TPB and
depicts the degree to which individual believes that an infrastructure exists to support use of the
system of interest.
As depicted in Figure 8, this model describes behavioral intention as function of three con-
structs: performance expectancy, effort expectancy and social influence. Moreover, in addition to
the facilitating conditions, the impact of these constructs are mediated by the individual’s gender,
age, experience and voluntariness of use.

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 Performance
expectancy

Effort expectancy

Behavioral
Use behavior
intention
Social influence

Facilitating
conditions

Voluntariness of
Gender Age Experience
use

Figure 8: Representation of the Unified Theory of Action and Use of Technology (source: [23])

UTAUT can be considered as a more elaborate model as it results from the careful study of
previous theories. Additionally, it presents the advantage of being IS oriented, although it does not
consider economy-related factors.

3 Empirical studies and results

This section focuses on the application of the models discussed in Section 2 to the field of mobile
services. The focus is first put on how these models have been adapted to better fit a specific field
or experimental conditions. Additionally the section provides empirical results from the studies
introduced. The figures illustrating the models used in these studies are available in Appendix A.

3.1 General studies

The first study of interest concerns the assessment of factors that drive consumers’ usage behavior,
which has been reported in [10]. It relies on an adaptation of the decomposed version of TPB (see
Figure 10) to demonstrate that:
∙ attitude, social influence, media influence, perceived mobility and perceived monetary value
impact consumers’ intention to continue using mobile data services
∙ perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment influence consumers’
attitude toward continued usage of mobile data services
∙ individual usage context influences consumers’ behavior
Focusing on the Chinese market, [19] demonstrated that mobile voice service and innovation
experience influence greatly adoption of mobile data services while perceived ease of use and brand
experience affected it largely. The study, which relied on an adapted TAM (see Figure 11), demon-
strated that promotion of data services is best achieved when associated with perfect voice service
experience. This illustrates the importance of the affect perseverance concept and the need to
propose new services on top of existing successes.
Another adapted version of TAM described in [25] and depicted in Figure 12 presents interesting
and somewhat surprising findings. The results from the study show that consumers’ intention to
adopt and use mobile commerce services is significantly influenced by perceived risk, cost, com-
patibility and perceived usefulness. Perceived ease of use does however not significantly affect
behavioral intention directly but impacts perceived usefulness.

3.2 Study of specific factors

Some studies have put their focus on studying more uncommon drivers of user adoption or usage.
This section presents two of such noteworthy studies.

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 The first study ([2]) investigated the role of design aesthetics in driving users’ intention of
using mobile services. The study used an augmented version of TAM and found that aesthetics
did significantly influence perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and perceived enjoyment
(see Figure 13). Furthermore, the study revealed that loyalty is significantly impacted by both
perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment. Loyalty is another important factor highly tight to
affect perseverance, which has been shown to be function of perceived value early in the product’s
life cycle in [12].
While studying the impact of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors on performing an
activity, the study reported in [6] demonstrated that money generally decreases intrinsic motivation,
while verbal motivation increases it. The study argues that money is usually associated with
performance among children, employees and students. Therefore if large monetary rewards may
lead to increased performance, the individual feeling of depending on money will most likely decrease
intrinsic motivation.

3.3 The social influence

Few studies have focused their attention on the role played by the social environment on an indi-
vidual usage of ICTs. The authors of [11] used a modified version of TAM (see Figure 14) which
integrates social influence theory to explain the usage of MMS among pre-adopters (potential
users) and post-adopters (users). According to their findings, pre-adopters are mainly motivated
by technological factors while post-adopters are mostly influenced by social determinants. This
demonstrates the need for considering both types of drivers when releasing mobile media services.
Furthermore, [15] investigated the effect of a critical mass of users as a key element of user accep-
tance of groupware systems. Such system imply a high level of collaboration and cooperation among
users. The authors implemented a modified version of TAM (see Figure 15) and demonstrated a
strong effect (both direct and indirect through perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness) of
perceived critical mass on the intention to use groupware. This reveals the importance of knowing
that peers already use a system for an individual to consider using the system too.

3.4 Application to mobile video/TV

A growing number of authors has reported studies measuring specifically the individual drivers
behind mobile media consumption. For instance [18] classified the main social motivations behind
mobile video consumption. The study, which also demonstrated that mobile usage influences con-
tent choice (users prefer less focus demanding content), concluded that users would consume mobile
videos according to the following scheme of reasons:
1. Individual viewing
Managing solitude To appear purposeful rather than alone in socially uncomfortable sit-
uations
Disengaging from others To avoid possibilities of social contact or control the acoustic
environment
Managing transitions between spaces To kill time
2. Coordinating mobile experiences with family life
Juggling commitments As time-shifting solution to deal with family related commitments
without sacrificing airings of video material
Coordinating content with family To satisfy all family members in case of conflicting
preferences in terms of content choice
3. Watching at home
Allows greater flexibility in terms of location for watching, alone or in company of other family
members
4. Sharing the experience
Watching together To engage in discussing content, preferences, etc.
Showing video to others As a starting point for discussions, for generating humor or shar-
ing experiences
When it comes to mobile television consumption, [13] argues that such service holds a high
hedonic component that needs to be carefully considered. The authors examined the influence
of cognitive concentration (also referred as flow experience) and media content on the consumers’

7
 acceptance of mobile TV. An extended version of TAM (see Figure 16) was applied to demon-
strate that flow experience impacts significantly consumers’ intention to use hedonic information
technology and that content critically influences cognitive concentration.
Finally, the results from the first set of tests conducted in the CAMMP project1 demonstrate
that the two main drivers for mobile TV consumption in a social environment are the desire
to keep up-to-date (with news) and kill time. The study participants mentioned the similarity
between common “mobile” media consumption practices (listening to music/podcasts and reading
newspapers/books/magazines) and watching video content, thus reinforcing their intention of using
such mobile video service. Additionally, participants suggested that a high level of information
quality would be the prime motivator for online participation with user generated content, while
high scores would constitute an important driving forces when competition is involved in a mobile
service.

4 Conclusions and future work

This document reported and discussed theoretical models and their empirical application to various
products examined under various circumstances. This work constitutes the basis for a deeper
analysis of the field of motivation evaluation, relevant as part of my PhD thesis. The emphasis has
been strongly put on individual drivers for technology adoption and usage, which calls for further
analysis of other factors influencing such behavior, such as economical or regulatory forces. In the
continuity of the work within CAMMP on individual motivations for contributing to cooperative
and/or competitive mobile services, a future step could be to apply one of the models discussed here
to measure the determinants of cooperative/collaborative behaviors with mobile online services.
As a result of the review process of theoretical models and their empirical applications introduced
in this document, TAM appears to be the most popular model for evaluating individual motivations
behind various types of ICT services. Despite several attempts to offer more flexible, robust or
dedicated approaches, many authors grounded their evaluation of service acceptance on extrinsic
and intrinsic behavioral drivers originated by the originating authors of TAM.
Nevertheless, in a attempt to decrease the difficulty of adapting TAM to emerging mobile ICT
services, the authors of [20] propose a reviewed model (depicted in Figure 9). This model draws
on previous research and integrates factors relevant to the challenges specific to the new mobile
ICT landscape. However, it is noticeable that most empirical studies cited here have validated
their model through quantitative analysis (mainly large scale surveys) involving populations of
varying demographics. Validating this new model would therefore require extensive efforts in further
analysis in order to validate its determinants, propositions and assumptions.

Knowledge
Compatibility
Behavioral control
User predisposition Gender/Age
Image
Personal innovativeness
Perceived enjoyment

Perceived
usefulness

Perceived ease of Behavioral

Attitude
use intention

Interpersonal influence
Social influence
External influence

Promotion
Facilitating
Perceived security
conditions
Perceived privacy

Figure 9: Compound model introduced in [20], better adapted to the new ICT ecosystem?

1
http://www.cammp.aau.dk/

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 A Research models used in cited literature
This appendix includes the models used in the empirical studies presented in Section 3. The
diagram includes the level of significance of the factors of interest.

Attitudinal beliefs

Perceived Perceived ease of Perceived

enjoyment use usefulness

*** *** ***

Attitude

Normative beliefs
***

Social influence
*** Intention to
continue using
***
mobile media
service
Media influence

***
***

Perceived behavioral control

Perceived
Perceived mobility
monetary value

Figure 10: Research model used in [10] (all variables significant at ***: 𝑝 < 0.001, but significance level varies
depending on the service considered)

Brand experience Innovation Voice service

*
* *
TAM
Perceived
*
usefulness
*
Behavioral
* Attitude *
intention to use
*

Perceived ease of
use
*
*
*

Flow experience

Figure 11: Research model used in [19] (*: 𝑝 < 0.05)

10
 Compatibility Cost Perceived risk

** ** * **

Perceived Behavioral
** ** Actual system use
usefulness intention to use

** n.s.

Perceived ease of
use

Figure 12: Research model used in [25] (n.s.: not significant, *: 𝑝 < 0.05, **: 𝑝 < 0.01)

Perceived
usefulness

* ***
***

Perceived ease of
Design aesthetics * Loyalty
use

*
*** ***

Perceived
enjoyment

Figure 13: Research model used in [2] (*: 𝑝 < 0.05, ***: 𝑝 < 0.001)

Technology context

Perceived Perceived ease of Perceived user

usefulness use resource

***/** ***/ */

Intention to use

/*** **/ ***/***

Perceived critical
Social norm Social emotion
mass

Social context

Figure 14: Research model used in [11] (*: 𝑝 < 0.05, **: 𝑝 < 0.01, ***: 𝑝 < 0.001 for pre/post adopters)

11
 Perceived ease of
use

* *

*
Perceived critical *
Intention to use
mass groupware

* *

Perceived
usefulness

Figure 15: Research model used in [15] (*: 𝑝 < 0.05)

Content
**

**
Perceived
usefulness
** **
Cognitive n.s.
Intention to use
concentration mobile TV
** *
Perceived ease of
use

Figure 16: Research model used in [13] (n.s.: not significant, *: 𝑝 < 0.05, **: 𝑝 < 0.01)

12