’ Turbulence Modeling for CFD Third Edition by David C. Wilcox WEDTurbulence Modeling for CFD Third edition copyright © 2006 by DCW Industries, Inc. All rights reserved. First Printing: November, 2006 No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any in- formation storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from DCW. Industries, Inc, DCW Industries, Inc. 5354 Palm Drive, La Cafiada, California 91011 818/790-3844 (FAX) 818/952-1272 World Wide Web: http://www.dewindustries.com This book was prepared with ISTEX as implemented by Personal TEX, Inc. of Mill Valley, California. It was printed and bound in the United States of America by Birmingham Press, Inc., San Diego, California. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Wilcox, David C. Turbulence Modgling for CFD / David C. Wilcox-—3rd edition Includes bibliography, index and Compact Disk. 1, Turbulence-Mathematical Models. 2. Fluid Dynamics—Mathematical Models. Catalog Card Number 2006908990 ISBN 978-1-928729-08-2 (1-928729-08-8)Dedicated to my Wife BARBARA my Children KINLEY and BOB and my Dad ‘About the Author Dr. David C. Wilcox, was born in Wilmington, Delaware. He did his under- graduate studies from 1963 to 1966 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautics and Astronautics. From 1966 to 1967, he was employed by the McDonnell Douglas Aircraft Di- vision in Long Beach, California, and began his professional career under the . His experience with McDonnell Douglas focused on subsonic and transonic flow cafculations. From 1967 to 1970, he attended the California Institute of Technology, graduating with a Ph.D. in Aeronautics. In 1970 he joined TRW Systems, Inc. in Redondo Beach, California, where he performed studies of both high- and low-speed fluid-mechanical and heat-transfer problems, such as turbulent hypersonic flow and thermal radiation from a flame. From 1972 to 1973, he was a staff scientist for Applied Theory, Inc., in Los Angeles, California. He participated in many research efforts involving numer- ical computation and analysis of fluid flows such as separated turbulent flow, transitional flow and hypersonic plume-body interaction. In 1973, he founded DCW Industries, Inc., a La Cafiada, California firm en- gaged in engineering rescarch and book publishing, for which he is currently Pres- ident, He has taught several fluid mechanics and applied mathematics courses at the University of Southern California and at the University of California, Los Angeles. Dr. Wilcox has numerous publications on turbulence modeling, computational fuid dynamics, boundary-layer separation, boundary-layer transition, thermal ra- diation, and rapidly‘otating fluids. His book publications include texts entitled Elements of Fluid Mechanics, Basic Fluid Mechanics and Perturbation Methods in the Computer Age. He is an Associate Feliow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) and has served as an Associate Editor for the AIAA Journal.Contents — , Notation Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 Definition of an Ideai Turbulence Model oe 1.2 How Complex Must a Turbulence Model Be?. . . . 1.3. Comments on the Physics of Turbulence ..... . Importance of Turbulence in Practical Situations General Properties of Turbulence . . ss The Smallest Scales of Turbulence .... . Spectral Representation and the Kolmogorov “5/3 Law : The Law of the Wall... . wm . 13.6 PowerLaws ........- 1.4 A Brief History of Turbulence Modeling Problems ........ s Hage de aE ER 2 The Closure Problem 2.1 Reynolds Averaging. .... 0... 2.2 Correlations 2.3 Reynolds-Averaged Equations 2.4 The Reynolds-Stress Equation .. . 2.5 The Scales of Turbulence... . . . 2.5.1 ‘Turbulence Intensity . 2.5.2. Two-Point Correlation Tensors and Related Scales Problems... 0. eee eee eee eee 3 Algebraic Models 3.1 Molecular Transport of Momentum 3.2. The Mixing-Length Hypothesis 3.3. Application to Free Shear Flows . . v3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 CONTENTS 3.3.1 The Far Wake 3.3.2 The Mixing Layer 3.3.3 TheJet .. Modern Variants of the Mixing-Length Model 3.4.1 Cebeci-Smith Model 3.4.2 Baldwin-Lomax Model . Application to Wall-Bounded Flows... . 3.5.1 Channel and Pipe Flow ...... 3.5.2 Boundary Layers Le Separated Flows... . . The 1/2-Equation Model. Range of Applicability Problems e ‘One-Equation and Two-Equation Models 41 4.2 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 The Turbulence Energy Equation : One-Equation Models. 2... eee Two-Equation Models 43.1 The k-w Model . 43.2. The k-e Model . . + 43.3. Other Two-Equation Models... | - Closure Coefficients... 2.2.0.0... : Application to Free Shear Flows... . . 4.5.1 Developing the Similarity Solution 4.5.2. Numerical Solution 4.5.3 Sensitivity to Finite Freestream Boundary Conditions 454 Cross Diffusion... 0.0.0... 4.5.5 The Round-Jet/Plane-Jet Anomaly . Perturbation Analysis of the Boundary Layer 46.1 The Log Layer . 46.2 The Defect Layer........ 4.6.3 The Viscous Sublayer Surface Boandary Conditions 4.7.1 Wall Functions 1 4.7.2. Surface Roughness . 4.7.3. Surface Mass Injection... . . Application to Wall-Bounded Flows . . 48.1 Channel and Pipe Flow... . . 48.2 Boundary Layers... 0... Low-Reynolds-Number Effects 4.9.1 Asymptotic Consistency . 3 49.2 Transition... .......... 62 67 70 74 79 81 84 84 89 94 96 100 102 107 108 ~. WD 122 . 124 128 . 131 . 133 . 136 . 137 . 143 . 147 . 151 . 154 156 156 . 161 o FT 180 181 182 » 186 187 187 «189 . 192 193 . 200CONTENTS 4.10 Application to Separated ‘Flows 4.11 Range of Applicability ©... . . 49.3 Channel and Pipe Flow .... 4.94 Boundary-Layer Applications . . Problems 5 Effects of Compressibility ‘ 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 39 Physical Considerations . . Lee Favre Averaging... 22... 0... Favre-Averaged Equations Compressible-Flow Closure Approximations Reynolds-Stress Tensor... . . Turbulent Heat-Flux Vector Molecular Diffusion and Turbulent Transport . Dilatation Dissipation ©... ......... Pressure Diffusion and Pressure Dilatation . . Pressure Work 2.0.0... eee ua kw Model Equations for Compressible Flows... - Mixing-Layer Compressibility Corrections... . . a 5.5.1 The Sarkar/Zeman/Wilcox Compressbilty Corrections 5.5.2 Applications Compressible Law of the Wall... . 5.6.1 Derivation... . . 5.62 The Effect of Cross Diffusion Compressible Boundary Layers... . rae Shock-Induced Boundary-Layer Separation ©... 2.2... 5.8.1 The Earliest Applications : 5.8.2. The Use of Wall Functions for Shock-Separated Flows 5.8.3 The Next Two Decades of “Progress” . . 5.8.4 Effect of the Stress Limiter on Shock-Separated Flows 5.8.5 Transonic Flow Over an Axisymmetric Bump 5.8.6 Mach 2 Flow Past a Backward-Facing Step 5.8.7 Mach 3 Compression Comers and Reflecting Shocks. 5.8.8 Mach 11 Reflecting-Shock... 2... 5.8.9 The Reattachment Point Heat-Transfer ‘Anomaly . 5.8.10 Three-Dimensional Applications . Summary Problems vii . 210 212 2. 218 .. 227 . 230 239 239 . 241 243 . . 249 . 250 . 250 « «250 +e «277viii CONTENTS 6 Beyond the Boussinesq Approximation 303 6.1 Boussinesq-Approximation Deficiencies . . 303 6.2 Nonlinear Constitutive Relations... . . 308 6.2.1 The Earliest Formulations... . . 308 6.2.2 Algebraic Stress Models... . . 31 6.2.3 Relation to the Stress Limiter . . 317 624 LagModel ............ . 320 63 Stress-Transport Models 2... eee 322 6.3.1 Closure Approximations... .. . eee eee 323 6.3.2 Launder-Reece-Rodi Model ... . . 330 6.3.3 Wilcox Stress-w Model... 0.2... 0.0000 . 332 6.4 Application to Homogeneous Turbulent Flows . 334 6.5 Application to Free Shear Flows... .. . . 340 6.6 Application to Wall-Bounded Flows ...........- » 343 6.6.1 Surface Boundary Conditions/Viscous Modifications . . . 343 6.6.2 Channel and Pipe Flow . 348 6.6.3 Rotating Channel Flow . 351 6.6.4 Boundary Layers . . 352 6.7 Application to Separated Flows . 361 6.7.1 Incompressible Backward-Facing Step . 361 6.7.2 Transonic Flow Over an Axisymmetric Bump . 365 6.7.3 Mach 3 Compression Comers and Reflecting Shocks . . 366 6.7.4 Hypersonic Shock-Separated Flows... . 2. 370 6.8 Range of Applicability . Thee . 371 Problems 373 7 Numerical Considerations 381 7.1 Multiple Time Scales and Stiffness . 381 7.2 Numerical Accuracy Near Boundaries . . 383 7.2.1 Solid Surfaces - 383 722 Turbulent/Nonturbulent Interfaces... 2... . 387 7.2.3. Sensitivity to Freesiream Boundary Conditions . . 395 7.24 Viseous-Interface Layer... . . . . 397 7.3. Parabolic Marching Methods... .. . . » . 399 7.4 Elementary Time-Marching Methods » . 403 7.5. Block-Implicit Methods...... 2... .. 409 7.6 Solution Convergence and Grid Sensitivity . cee 4d 7.6.1 Iteration Convergence and Grid Convergence . . 2 414 7.6.2 Richardson Extrapolation bese .. 416 7.6.3 Grid Convergence Index .. 4I7 7.6.4 Near-Wall Grid-Point Spacing . . .. 418 Problema 2. cs cee seme cwe « 420CONTENTS 8 New Horizons 8.1 Background Information .... . . 8.2 Direct Numerical Simulation 8.3. Large Eddy Simulation... .. . 83.1 Filtering... .. ee 8.3.2 Subgrid-Scale (SGS) Modeling 83.3 “Off the Wall” Boundary Conc 8.3.4 Applications 8.4 Detached Eddy Simulation . . . . 8.4.1 DES-Blending Functions . 8.4.2 Applications»... . 8.5 Chaos ...... 8.6 Further Reading . Problems A Cartesian Tensor Analysis Problems B_ Rudiments of Perturbation Methods Problems ...... Companion Seftware Bibliography Index. 427 428 431 436 . 437 440 442 . 444 446 446 =) 451 - 452 455 - 456 459 . 464 465 475 477 479CONTENTS:Notation ’ This section includes the most commonly used notation in this book. In order to avoid departing too much from conventions normally used in literature on turbulence modeling and general fluid mechanics, a few symbols denote more than one quantity, English Symbols Symbot a asjRt An: Bas Cn» Dn, At Ay bij ny Definition Speed of sound; strain rate Tensor in rapid-pressure-strain term Coefficients in tridiagonal matrix equation Van Driest damping coefficient Slow pressure-strain tensor Dimensionless Reynolds-stress anisotropy tensor Skin friction based on edge velocity, 7,, /(4pU2) Skin friction based on freestream velocity, r,,/(4pU2,) Specific heat for constant pressure, volume Additive constant in the law of the wall Kolmogorov constant Pressure coefficient, (P — P..)/(}pU2,) Smagorinsky constant LES cross-term stress tensor Turbulent transport tensor Stress-limiter strength Distance from closest surface Drag per unit body width; diameter The tensor rin, m [O25 + TymOUm (Ox; Specific internal energy ‘Total energy Energy spectral density xiK(n) Kn lmtp bmix La Lig Mises M. M n N() Nort N(ui} NOTATION: Dimensionless self-similar dissipation rate Discretization error Longitudinal correlation function Vortex-stretching function Turbulence-flux vectors Dimensionless self-similar streamfunction Klebanoff intermittency function Mean-flow flux vectors Amplitude factor in von Neumann stability analysis LES filter Specific enthalpy Total enthalpy; channel height; shape factor, 5*/8 Heaviside step function Unit vectors in x, y, 2 directions Unit (identity) matrix Stress-tensor invariants ‘Two-dimensional (j = 0), axisymmetric (j = 1) index Specific momentum flux (flux per unit mass) Kinetic energy of turbulent fluctuations per unit mass Geometric progression ratio Surface roughness height Distortion parameter Dimensionless self-similar turbulence kinetic energy Knudsen number Turbulence length scale; characteristic eddy size Mean free path Mixing length von Kérmén length scale Characteristic length scale Reattachment length Leonard-stress tensor Molecular mass; round/radial jet index Magh number ‘Tensor in rapid-pressure-strain term Convective Mach number ‘Turbulence Mach number, V/2k/a Turbulence Mach number, ur /4.» Normal distance; number density Dimensionless self-similar eddy viscosity CFL number ‘Navier-Stokes operator Instantaneous static pressureNOTATION Pig P Py Pry Pio Pe Pry, Prr Ppt q% Ww day Dy Qe 4aQ 7, 0, @ R Rij Raby) R Relat’) Raj (x, tt") RP Rey Rey Re, Rig Ry s ay 58 5 Sig 5 Ser Sty Sur Sw Sp Sp t te T xiii Instantaneous momentum-flux tensor Mean static pressure; turbulence-energy production, 3; Production tensor, TimOU;/Oam + TjmOUi/ALm Net production per unit dissipation of k, w, € Laminar, turbulent Prandtl number Dimensionless pressure-gradient parameter, (v,,/pu?)dP/dx Heat-flux vector Surface heat flux Laminar, turbulent mean heat-flux vector LES stress tensor, Cj; + Rij Dependent-variable vectors Cylindrical polar coordinates Pipe radius; channel half height; perfect-gas constant SGS Reynolds stress tensor ‘Two-point velocity correlation tensor Radius of curvature Eulerian time-correlation coefficient Autocorrelation tensor Sublayer scaled radius or half height, u,R/v Reynolds number based on length L Turbulence Reynolds number, k!/2¢/v Sublayer scaled radius or half height, R* Turbulence Richardson number Near-wall turbulence Reynolds number, k}/?y/v Are length Instantaneous strain-rate tensor Source-term vectors Source term; shear rate Mean strain-rate tensor Oldroyd derivative of S;j Source terms in a similarity solution Dimensionless surface mass-injection function Dimensionless surface-roughness function Time Instantaneous viscous stress tensor Temperature; characteristic time scale Freestream turbulence intensity Instantaneous velocity components in x, y, 2 directions Instantaneous velocity in tensor notation Instantaneous velocity in vector notation Fluctuating velocity components in «, y, = directions Fluctuating velocity in tensor notation .Ulm) Umie ven Ue V(ny LY 2 Yn NOTATION Fluctuating velocity in vector notation Relative turbulence intensity, Vu?/Ue, Vv/Uc, Vw? /Ue Favre-averaged velocity components in xr, y, z directions Favre-averaged velocity in tensor notation Favre-averaged velocity in vector notation Favre fluctuating velocity components in x, y, 2 directions Favre fluctuating velocity in tensor notation Favre fluctuating velocity; fluctuating molecular velocity RMS fluctuating velocity components in x, y directions Temporal average of fluctuating velocities Friction velocity, \/7/ Pw Velocity perturbation vector Van Driest scaled velocity Mean velocity components in x, y, 2 directions Mean velocity in vector notation Shear-layer edge velocity Mean velocity in tensor notation Freestream velocity Dimensionless, sublayer-scaled, velocity, U/u, Maximum or centerline velocity Dimensionless self-similar streamwise velocity Mixing velocity Thermal velocity Surface injection velocity Dimensionless self-similar normal velocity Dimensionless self-similar specific dissipation rate Rectangular Cartesian coordinates Position vector in tensor notation ion vector in vector notation sublayer-scaled, distance, u,y/v y® at first grid point above surface Inner/outer layer matching point t Greek Symbols Symbol Ory Ors We Br Br y é Definition Defect-layer similarity parameters Bradshaw's constant Equilibrium parameter, (5° /rw)dP/de Specific-heat ratio, ep /ey Boundary-layer or shear-layer thicknessNOTATION bu: ’ P 5 On 85 a A(z) Aq, AQ Ag, Ay At Ry Ke Fw Amaz Her, ofa) xv Viscous-interface layer thickness Free shear layer spreading rate Displacement thickness, {j (1~ £4) dy Velocity thickness, f) (1 — #) dy Finite-difference matrix operator Kronecker delta LES filter width Clauser thickness, Wed" /u, Incremental change in q, Q Incremental change in x, Timestep Dissipation per unit mass Dilatation dissipation Solenoidat dissipation Dissipation tensor Permutation tensor Second viscosity coefficient; enstrophy Kolmogorov length scale; similarity variable Momentum thickness, jy) & 3 (Q = #) dy K4rmén constant; wavenumber; thermal conductivity Effective Karman constant for flows with mass injection Effective Karman constants for compressible flows Taylor microscale; RNG k-e model parameter Largest eigenvalue Molecular viscosity Eddy viscosity Inner-layer eddy viscosity Outer-layer eddy viscosity Kinematic molecular viscosity, j1/p Kinematic eddy viscosity, p1r/p Inner-layer kinematic eddy viscosity Outer-Jayer kinematic eddy viscosity Dimensionless streamwise distance Coles’ wake-strength parameter Pressure-strain correlation tensor Wall-reflection (pressure-echo) term Mass density Nonequilibrium parameter Kolmogorov time scale; turbulence dissipation time Micro-time scalexvi Ta Trernewer Tay Tews Tym Tez Tw u NOTATION Specific Reynolds stress tensor, —ujuj, Eddy turnover time Specific Reynolds shear stress, —u’0” Specific normal Reynolds stresses, —u’?, —v’?, —w'? Surface shear stress Kolmogorov velocity scale Xe Xo Dimensionless vortex-stretching parameter » Streamfunction Wks thes to Parabolic marching scheme coefficients w Specific dissipation rate; vorticity-vector magnitude Oy Mean-rotation tensor Other Symbol Definition of/0q Turbulence flux-Facobian matrix 88 /8Q Mean-flow flux-Jacobian matrix 8/0q Source-Jacobian matrix Subscripts Symbol Definition aw Adiabatic wall DES Detached Eddy Simulation DNS Direct Numerical Simulation e Boundary-layer-edge value eq Equilibrium value LES Large Eddy Simulation ° Centerline value sep Separation t Transition v ‘Viscous w Wall (surface) value 20 Freestream value Superscripts Symbol Definition + Subiayer-scaled value