Institution of Structural Engineers-Recommendations For The Permissible Stress Design of Reinforced Concrete Building Structures PDF

The Institution of Structural Engineers
February 1991
Recommendations for the

permissible stress design of
reinforced concrete building
structures
Published by the Institution of Structural Engineers

Constitution
D. K. Doran, BSc(Eng), DIC, FCGI, CEng, FIStructE, FICE (Chairman)
(Consulting Engineer)
W. E. A. Skinner, CEng, FIStructE, FICE, FHKlE (Vice-Chairman)
(Mitchell McFarlane & Partners)
A. N. Beal, BSc(Eng), CEng, MIStructE, MICE
(Thomason Partnership)
J . E. C. Farebrother, CEng, FIStructE, FICE, FCIArb
A. C. Morton, BSc(Eng), CEng, MIStructE
(Travers Morgan Group)
A. F. Mottram, BSc(Eng), CEng, MIStructE
(Lewisham District Surveyor's Office)
A. R. Pemberton; BSc(Hons), CEng, MIStructE, MICE
(Scott-White & Hookins)
D. J . Rolton, BSc(Eng), CEng, MlStructE
R. J . W. Milne, BSc (Secretary)
(The Institution of Structural Engineers)
Thanks are due to F. N. Pannell, BSc, MScTech, PhD, CEng, MIStructE, who
prepared the column design charts given in Appendix B.
01991: The Institution of Structural Engineers

This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal
Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any copying under the UK
Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means
without permission of the copyright owners.
Multiple copying of the contents of the publication without permission of the copyright
owners contravenes the aformentioned Act.
2 IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations

Recommendations for the permissible stress design of reinforced concrete
building structures
Amendment No. 2, August 2009
This amendment has been prepared in order to keep the document up to date, so that it may be used as an
alternative to BS 8110 or Eurocode 2. This amendment covers changes made in Amendments 1-4 to BS 8110-
1:1997, the introduction of BS EN 206-1, BS 8500-1 and BS 8500-2 and also changes in the Building Regulations.
Because some of the latest changes in these documents affect items which were previously altered in Amendment
Slip No. 1, for ease of use Amendment No. 2 is presented in consolidated form. It therefore supersedes Amendment
No. 1.
Background
BS 8110-1: 1997 reduced the materials safety factor on steel reinforcement compared with previous editions.
However the latest amendment to BS 8110 restores this partial safety factor to its previous value and the
characteristic stress of high tensile reinforcement is also increased from 460N/mm² to 500N/mm². In addition, the BS
8110 recommendations for specifying cover and concrete mixes for durability have been replaced by
recommendations in BS EN206-1 and BS 8500-1.
Amendments (the following text supersedes Amendment No. 1)

General
Throughout the document, all references to ‘concrete grade’ should be changed to ‘concrete strength class’, in
accordance with BS 8500.
2.1 Delete existing text and insert:
‘The cement, or combinations of cement with ggbfs or pfa should be in accordance with BS 8500-2 Table 1.’
2.2 Aggregates
Delete all and insert:
‘Aggregates should comply with BS 8500-2 Cl. 4.3.’
2.3 Reinforcement
Delete all and insert:
‘Reinforcement should be designated by its type and effective diameter and should comply with BS 4449, BS 4482
or BS 4483 as appropriate. Characteristic yield strengths are given in these standards as 250N/mm² for mild steel
and 500N/mm² for high yield steel.’
2.4.3 Specification
Delete ‘BS 1014’, insert ‘BS EN 12878’; delete ‘BS 5075’, insert ‘BS EN 934’.
Cl.2.5 Concrete
Delete existing text and insert:
‘Guidance on specifying concrete is given in BS EN 206-1 and BS8500. Concrete compressive strength class is
specified generally in terms of required 28 day cylinder strength and cube strength: e.g. strength class C32/40,
means that the cylinder strength is 32N/mm² and the cube strength is 40N/mm². The different types of mixes are
listed below.’
2.5.1, 2.5.2 and 2.5.3: delete and insert:
2.5.1 Designated concrete
A range of designated concrete mixes to cover most normal applications is specified in BS8500-2. BS 8500-1 gives
guidance on their use. Designated mixes are:
(i) GEN0, GEN1, GEN2 and GEN3 for non-structural and unreinforced concrete;
(ii) RC20/25, RC25/30, RC28/35, RC30/37, RC32/40, RC35/45, RC40/50 and RC40/50XF for reinforced
concrete;
Recommendations for the permissible stress design of reinforced concrete building structures – Amendment No.2, August 2009
The Institution of Structural Engineers Page 1 of 6
(iii) PAV1 and PAV2 for external hardstandings and concrete subjected to freezing when wet.
(iv) FND2, FND2Z, FND3, FND3Z, FND4, FND4Z and FND4M for foundation concrete subject to attack by
chemicals including sulphates.
2.5.2 Designed concrete
As an alternative to standard designated concrete mixes, designed concrete may be used. A designed concrete mix
is specified by its strength class (e.g. C25/30) plus any other specific design requirements such as minimum cement
content, maximum water/cement ratio, etc.
2.5.3 Prescribed concrete
For prescribed concrete, the specifier prescribes the composition and constituents of the concrete mix.
2.5.4 Standardised prescribed concrete
BS 8500-2 specifies a range of standardised prescribed concrete mixes for use on small sites where the concrete
will be site-batched, or obtained from a supplier without third-party accreditation.
2.5.5 Proprietary concrete
Proprietary concrete is designed and produced by a supplier to meet specified performance requirements. The
supplier must produce evidence to the third-party certifier or the specifier to show that the mix meets the specified
requirements.
Table 2 For high tensile steel, amend heading to ‘high yield steel to BS4449 and BS4483’ and increase pst to
275N/mm² and psc to 235N/mm².
3A.5 Loadings Delete ‘and CP3: Chapter V’.
3A.6.1 Table 1 delete ‘grade of concrete’, insert ‘concrete strength class’, in column 1 replace ‘15 ... 60’ with
‘C12/15, C16/20, C20/25, C25/30, C28/35, C32/40, C35/45, C40/50, C45/55, C50/60’.
3A.6.4 Shear Stress
Delete sentence: ‘Where d exceeds 400mm, the term 4√(400/d) should be taken as unity.’.
3A.8 Delete existing text and insert:
Increases of permissible stresses for wind forces or earth pressures
The permissible stresses in concrete and in the reinforcement may exceed those given in subsections 3A.6 and
3A.7, respectively, by not more than 25% in the following situations:
(i) where the increased stress is caused by wind loading, or
(ii) where the increased stress is caused by earth pressure calculated in accordance with BS8002 and water
pressure calculated on the basis of a maximum credible water level. (NB if water and earth pressures are
calculated in accordance with CP2, no increase in stress is permitted.)
3A.11 In beams, where fst = 275N/mm², the clear distance between bars in tension should not exceed 170mm.
Tables 5, 6 and 6c Replace with revised tables:
Table 5 – Anchorage bond and lap lengths as multiples of bar size for fully stressed bars
reinforcement type grade 250 grade 500 grade 500

plain deformed type 2 fabric (see
subsection 3A.6)
concrete strength class 25/30
tension anchorage and lap length 36 38 29
(see clause 3A.12.12)
compression anchorage length 25 26 20
compression lap length 31 33 25
Table 6 Basic span/effective depth ratios
steel tensile stress (N/mm²) 140 275
cantilever 9 6.9
simply supported 25 19.6
continuous 32 25.5
Table 6c Span/effective depth limits for slabs (pst = 275N/mm2)
total dead slab flat slab

and imposed
load, kN/m2 1-way 1-way cantilever 2-way 2-way no drops drops
simply continuous simply continuous
supported supported
5 30 41 12 34 47 38 42
10 26 35 11 30 42 33 37
20 23 31 9 26 37 29 32
Delete existing Note 1, insert:
‘Note 1: For pst = 140N/mm², ratios may be increased by 20%. Intermediate stresses may be interpolated.’
3A.12.6 Dimensions of hooks

Delete existing text and insert:
‘Where hooks are used, they should be of the U- or L- type shown in Fig. 4. In both types, for high-yield bars (type
‘H’):
(i) the internal radius of the bend should be at least 2 × bar diameter (bars up to 16mm diameter), or 3.5 × bar
diameter (bars 20mm or greater diameter)’;
(ii) the length of straight bar beyond the end of the curve should be at least 4 × bar diameter.’
Cl. 3B.2.1 Add at end:

‘the Table 6a modification factors for br /b = 1 can be calculated from the formula:
0.55 + 1.18/(0.6 + M/bd²) ≤ 1.6.
The Table 6b modification factors can be calculated from the formula
1 + (100Asc/bd)/(3 + 100Asc/bd) ≤ 1.5.’
3B.10.1 Table 10, Fig. 9
Delete ‘d ≥ 400’, insert ‘d = 400’.
3C.6.1 Shear at column face
Delete ‘3B.12’, insert ‘3B.11’.
3C.6.3 Shear reinforcement
Amend first and second paragraphs to read:
If the effective shear stress exceeds the permissible value pv, shear reinforcement should be provided. This may
take the form of links, bent-up bars or fabricated components. However the effective shear stress on the critical
perimeter should not exceed 2pv The design of bent-up bars or other components should be justified by established
theory and/or test data.
Links in flat slabs should be designed in a similar manner to those in beams, with Av taken as the total area provided
on one perimeter of links (see Clause 3B.10.2). Spacing of link legs along the perimeter should not exceed 1.5d.
Where the effective shear stress on the critical perimeter exceeds 1.75pv, the permissible stress pst in equation (19)
should be reduced: where the effective shear stress is 2.0pv, pst should be taken as 0.75 times the normal value;
intermediate values for stresses between 1.75pv and 2.0pv may be interpolated.’
3J.1.6 Air Entrainment
Delete ‘When concrete lower than grade 50 is used ... aggregate’ and insert
‘When concrete with strength class lower than C40/50 is used, the minimum air content by volume of fresh concrete
at the time of placing shall be: 5.5% for 10mm max. aggregate, 4.5% for 14mm max. aggregate, 3.5% for 20mm
max. aggregate, 3.0% for 40mm max. aggregate’.
Add paragraph at end:
“When air-entrained concrete is specified with a strength class of C32/40 or over, or with a cement content greater
than about 350kg/m3, problems may be encountered in achieving the required strength, compaction and surface
finish. The inclusion of air in concrete reduces the compressive strength and the concrete producer may increase
the cement content to achieve the specified compressive strength."
3J.1.7 Requirements for durability of concrete

Table 22 replace existing table with the following:
Table 22 Durability and concrete cover
Conditions of exposure Nominal cover to all reinforcement (mm) and designated concrete mixes
(BS 8500-1 exposure class) cover concrete cover concrete cover concrete
Internal except poorly ventilated rooms 25 RC20/25
with high humidity (XC1)
External concrete (general) 40 RC28/35 35 RC32/40 30 RC40/50

(XC3/4, XF1)
External concrete in coastal areas 50 RC40/50

(XS1)
External concrete subject to saturation 45 PAV1 40 PAV2 30 RC40/50XF
and freezing (no de-icing salts) (XF3)
Notes:
1. Refer to BS 8500-1 for recommendations for other exposure conditions and guidance on specifying
designed concrete.
2. Where cover is controlled by suitable spacers and checked by a supervisor before concreting, stated
nominal covers may be reduced by 5mm.
3. In no case should the nominal cover to main bars be less than the diameter of such reinforcement.
4. Concrete cast against blinding: nominal cover 50mm; concrete cast against earth faces: nominal cover
75mm.
Table 23 40mm aggregate: delete ‘-30’, insert ‘-20’.
3J.1.8 Reactive aggregates - alkali-silica reaction
At end: delete Concrete Society Report 30, add BRE IP 1/02, BS8500-1 and BS 8500-2.
3J.2 Resistance to chemical attack
Delete ‘Table 24 indicates the requirements for concrete exposed to sulphate attack’. Insert new para.:
‘Table 24 gives recommendations in accordance with BS8500 for 20mm aggregate concrete at least 140mm thick
exposed to sulphate attack in (i) natural ground with mobile water and pH > 5.5 or static water with pH > 3.5 or (ii)
brownfield site with mobile water and pH > 6.5 or static water with pH > 5.5. For concrete over 450mm thick, the
requirements of classes 2, 3 and 4 may be reduced by one class. A ‘brownfield’ site is one which might contain
chemical residues from previous industrial use or imported waste. For more detailed recommendations covering
other conditions and concrete mixes, refer to BS8500-1 and BS8500-2 and BRE Concrete in Aggressive Ground,
Special Digest 1.
Delete existing Table 24 (p. 81) and replace with the following:
Table 24 Recommendations for concrete exposed to sulphate attack
Design sulphate class Concentration of sulphate1 Designated concrete
In groundwater In soil or fill

SO4 (g/l) By 2:1 water:soil/extract
(SO4)
1 <0.4 <0.5 RC28/35
2 0.4 to 1.4 0.5 to 1.5 FND2
3 1.5 to 3 1.6 to 3.0 FND3
4 3.1 to 6 3.1 to 6 FND4

Notes:
1. Classification by groundwater samples is preferred. For analysis methods, see BS1377 Part 3
and BRE Research Report 279, which also gives methods for magnesium. To convert SO3 results
to SO4, multiply by 1.2.
2. For sulphate class 4, designated concrete FND4m should be specified if Mg exceeds 1g/litre in
groundwater or 1.2g/litre in water/soil extract.
3. Designated concrete FND mixes are strength class C25/30.
4. For more detailed guidance, including specification of designed concrete mixes, see BS 8500-1.
3K.1 General
Add at end:
‘Table 25 is based on the recommendations in BS8110-2. Alternatively, the cover recommendations in BS8110-1
may be used.’
3L.1.5 Delete
3L.2 Ties
(iii) Add at end: ‘Horizontal ties should be connected directly and robustly to the vertical structure. For columns, this
can generally be achieved by ensuring that a minimum of two bottom bars in each direction pass through the
column. Where top bars are used as ties, they should be restrained by links.’
(iv) Delete and insert:
Vertical ties Each column and wall carrying vertical load should be continuously tied from the lowest to the
highest level. The tie should be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to the maximum load received by the
column or wall from any one storey, calculated in accordance with 3L.4. Where a column or wall is supported at
its lowest level by an element other than a foundation, the structural layout should be carefully checked to
ensure that there is no inherent weakness and that adequate means exist to transmit the dead, imposed and
wind loads safely from the highest supported level to the foundations.
Insert:
‘(v) Bars should be lapped, welded, or mechanically jointed together in accordance with 3A.12.11-16. A tie may be
considered anchored to another tie at right angles if the bars of the former tie extend either 12 diameters or
equivalent anchorage beyond all the bars of the other tie, or an effective anchorage length (based on the force
in the bars) beyond the centre-line of the bars of the other tie. At re-entrant corners or at substantial changes in
construction, care should be taken to ensure that the ties are adequately anchored or otherwise made
effective.’
3L.3 Acceptable limits of damage
For buildings in Class 2B of Building Regulations Approved Document A which do not comply with the requirements
of subsection 3L.2, the structure should be designed such that if any element of structure were to fail or be forcibly
removed, due to misuse or accident, the structural failure consequent on such removal would be localized within an
area not exceeding 70m² or 15% of the area of the storey, whichever is less. Furthermore, the failure would be
localized within the storey in which the element occurs, the storey next above (if any) and the next storey below (if
any).
Where the removal of such an element would result in an extent of damage exceeding the above limit, then the
element should be designed as a ‘key element’ in accordance with 3L.5.
3L.5 Key elements and Bridging elements (where required in buildings of Building Regulations Approved
Document A Class 2B or Class 3)
Where a structural member is deemed to be a ‘key element’, the member and its supports should be capable of resisting a
load of 34kN/m² acting in any direction on the whole surface of that member plus any building components attached to it,
with reactions from the latter limited to the maximum that might reasonably transmitted taking into account the strength of
the attached components and their connections. If a vertical key element relies on a horizontal member for stability, the
relevant horizontal member (or part of the horizontal member) should also be considered as a key element.
Bridging elements should be designed by considering, at each storey in turn, the loss of each vertical loadbearing
element in turn (other than key elements). If catenary action is assumed, allowance should be made for the
horizontal reactions necessary for equilibrium. In this analysis, the length of loadbearing wall considered as a single
element should be either the length between adjacent lateral supports or between a lateral support and a free edge,
subject to a maximum of 2.25 times the storey height. For the purposes of this analysis, a lateral support to a
loadbearing wall is either (a) a stiffened section of the wall (maximum 1m length) capable of resisting a horizontal
force of 1.5Ft kN/m, or (b) a partition (mass at least 100kg/m²) at right angles to the wall, connected with ties capable
of resisting 0.5Ft kN/m, where Ft = 20+4no < 60 (no = number of storeys).
5.1.1, 5.1.2 Delete ‘BS 5328’, insert ‘BS 8500’
5.2.2 Delete ‘BS4466’, insert ‘BS8666’.
6.1Methods of testing concrete
After ‘BS1881’ insert ‘and in BS EN 12350, BS EN 12390 and BS EN 12504’; after ‘BS 812’ insert ‘BS EN 933, BS
EN 1097, BS EN 1367 and BS EN 1744’. Delete last sentence.
Appendix A replace references to ‘BS 882’ with ‘BS EN 12620’.
TECHNICAL NOTES (p. 122)
Delete note on Clause 3C.6.3.
. .. . .._,
.... . .. ._-._ . -. . . .. -- -, -
, . ,..
. -..i
.- .
.. . .: .
r
. ..
Contents page number
Foreword 11
1 General 13
1 . 1 scope 13
1.2 Definitions 13
1.3 Symbols 14
2 Materials 17
2. ICements, ground granulated blastfurnace slags and pulverized-fuel ashes 17
2.2 Aggregates 17
2.3 Reinforcement 17
2.4 Admixtures 17
2.4. I General 17
2.4.2 Types 18
2.4.3 Specification 18
2.5 Concrete 18
2.5.1 Designed mix 18
2.5.2 Special prescribed mix 19
2.5.3 Ordinary prescribed mix 19
2.6 Nominal mixes 19
3 Design considerations 20
3A General 20
3A. 1 Basis of design 20
3A. 1.1 Method of design 20
3A.1.2 Momcntsof inertia 20
3A.2 General stability 20
3A.3 Complete structures and analysis of structural frames 21
3A.3.1 General 21
3A.3.2 Frames supporting vertical loads only 21
3A.3.3 Frames supporting vertical and lateral loads 21
3A.3.4 Stress reversal 21
3A.4 Overturningstability 21
3A.5 Loadings 22
3A.6 Permissible stresses i n concrete 22
3A.6.1 Compressive and bond stresses and elastic modulus 22
3A.6.2 Compressive stress 22
3A.6.3 Modular ratio method 22
3A.6.4 Shear stress 23
3A.6.5 Bond stress 24
3A.7 Permissible stresses in reinforcement 24
3A.7.1 General 24
3A.7.2 Tensile stress 24
3A.7.3 Compressive stress 24
3A.7.4 Tensile stress due to shear 24
3A.8 Increases in permissible stresses due solely to wind forces 24
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccommcndations 3

. -
3A.9 Calculation of resistance moments of beams and slabs 25

3A.9.1 Basisof method 25
3A.9.2 Formulae for rectangular beam and slab sections 26
3A.9.3 FormulaeforT-or L-beams 28
3A.10 Concrete cover 29
3A.11 Distance between bars 29
3A. 12 Bond and anchorage 29
3A.12.1 Barsin tension 29
3A.12.2 Bars in compression 30
3A.12.3 Avoidance of bond failure 30
3A.12.4 Bearing stresses on bends 30
3A.12.5 Hooks and other anchorages 31
3A.12.6 Dimensionsof hooks 31
3A.12.7 Effective anchorage lengths for U- and L-hooks:
high-yield bars 31
3A.12.8 Effective anchorage lengths for U- and L-hooks:
plain bars 32
3A.12.9 Links in beams and transverse ties in columns 32
3A.12.10 Shear reinforcement 32
3A. 12.11 General requirements for connecting reinforcement 32
3A.12.12 Tension laps 32
3A.12.13 Compression laps 33
3A.12.14 Anchorage bond and lap lengths 33
3A. 12.15 Effective perimeter 33
3A. 12.16 Groups or bundles of bar 34
3A.13 Joints, crack control and minimum reinforcement requirements 34
3B Beams and slabs

3B.1 General
35
35
I
I
3B.l.l Effectivespan 35
3B.1.2 Slenderbeams 35
3B.1.3 Minimum reinforcement 35
3B.1.4 Compression reinforcement in beams 35
3B.1.5 T-beams 36
3B.1.6 L-beams 36
3B. 1.7 Effect of wear 36
3B.2 Deflection and stiffness of members 36
3B.2.1 General 36
3B.2.2 Simplified rules for slabs 38
3B.3 Bendingmoments 38
3B.4 Bending moments and shears in beams and slabs spanning
in one direction 39
3B.4.1 Calculation of bending moments 39
3B.4.2 Detailingof beams 40
3B.4.3 Detailingof slabs 40
3B.5 Slabs spanning in two directions at right-angles with
uniformly distributed loads 40
3B.6 Trimmings for openings 42
3B.7 Distribution of concentrated loads on slabs 44
3B.8 Bearings for slabs on steel joists 45

~~~
r. I.-- . 7 -
~ ~ ~
r - ”.
- -
3B.9 Slabs: ribbed and hollow-block construction 15
3B.9.1 General 45
3B.9.2 Blocks and forms 45
3B.9.3 Topping 46
3B.9.4 Calculation of resistance moment 46
3B.9.5 Resistance toshear 46
3B.9.6 Thickness of topping 46
3B.9.7 Size and spacingof ribs 46
3B.9.8 Reinforcement in ribs 46
3B.9.9 Supports parallel to ribs 47
3B.10 Resistance toshear 47
3B. 10.1 General 47
3B.10.2 Shear reinforcement 49
3B. 11 Loads near supports of beams: shear enhancement 49
3B. 12 Deep beams 50
3B. 13 Torsional resistance of beams 50
3B.13.1 General 50
3B. 13.2 Calculation of torsional rigidity 50
3B.13.3 Torsional shear stress 51
3B.13.4 Limit toshear stress 52
3B. 13.5 Reinforcement for torsion 52
3B.13.6 Torsion reinforcement 52
3B.13.7 Arrangement of links in T-, L- or
I-sections 53
3C Flat slab construction 53

3C.1 General 53
3C.2 Methodsofdesign 53
3C.3 Division of panels 54
3C.4 Notation for flat slab construction 54
3C.5 Thickness of slab 55
3C.6 Shear stresses in flat slabs 55
3C.6.1 Shear at column face 55
3C.6.2 Slabshear 55
3C.6.3 Shear reinforcement 57
3C.6.4 Openings 57
3C.7 Openings in panels 58
3C.8 Concentrated loads 58
3C.9 Bending moments in edge panels 58
3C.9.1 Slab supported by marginal beam 58
3C.9.2 Edge moments 58
3C.10 Column heads 58
3C. 11 Design of flat slabs as continuous frames 60
3C. 11.1 General 60
3C. 11.2 Bending moments and shearing forces 60
3C.11.3 Stiffnessof members 60
3C. 11.4 Maximum bending moments in slabs 60
3C.11.5 Design momentsforflatslabs 60.
3C.11.6 Design moments in columns 61
3C.11.7 Arrangement of reinforcement 61
IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations 5

~
- . ---_
3C. 12 Emperical design of flat slabs 61

3C. 12.1 General 61
3C. 12.2 Applicability of method 61
3C.13 Critical sections for bending moments in flat slabs 62
3C. 14 Bending moments in flat slab panels 62
3C. 15 Widths of reinforcing bands 62
3C. 16 Arrangement of reinforcement in flat slabs 62
3C. 17 Bending moments in columns 64
3D Stairs 64
3D. 1 Distribution of loading on stairs 64
3D.2 Effective span of stairs 64
3E Columns 66
3E. 1 Reinforcement in columns 66
3E. 1.1 Longitudinalreinforcement 66
3E.1.2 Transverse reinforcement 66
3E.2 Permissible loads on columns 67
3E.2.1 Axially loaded columns 67
3E.2.2 Columnssubject to both direct load and bending 67
3E.2.3 Elastic theory 69
3E.2.4 Overturning 69
3E.2.5 Reduction coefficients for columns 70
3E.2.6 Bending moments in columns 71
3F Reinforced concrete walls 72

3F.1 General 72
3F.2 Permissible loads 72
3F.3 Walls subjected to concentrated loads 73
3F.4 Shear stresses 73
3G Bases and pile caps 73

3G.1 Bases for reinforced columns and walls 73
3G.l.l Bendingmomentsin bases 73
3G.1.2 Reinforcement in bases 73
3G.1.3 Shear 73
3G.1.4 Bond in reinforcement of bases 73
3G. 1.5 Pockets for precast members 74
3G.1.6 Massconcrete bases 74
3G.2 Pile caps 75
3H Reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete 75

3H.1 General 75
3H.2 Permissible stresses in reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete 75
3H.3 Deflection and stiffness 76
3H.4 Permissible loads on columns 76
3H.5 Reinforced concrete walls 76
3H.6 Modular ratio 76
3H.7 Cover 76

35 Durability and resistance to chemical attack 77
35.1 Durability 77
35.1.1 General 77
35.1.2 Drainage 77
35.1.3 Waterlcement ratio 77
33.1.4 Chloride content of mixes 77
35.1.5 Admixtures 77
35.1.6 Air entrainment 77
35.1.7 Requirementsfordurabilityofconcrete 78
35.1.8 Reactive aggregates-alkali-silica reaction 79
33.1.9 Finishingand curing 79
35.2 Resistance to chemical attack 79
3K Resistance to fire 80
3K.1 General 80
3K.2 Robustness 80
3K.3 Elementsexposcd to fire 80
3K.4 Aggregates 80
3K.5 Average cover to main bars 82
3K.6 Cover to secondary bars 82
3K.7 Contribution tocover of additional protection 82
3K.8 Floor thickness 82
3K.9 Beam width 82
3K. 10 Beams and ribs 82
3K. 11 Continuity 85
3K. 12 Use of tabular data (Table 25) 85
3L Stability and disproportionate collapse 85

3L. 1 Stability 85
3L. 1.1 General 85
3L.1.2 Planform 85
3L.1.3 Vehicle impact 86
3L.1.4 Accidental loads 86
3L. 1.5 Exceptions 86
3L.2 Ties 86
3L.3 Acceptable limitsofdamage 87
3L.4 Loads 88
3L.5 Key elements 88
3L.6 Stresses 88
4 Precast and composite construction 89

4.1 Gcneral 89
4.2 Detailing 89
4.2.1 Handling stresses 89
4.2.2 Conncctions 89
4.2.3 Anchorage at supports 89
4.3 Stability 89
4.4 Framed structures and continuous beams 90
4.5 Design of slabs 90
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations 7

4.5.1 Wide unitsorseriesofjointed narrow units 90
4.5.2 Conccntratcd loads on slabs without rcinforccd topping 90
4.5.3 Conccntratcd loadson slabswith reinforced topping 91
4.5.4 Slabs carrying conccntratcd loads YI
4.6 Bearings for precast mcmbcrs 91
4.6.1 General 91
4.6.2 Net bcaringwidth 91
4.6.3 Effective bcaringlcngth YI
4.6.4 Pcrmissiblc bcaring strcss 91
4.6.5 Allowances for spalling at supports Y3
4.6.6 Allowances for construction inaccuracics 93
4.7 Bearings transmitting comprcssive forccs from abovc 93
4.8 Horizontal forces at bcarings 94
4.9 Rotation of bearingsof flcxural mcmbcrs 94
4.10 Concrete corbcls 94
4.1 I Continuousconcrete nibs 94
4.12 Conncctions between prccast units 95
4.13 Site information 95
4.14 Continuity of reinforcement Y5
4.14. I LOOPS
I
95
4.14.2 Slccves 95
4.14.3 Thrcadingof rcinforccmcnt 06
4.14.4 Welding 96
4.15 Otherconncctions 96
4. 15. 1 Jointswith structural steel inscrts Y6
4.15.2 Resin adhesives 96
4.15.3 Compressivc joints Y6
4.16 Joints transmittingshear Y6
4.17 Composite construction 97
4.17.1 Gcncral 97
4.17.2 Horizontal shearstresscs 98
4.17.3 Nominal links 98
4.17.4 Designed links YY
4.17.5 Vertical shear YY
5 Workmanship 100
5.1 General LOO
5.1.1 Concrete quality 100
5.1.2 Transportation 100
5.1.3 Placing 100
5.1.4 Curing 100
5.1.5 Concreting in cold weather 101
5. I .6 Concreting in hot weather and drying winds 101
5.2 Reinforcement 10 I
5.2.1 Specification 101
5.2.2 Cuttingand bending 10I
5.2.3 Fixing 101
5.2.4 Surface condition 102
5.2.5 Welding 102
5.2.6 Mechanical splices 102
IStructE RC pcrrnissiblc strcss rccommcndations

5.3 Formwork 102
5.3.1 Design and construction 102
5.3.2 Cleaning and treatment of forms 102
5.3.3 Strikingof formwork 102
5.3.4 Camber 103
5.3.5 Tolerances 103
6 Testing and inspection 104

6.1 Methodsof testing concrete 104
6.2 Rate of strength testing 104
6.3 Inspection 104
6.4 Load testing of structures or parts of structure 104
6.4.1 104
6.4.2 104
6.4.3 104
6.4.4 Assessment of results 105
6.4.5 Test criteria 105
7 Protection, maintenance and repair 106 I

7.1 General 106
7.2 Protection 106
106 ,
7.3 Maintenance
7.4 Repair 106 ,
Appendix A Nominal concrete mixes 107

Appendix B Column design charts 109
Technical notes 122
Index 123

Foreword
Limit-state design became enshrined in British Standards with the publication in
1Y72 of CP 110: The structural use of concrete. However since that time a significant
numbcr of engineers have expressed a wish to maintain permissible stress methods.
In the spring of 1987 the Institution held a referendum which posed the question
‘Should permissible stress codes such as CP 114 and BS 445, be updated and made
available for design purposes, in addition to partial factor codes such as BS 8110 and
BS SYSO?’ The corporate membership voted in favour of retention by 2366 votes to
650.
Subscquently a Task Group was formed to ‘draft a Type T1 Design Code for
permissible stress design of reinforced concrete structures’. We were fortunate in
having available a base document popularly known as the ‘red book’, a revised
version of CP I14 prepared and circulated by the Campaign for Practical Codes of
Practice. We wcrc also able to gain advantage from the considerable volume of
public comment concerning the red book. Partly as a result of these comments we
have added sections on torsion and precast and composite construction.
The Task Group is confident that designs made using these recommendations will
either match with or be slightly more conservative than for those using BS 8110. I t
is o u r hope that we have produced simple rules for those who feel more comfortable
using permissible strcss methods. Our efforts have received support from the
London District Surveyors Association and other bodies who find the method
acceptable.
May I thank all members of the Task Group for their professionalism and tireless
endeavour; independent engineers who have been constructive in their technical
comments; to all who responded during the period for public comment -their work
has helped enormously in shaping our final document. Finally, may I pay tribute to
our Secretary Robert Milne w h o has, with patience and good humour, kept us on
the road to our final goal.
DAVID DORAN
Chairman of Task Group

Previous page
is blank
1 General
1.1 Scope
This manual gives practical recommendations for the design of reinforced concrete
building structures using working loads and working stresses, and is a comprehensive
revision of CP 114: 1969 The structural use of reinforced concrete in buildings
extended to incorporate precast and composite construction. The recommendations
do not cover prestressed concrete or reinforced concrete construction of a specialized
character such as water-retaining structures. Nor do they cover the structural use of
concrete made with high-alumina cement.
The recommendations are based on the assumption that the design of reinforced
concrete is entrusted to chartered structural or civil engineers, for whose guidance
the documcnt has been prepared and that the execution of the reinforced concrete
work is carried out under the direction of a qualified supervisor.
Where other structural materials such as masonry, steel, timber, etc., are used
in conjunction with reinforced concrete, reference should be made to design Codes
covering their use and particularly in relation to safeguards against disproportionate
collapse.
The recornmendations given in this manual are intended to apply to all normal
reinforced concrete building structures without limitation of size, although for
special or complex structures reference to specialist literature or other design
guidance may be appropriate.
1.2 Definitions
Bedded bearing A bearing with contact surfaces having an inter-
mediate padding of cementitious material
Bearing length The length of support, supported member or inter-
mediate padding material (whichever is least) mea-
sured along the line of support
Bearing width The overlap of support and supported member
measured at right-angles to the line of support
Braced structure Structure where resistance to lateral forces is pro-
vided by cross-bracing, shear walls or other such
elements
Bundle of bars A group of not more than four bars in contact
Characteristic strength The characteristic cube strength of concrete is
defined in BS 5328
The characteristic strength of reinforcement is
defined in BS 4449
Column head An enlargement of the top of a column supporting
a flat slab so designed and constructed as to act
monolithically with both the column and the flat slab
Core of helically reinforced The portion of the concrete enclosed within the
column centre-line of the helical reinforcement
Drop The portion of a flat slab above and immediately
surrounding the column head and of greater thick-
ness than the remainder of the flat slab panel
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccornmcndations 13

Previous page
is blank
. .
Dry bearing A bearing with no intermediate padding material

Effective depth of a beam The distance between the centre of tension and the
or slab edge of the compression section
Effective diameter The diameter of a circle having an area equal to that
of a bar or bundle of bars
Effective span The lesser of the two following distances:
the distance between centres of bearings
the clear distance between supports plus the
effective depth of the beam or slab
Exterior panel in a flat slab A panel having at least one edge that .is non-
continuous
Flat slab A reinforced concrete slab with or without drops,
supported, generally without beams, by columns
with or without flared column heads
Net bearing width For a simple bearing, the bearing width after
deduction of allowances for ineffective bearing and
constructional inaccuracies
Simple bearing A supported member bearing directly on a support,
the effect of projecting steel or added concrete being
discounted
Wall A vertical loadbearing member whose length ex-
ceeds four times its thickness
1.3 Svmbols
equivalent area of helical reinforcement (volume of helix per unit length I
Ab
of column)
gross cross-sectional area of concrete, excluding any finishing material
gross cross-sectional area of concrete core
area of longitudinal reinforcement
cross-sectional area of bent-up bars
cross-sectional area of steel in compression
cross-sectional area of steel in tension
cross-sectional area of link
distance from nearest support to the section under consideration
distance from face of support to nearest edge of principal load
breadth of a rectangular beam or breadth of flange of a T- or L-beam
effective moment transfer strip from a flat slab to an edge column
breadth of the rib of a T- or L-beam
torsional constant
column width
diameter generally
effective depth to the tensile reinforcement in a beam
depth to the compressive reinforcement in a beam
depth of concrete in compression in a beam
depth to neutral axis
depth of slab forming the flange of a T- or L-beam
modulus of elasticity
I 14 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations

eccentricity of a load on a column
additional eccentricity of load on column due to buckling effects
P,~A,, or the anchorage value of the reinforcement, whichever is less
characteristic strength of concrete
stress in steel layer farthest from the compression face
stress in steel layer nearest to the compression face
stress in steel reinforcement
characteristic strength of reinforcement
shear modulus
overall depth
larger dimension of a rectangular section
smaller dimension of a rectangular section
stiffness of beam
stiffness of beam on one side of a column
stiffness of beam on the opposite side of a column
stiffness of lower column
stiffness of upper column
reduction coefficient for columns
coefficient depending on the ratio h,,,,/h,,,,
length of a column or beam between centres of support
(in flat slabs) length of panel in the direction of span
(in flat slabs) width of panel at right-angles to direction of span
limiting dimension for assessing tie forces in a floor to resist the effects of
accidental loading
average of L I and L2
effective span of beam or slab, or effective height of column
lever arm of the resistance moment
length of shorter side of slab spanning in two directions
length of longer side of slab spanning in two directions
bending moment (suffixes as required)
bending moment at end of beam framing into a column, assuming fixity at
both ends of the beam
the maximum difference between the moments at the ends of two beams
framing into opposite sides of a column, each calculated on the assump-
tion that the ends of the beams are fixed and that one of the beams is not
loaded
total panel moment in a flat slab
moment of resistance of a section to bending
moment transferred to a column from a flat slab
maximum bending moments, for spans I, and ly, respectively, on strips of

unit width in slabs spanning in two directions
moment capacity of a column for uniaxial bending about x- and y-axes,

respectively
modular ratio
sum of perimeters of the bars in the tensile reinforcement
direct load on a column
column section capacity for eccentric load
column section capacity for axial load
permissible stress in concrete in average bond
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations 1s

..
Ph permissible stress in concrete in average bond

PCC permissible stress in concrete in direct compression
Pch permissible compressive stress in concrete in bending
Psc permissible compressive stress in the reinforcement
Pat permissible tensile stress in the reinforcement
Pv permissible stress in concrete in shear
S spacing or pitch of links
T torsional moment
t clearance for grouting in pocket base for preeast column
V total shear across a section
V shear stress at a section of a beam or slab
VI torsional shear stress
W total load o n beam or slab
W'l dead load
Wi imposed load
W total load per unit area of slab or per unit length of beam
X length of side of shear perimeter in a flat slab
XI smaller centre-to-centre dimension of a rectangular link
Yl larger centre-to-centre dimension of a rectangular link
angle of internal friction between the faces of a joint
a x LQ
ay = bending moment coefficients for the short and long spans, respectively,
for slabs spanning in two directions and simply supported on four sides
Px LQ
P, = bending moment coefficients for the short and long spans, respectively,
for rectangular panels supported on four sides and with provision for
torsion at corners
Y = factor for computing moment of resistance
I 16 IStructE RC permissiblc stress rccommcndations

2 Materials
2.1 Cements, round ranulated blastfurnace slags and
pulverizef-fuel a&es
The cement, or combinations of cement with ggbfs or pfa, to be used should comply
with the following:
(i) Portland cement
BS 12: Specification for ordinary and rapid hardening Portland cement
BS 1370: Specification for low heat Portland cement
BS 4027: Specification for sulphate-resisting Portland cement
(ii) Cements containing ggbfs or pfa
These cements are factory-produced intimate mixtures mainly of Portland
cement clinker and either ground granulated blastfurnace slag or pfa. The
proportion of ggbfs or pfa is given in brackets.
BS 146: Portland-blastfitmace cement (not more than 65%)
BS 4246: Low heat Portland-blastfurnace cement (between 50% and 90%)
BS 6588: Portland pulverized-fuel ash cement (between 15% and 35%)
(iii) Other cements
BS 4248: Supersulphated cement
(iv) Combinations of cements and ggbfs or pfa
Combinations of Portland cement, generally to BS 12, with ggbfs or pfa to
the appropriate British Standard may be included as part of the mix by
simultaneously combining them with the other concrete materials at the
concretc mixer.
BS 3892: Pulverized-fuel ash, Part 1: Specification for pulverized-fuel ash for
use as a cementitious component in structural concrete
BS 6699: Ground granulated blastfurnace slag
(v) High-alirmina cement
These recommendations do not cover the use of high-alumina cement concrete
2.2 Aggregates
Aggregates should comply with BS 882 for coarse and fine aggregates from natural
sources or with BS 877, BS 1047 or BS 3797 as appropriate for lightweight
aggregates.
2.3 Reinforcement
Reinforcement should be designated by its type and effective diameter. Characteris-
tic or yield strengths are given in BS 4449 and 4483 as 250 N/mm’ for mild steel and
460 N/mm’ for high-tensile steel.
2.4 Admixtures
2.4.1 General
Admixtures may be added to concrete mixes to improve the properties of the
concrete. While improving certain properties, an admixture can significantly affect
others, and it is therefore important to know all the effects of any admixture and to

.---. - ..I
__-I-- - _--. ___.,
use the material in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Two or
more admixtures may not be compatible, and they should be combined only if tests
or other suitable investigations prove satisfactory. The behaviour of admixtures with
composite or supersulphated cements should be carefully investigated before use.
The suitability and effectiveness of any admixture should be verified by trial mixes
with the cements, aggregates and other materials to be used in the works.
2.4.2 Types
The main types of admixture are:
(i) water reducing, often referred to as ‘plasticizers’ which may be used to
increase workability or, by reducing the water content of the mix, to increase
its strength
(ii) accelerating, .which increase the rate of gain of early strength
(iii) retarding, which slow the setting time and thus extend the workability phase
(iv) air-entraining, which introduce very small air bubbles into the concrete,
improving workability and resistance to frost action
(v) superplasticizing, which have highly efficient water-reducing effects
(vi) waterproofing, which reduce the permeability of concrete to water and
dampness
(vii) pigments, which change the colour of concrete.
2.4.3 Specification
Admixtures should comply with the following British Standards, where applicable:
BS 1014: Pigments for Portland cement and Portland cement products
BS 5015: Concrete admixtures
Part 1 : Accelerating admixtures, retarding admixtures and water reduc-
ing udmixtures
Part 2 : Air entraining admixtures.
2.5 Concrete
Concrete should be designated by a grade number (with a prefix C) for which
appropriate design stresses are given in these recommendations. All concrete
designed and prescribed mixes should be specified in accordance with BS 5328 by
reference to the grade of concrete and type of mix. Guidance on specifications and
forms for specifying different types of concrete are given in BS 5328.
One of three types of mix should be selected:
2.5.1 Designed mix
Designed mixes are intended for general use and arc designated by a grade number
with the suffix D. The recommendations of this document apply to the following
designed mixes containing normal-weight aggregates:
C20D, C25D, C30D, C35D, C40D, C45D, C50D, C55D and C60D.
For lightweight aggregate concrete an additional grade, C15D, may be used.
The supplier may choose from the various types of cement and aggregates listed
in BS 5328 unless the specifier wishes to restrict the choice. The specifier should also
state:
(i) the nominal maximum size of aggregate
(ii) the minimum cement content
(iii) the rate of sampling.
18 IStructE RC pcrrnissiblc strcss rccornmcndations

In addition the specifier may statc requirements for any or all of the following:
(iv) workability
(v) maximum free watedcement ratio
(vi) maximum cement content
(vii) special cements that should or may be used
(viii) special requirements for aggregates
(ix) type(s) of admixture specified and the quantity required
(x) type(s) of admixture prohibited
(xi) the air content of fresh concrete
(xi) the maximum and/or minimum temperature of fresh concrete
(xiii) the maximum and/or minimum density of fresh concrete
(xiv) details of any required trial mixcs
(XV)requircrnents for assessment and/or compliance
(xvi) any other requirements.
2.5.2 Special prescribed mix

Special prescribed mixes are intended for use in place of designed mixes when the
specificr wishcs to stipulate the proportions of the constituent materials; they are
designated by a grade number with suffix SP. The recommendations of this
document apply to the same range of grades, from C15 to C60 as for designed mixes
described in clause 2.5.1. The specification for special prescribed mixes is also
similar to the specification for designed mixes, and the specifier should, or may,
state his requirements as listed in items (i) to (xvi) in clause 2.5.1 and, in addition,
the required mix proportions.
2.5.3 Ordinary prescribed mix

Ordinary prescribed mixes, also known as standard mixes, are intendcd for use
where small quantities of concrete are required or where the specifier wishes to
restrict the concrete to a limited range of commonly used materials and mix
proportions; they are designated by a grade number with the suffix P. The
recommendations of this document apply only to the following ordinary prescribed
mixes containing normal-weight aggregates:
C20P, C25P and C30P.
The supplier may choose from the limited range of cements and aggregates listed in
BS 5328 unless the specifier wishes to restrict the choice. The specifier should also
statc:
(i) thc nominal maximum size of aggregate
(ii) thc workability.
Admixtures or other special requirements should not be specified for inclusion in
ordinary prescribed mixes. If these are required, the mix should be specified as a
special prcscribed mix.
2.6 Nominal mixes

Where nominal mixes specified by volume proportions are used, requirements are
given in Appendix A. Nominal mixes are intended for use where small quantities
of concrete are required and where standards of quality control necessary to achievc
designed mixes are impracticable.

3 Design considerations
3A GENERAL
3A.1 Basis of design
3 A . l . l Method of design
The method of design should accord with the laws of mechanics and the general
principles relating to the design of reinforced concrete.
I t may be assumed that:
(i) at any cross-section plane sections remain plane, and
(ii) all tensile stresses are taken by the reinforcement except that the concrete
may be assumed to resist shear within the limits of stress specified.
For concrete made with lightweight aggregates, special recommendations are given
in section 3H.
3A.1.2 Moments of inertia

For the purpose of calculating bending moments in continuous structures, the
moment of inertia may be estimated by considering;
(i) the entire concrete section, ignoring the reinforcement, or
(ii) the entire concrete section, including the reinforcement on the basis of the
modular ratio, or
(iii) the compression area of the concrete section combincd with the reinforce-
ment on the basis of the modular ratio.
Whichever method is adopted for the beams, the same method should be used for
the columns, and care should be taken that the method adopted is appropriate to
the particular circumstances.
3A.2 General stability

The structure should be designed to support loads arising from its normal function,
and there should be a reasonable probability that disproportionate collapse would
not follow misuse or accident. In addition, because of the nature of a particular
occupancy or use of a structure (e.g. flour mill, chemical plant, etc.), it may be
necessary in the design concept or a design reappraisal to consider the effect of a
particular hazard so that, in the event of an accident, there is a reasonable
probability of the structure remaining after the event, even in a damaged condition.
The recommendations given in subsection 3L on tying the structure together, and
on the planform of the building, aim at enabling the structure to accommodate a
limited amount of accidental loading that may occur as a result of causes such as
construction loading, differential settlement of the supports, thermal movements,
explosions, accidental impact, etc. which are not defined as normal loading. These
accidental loadings may produce local damage, but the recommendations have as
their objective the limitation of the extent of such damage.
Irrespective of the design wind load, all structures should be capable of resisting
a horizontal force at any floor level equal to not less than 1.25% of the total dead
load above that level at stresses not exceeding those given in subsection 3A.8.
I 20 IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations

. .,. ' ,
I I. - ... * .
. . I , _ , . . . .
.
.- . ... .
. ,. . .,
,
, ... .. .
~
3A.3 Complete structures and analysis of structural frames
3A.3.1 General
The analysis of a structure should be carried out to determine a set of internal forces
and bending moments in equilibrium with the design loads applied to the structure.
The method of analysis should be based on as accurate a representation of the
behaviour of the structure as is reasonably in accordance with the recommendations
of section 3A. Alternatively, the methods below may be adopted if appropriate.
3A.3.2 Frames supporting vertical loads only

In a braced frame where the individual beams and columns and their connections
are not intended to resist lateral loads, the moments loads and shear forces may be
determined from an elastic analysis of a series of subframes. Mcmber stiffness should
be determined in accordance with clause 3A. 1.2. Each subframe should be taken to
consist of beams at one level, together with columns above and below. The extreme
ends of columns should be assumed fixed unless actual constructional details make
the assumption of pinned ends more reasonable. Alternatively in determining
moments and forces in an individual beam, a simplified subframe consisting of that
beam, the columns at each end and the beams on each side of those columns may
be used. The ends of the columns and beams remote from the beam under
consideration should be assumed to be fixed unless the assumption of a pinned end
is more reasonable. The beams either side should be assumed to possess half their
actual stiffness, if they are taken to be fixed at their outer ends. All critical
combinations of minimum and maximum loading on individual spans should be
considered to determine the maximum possible design moments, loads and shear
forces in the subframe members (see subsection 38.4).
3A.3.3 Frames supporting vertical and lateral loads

In an unbraced frame where resistance to lateral loads and overall stability are
provided for by the frame itself, it will be necessary to consider the effects of lateral
loads and sway. The design of individual beams and columns should be based on
the moments, forces and shears obtained by considering vertical loading only as in
clause 3A.3.2 or, if more severe, from the sum of the moments and forces obtained
by separate analyses for vertical and lateral loads allowing increased permissible
stresses in accordance with subsection 3A.8. For lateral loading, the moments, forces
and shears may be determined from an elastic analysis of the complete frame
assuming points of contraflexure at the centre of all beams and columns.
3A.3.4 Stress reversal

In certain cases such as structures with significantly disproportionate spans or with
short spans adjacent to cantilevers, critical loading arrangements may cause a
tendency towards stress reversal in particular members (see subsection 3A.4).
3A.4 Overturning stability

The stability of the structure as a whole or of any part of it should be investigated,
and weight or anchorage should be provided so that the least restoring moment,
including anchorage, should be not less than the sum of 1.4 times the maximum
overturning moment due to dead and wind loads and 1.6 times the maximum
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccommcridations 21

overturning moment due to imposed loads. To check stability at all times account
should be taken of probable variations in dead load during construction, repair or
other temporary conditions.
In complying with the requirements of this clause it is necessary to check that the
resulting pressures and shear forces to be transmitted by the foundations to the
supporting soil would not produce failure.
3A.5 Loadings
The loadings should be in accordance with BS 6399 and CP 3: Chapter V, as
appropriate. For the purpose of calculating dead loading, the weights of materials
should, unless otherwise agreed, be taken to be as in BS 648: Schedule of weights
of building materials.
For ordinary construction the density of reinforced concrete may be taken as 2400
kg/m3, but where the amount of steel exceeds 2%, some greater weight may be more
appropriate. Where lightweight aggregates are used a smaller appropriate weight
may be taken.
Guidance on the distribution of concentrated loads on slabs and on the distribution
of loads on stairs is given in subsections 3B.7 and 3D.1, respectively.
3A.6 Permissible stresses in concrete

3A.6.1 Compressive and bond stresses and elastic modulus
The compressive and bond stresses in reinforced concrete should not exceed those
shown in Table 1 as appropriate for each grade of concrete.
Values of short-term elastic modulus are given in Table 1. Where an ap roximate
P -
value is required for analysis of forces and moments a value of 14 kN/mm (rn - 15)
may be taken.
3A.6.2 Compressive stress

Good agreement with test results is obtained if a uniform compressive stress of %
of the cube strength is assumed. For details of the stress block when bending is
present see subsection 3A.9.
Since concrete in a structure is not placed or cured in laboratory conditions the
design concrete strength is assumed to be % of the strength of test cubes. Adopting
a factor of safety of 1.8, the permissible compressive stress is therefore
pcc = (% X %feu) + 1.8
= 0.275fc,
3A.6.3 Modular ratio method

As an altenative to the above, stresses may be assessed by the modular ratio theory.
This assumes that steel and concrete are elastic within the range of permissible
stresses. The modular ratio, m, may be taken as 15 for normal weight concrete and
30 for lightweight aggregate concrete. The permissible extreme fibre stress in
bending, pch, should not exceed 1 . 3 3 ~ ~ ~ .
22 IStructE RC permissible stress rccommcndations

Table 1 Basic permissible concrete stresses and moduli of elasticity
I basic permissible concrete stress, N/mm2

grade
of compression average mean E-values
concrete bond(3)* (short term 4
kN/mm()z )
fcu PCC Ph
15 4. 1 1.3 23
20 5.5 1.5 24
25 6.9 1.7 25
30 8.2 1.8 26
35 9.6 2.0 27
40 11.0 2.1 28
45 12.4 2.2 29
50 13.7 2.4 30
55 ' 15.1 2.5 31
60 16.5 2.6 32
* The hasic stresses for hond relate to type 2 deformed hars in tension.
Notes: I . Grade IS may he used only for lightweight aggregate concrete.
2 . For normal huilding structures grades 4.5 and ahove are rarely used.
3. For type I deformed hars the wlues are Xll% o f those quoted.
'
For plain hars they are SS% of those quoted. In a heam where nominal links (see suhsection 38.10)
have not heen provided, the hond stress should he taken as that for plain hars. irrespective o f
the type o f hlir used.
For fahric to BS 44x3 the permissihle hond stress i s 1.3 x the value o f average hond stress given
in Tahle I . provided that:
(U) the fahric is welded in a shear resistant manner complying with 8s 44x3. and
(I,) the n.umher of welded intersections within the anchorage length is at least equal to a value
of 4 x area o f steel requiredlarea o f steel provided.
When condition (h) is not satisfied. the anchorage hond should he taken as that appropriate to
the individual wires or hars i n the sheet.
4. The quoted short-term elastic moduli are average values. For long-term loads, creep effects will
produce higher deformations. so that the total can he 2 to 4 times the short-term value. Where
this i s critical. specialist literature on the suhject should he consulted.
For modifications of permissible stresse.s due to wind forces see subsection 3A.8.
The derivations of the basic permissible concrete stresses in Table 1 are given in
the clauses 3A.6.2 to 3A.6.5.
3A.6.4 Shear stress

Adopting a factor of safety of 1.8, the permissible shear stress pvshould not exceed
Equation 2 may be used for values of fCu between 20 and 40 N/mm'. For normal
weight aggregate concrete,fCushould not be taken as greater than 40 N/mm'. Where
d exceeds 400mm, the term .\1/(400/d) should be taken as unity. Subsection 3B.10
I gives values of p,. for various concrete strengths, effective depths and reinforcement
proportions (see subsection 3H.2 for lightweight aggregate concrete).
IStructE KC pcrmissiblc stress recomrncndations 23

3A.6.5 Bond stress
For type 2 deformed bars in tension, the permissible average bond stress, ph, should
not exceed
Pb = 0.7 d%fc- f 1.8
= 0.33 dfcu (3)
3A.7 Permissible stresses in reinforcement
3A.7.1 General
The tensile and compressive stresses in steel reinforcement should not exceed those
shown as appropriate for the.type of reinforcement and its characteristic strength, f,.
3A.7.2 Tensile stress

The values given in Table 2 are based on a factor of safety of 1.8 giving permissible
tensile stresses, psi, which should not exceed
pSl= f,/1.8
= 0.55fy (4)
High levels of tensile stress may lead to undesirable cracking, and lower limits than
those given in Table 2 may need to be adopted in circumstances of exposure to
corrosive environments.
3A.7.3 Compressive stress

Table 2 gives permissible compressive stresses, psc,which should not exceed
P ~ C = 0.85 psi (5)
The factor of 0.85 takes account of the concrete displaced by the reinforcement
together with the buckling effect, assuming the reinforcement to be a fixed-ended
strut restrained by links spaced at 12 times the bar diameter.
3A.7.4 Tensile stress due to shear

The values of permissible tensile stresses in shear are the same as for permissible
tensile stresses in bending or tension.
Table 2 Basic permissible steel stresses
basic permissible steel stress, N/mm2

type of stress mild steel to BS 4449 I high-tensile steel to BS 4483
tensile, ps1 I 140 I 250

compressive, psc I 120 I 215
3A.8 Increases of permissible stresses due solely to wind forces

The permissible stresses in concrete and in the reinforcement may exceed those given
in subsections 3A.6 and 3A.7, respectively, by not more than 25% provided that:
(i) such excess is solely due to stresses induced by wind loading
(ii) in no case does the stress in the reinforcement exceed 300 N/mm2.
24 IStructE RC permissible stress rccommendations

3A.9 Calculation of resistance moments of beams and slabs
3A.9.1 Basis of method
Thc basic requirement of this method is a suitable load factor (i.e. the ratio of the
ultimate strength of the beam or slab to its working load). As the failure load is
approached, the stressktrain relationship of the concrete becomes non-linear, and
may be assumed to follow the short-term stresslstrain curve of Fig. 1. Tests have
shown that, at failure, a uniform rectangular stress block may be taken extending
from the compression face over 90% of the depth to the neutral axis, provided that
the depth to the neutral axis does not exceed half the effective depth of the beam
or slab.
Stress
I Short-term stresslstrain relation for concrete
A load factor of 1.8 should be provided, assuming an adjusted value of of the

characteristic strength predicted by cube tests to allow for differences in curing and
placing conditions, giving the stress diagram in Fig. 2.
The resistance moment may be calculated on the following assumptions:
(i) The stress in the tensile reinforcement does not exceed the permissible stress,
ps,,appropriate to the type of reinforcement, given in subsection 3A.7.
(ii) The compressive stress in the concrete is equal to the permissible concrete
stress in compression, pcc,given in subsection 3A.6, assumed to be uniform
over 90% of the depth to the neutral axis. The depth to the neutral axis

should not be taken as greater than 0.5 X the effective depth, and the lever
arm should not exceed 0.95 X the effective depth.
(iii) The stress in the compressive reinforcement does not exceed the permissible
stress, psc, appropriate to the type of reinforcement, given in subsection
3A.7, nor does it exceed:
d’
375 (1 - - ) N/mm2
where d’ is the depth to the compressive reinforcement and d, is the depth
to the neutral axis*
land-df
2 Stress diagram
3A.9.2 Formulae for rectangular beam and slab sections

For beams and solid slabs of rectangular cross-section without compressive
reinforcement and for qualities of concrete and steel within the range permitted by
these recommendations, these requirements may be deemed to be satisfied if the
resistance moment, M, (corresponding to working loads) is assumed to be the lesser
of the two values calculated from equations (6) and (7) as follows:
* At a failure of beam or slab, the maximum compressive strain in the concrete has been shown by tests to
be such that a reinforcing bar at the surface of the beam would develop a stress of 700 Nlmm’ with the steel
of the requisite yield or proof stress. With a load factor of 1.8, the limiting stress to he used in design is
thus 385 Nlrnrn’ at the compressive surface. Since tests show that the strain is roughly linear across the
section, the limiting cornpressive stress at the depth d‘ is therefore 385(1 - d’/d.). With an allowance for
displaced concrete this becomes 375(1 - d’ld.).
26 IStructE RC permissiblc stress rccommcndations

Based on tensile reinforcement
Mr = AstPstla
Based on the strength of concrete in compression
M, = pcc x b x 0.45d x 0.775d (see Fig. 2)
= 0.35pc,bd2
where A,, is the area of tensile reinforcement
pst is the permissible tensile stress in the reinforcement
pcc is the permissible compressive stress in the concrete
b is the breadth of the section
d is the effective depth to the tensile reinforcement
1, is the lever arm.
For convenience, values of lever-arm and neutral-axis-depth factors are tabulated
for various values of Mlpccbd2in Table 3 (see also Fig. 3).
Table 3 Lever-arm and neutral-axis-depth factors
Mlpccbd2 I 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
I,ld I 0.95 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.85 0.82 0.77
d,ld I 0.11 0.11 0.18 0.25 0.33 0.41 0.50
0.95
0.90
L
0
c
s
U-
! 0.85
0
L
w
0
2
0 80
0.77 '
0 1 2 3 4
'/bd2, Nlmm2
3 Lever-arm factors

-
Where it is necessary for M to exceed O.35pCcbd2,compression reinforcement

should be provided so that
M = 0.35pccbd2+ A,g,,(d - d ’ ) (8)
where A,, is the area of compression reinforcement
pbCis the permissible compressive stress in the steel as given in assumption
(iii) of clause 3A.9.1, and the area of tension reinforcement should be
such that the stress in this steel does not cxceed thc permissible stress.
3A.9.3 Formulae for T- or L-beams

For T- or L-beams with a breadth of flange b , a rib width b , and a depth of slab
forming the flange d,, the resistance moment when compressive reinforcement is not
provided may be assumed to be the lesser of the two values given by equations (9)
and (10) as follows:
Based on the tensile reinforcement
Based on the strength of the concretc in compression,

M r = ypccbd’ (10)
where the factor y has the values given in Table 4.
values of y for d,ld
hrlh 20.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
1 .o 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35

0.5 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.18
0.3 0.35 0.28 0.23 0.17 0.11
0.2 0.35 0.27 0.21 0. I5 0.07
0.1 0.35 0.26 0.20 0.12 0.04
0 0.35 0.25 0.18 0.10 0
* For intermediate values of b,lb and d,ld the value of y can be calculated from the
following formula
y = O . 3 5 -br+ - br
1 (I---)(:) (2-+)
b 2
Where it is necessary for the resistance moment to exceed ypccbd2,compressive
reinforcement should be provided so that
Mr = Ypccbd’ + Asgsc(d - d ’ ) (12)
IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations

3A.10 Concrete cover
In addition to durability and fire-protection requirements (see subsections 35 and
3K) the following structural requirements apply:
(i) for reinforcement in a slab, not less than 15 m m nor less than the diameter
of such reinforcement
(ii) for longitudinal reinforcement in a beam, not less than 25 mm nor less than
the diameter of such reinforcement
(iii) for a longitudinal reinforcing bar in a column, not less than 40 mm nor less
than the diameter of such a bar. In the case of columns with a minimum
dimension of 200 mm or less whose bars do not exceed 12 mm diameter, 25
mm cover may be used.
For bar bundles, the cover should be taken as not less than the diameter of a single
bar of equivalent area or 50 mm, whichever is less.
Requirements for cover are exclusive of plaster or other decorative finishes, and
where surface treatment such as bush hammering cuts into the face of the concrete,
the expected depth of treatment should be added to the specified cover.
3A.11 Distance between bars

The horizontal distance between two parallel steel bars or bundles of bars should
not be less than the maximum size of coarse aggregate plus 5 mm, or the bar size,
whichever is greater.
Where there are two or more rows of bars or bundles of bars, they should be
arranged vertically above each other and the vertical spacing between rows should
not be less than the bar size or two-thirds of the maximum size of coarse aggregate,
In detailing, the spacing of the reinforcement should be carefully considered in
relation to the ease of compaction of the concrete, and a space of not less than 75
m m betwcen bars or groups of bars should normally be provided to enable a poker
vibrator to be inserted at appropriate intervals, unless other means of compaction
are specified and agreed.
In beams the clear distance between bars near the tension face should not exceed
185 m m = 250 N/mm’) or 300 mm U,, < 155 N/mm’), wheref,, is the steel tensile
stress; limits for intermediate stresses may be interpolated. Where the design
momcnt has been reduced by redistribution as permitted in subsection 3B.3, the bar
spacing should be reduced proportionally. The clear distance between the corner of
a beam and the nearest longitudinal bar in tension should not exceed half the above
values. Reinforcement should be placed within the side faces of deeper beams if
appropriate.
For slabs up to 200 m m thick, the pitch of the main bars should not exceed three
times the effective depth, that of distribution bars should not exceed five times the
effective depth and neither should exceed 750 mm. These limits also apply to thicker
slabs where AJbd is less than 0.3%; where AJhd is greater than 1%, the
recommendations for beams apply, and for intermediate reinforcement percentages
the limits may be interpolated.
3A.12 Bond and anchorage

3A.12.1 Bars in tension
A bar in tension should extend from any section for a distance to the end of the bar

such that the average bond stress does not exceed the permissible average bond
stress in Table 1. This condition will be satisfied if the length measured from such
section is not less than:
the tensile stress in the bar
the bar diameter X
4 x the permissible average bond stress
The bar should extend at least 12 bar diameters (or the effective dcpth if this is
greater) beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist stress.
For the purpose of this subsection the length of bar so determined may have
deducted from it a length equivalent to the value of the hook as givcn in clause
3A.12.7, but no deduction should then be made for the length of bar contained in
the hook.
3A.12.2 Bars in compression

A bar in compression should extend from any section for a distance such that the
average bond stress does not exceed the permissible bond stress given above for bars
in tension by more than 25%. This condition will be satisfied if the length measured
from each section is not less than:
the compressive stress in the bar
the bar diameter x
The bar should extend at least 12 diameters beyond the point at which it is no
longer required to resist stress.
3A.12.3 Avoidance of bond failure

Each bar should have adequate anchorage on both sides of any cross-section to
develop the calculated force. .This may be assessed by direct calculation, or it may
be assumed to be satisfied if the local bond stress does not exceed the permissible
average bond stress by more than 25%.
V
local bond stress = -
do
where V is the shear force across the section
o is the sum of the perimeters of the bars in the tension reinforcement.
In members of variable depth the effect of change of depth should be taken into
account in calculating the bond stress.
3A.12.4 Bearing stresses on bends

The bearing stress calculated from the formula:
calculated force in bar at the start of the bend
internal radius of bend x the bar diameter
should not exceed 3pcc.
For any bar, provided that the bar is not assumed to be stressed more than four
diameters beyond the end of the bend, bearing stresses need not be calculated.
30 IStructE RC permissible strcss rccommcndations

.. ,.. . ,. . . . . ,.
_. _ .
.*
,. ..-.. .
'. . '
.,, ' ' ' ,
c ~ .. . I .
:.: _ *.' I .
. ..
3A.12.5 Hooks and other anchorages
'
Hooks and othcr anchorages of reinforcement should be of such form, dimensions
and arrangement as will ensure their adequacy without overstressing the concrete
or other anchorage material.
3A.12.6 Dimensions of hooks

Where hooks are used they should be of the U- or L-type shown in Fig. 4. In both
types, for high-yield bars:
(i) thc internal radius of the bend should be at least 3 x the diameter of the bar or
4 x the diametcr of the bar for bars of 25 mm diameter and greater.
(ii) the length of straight bar beyond the end of the curve should be at least 4 X
the diameter of the bar.
3A.12.7 Effective anchorage lengths for U- and L-hooks: high-yield bars

The cffcctivc anchorage length of hooks and bends as shown in Fig. 4 may be taken
as:
(i) U-hooks: 24 X thc bar diameter, or the actual length of bar in the hook,
including thc straight portion, whichcver is greater
(ii) L-hooks: 12 x the bar diameter, or the actual length of bar in thc hook,
including thc straight portion, whichcver is grcater.
Thc bcaring strcss should be chcckcd when the straight portion excccds four X
the diamctcr.
D
-I
I --------A
I t 24D
i" (a) U-Hook

Equivalent straight length
(b) L-Hook
4 Standard hooks f o r high yield bars

3A.12.8 Effective anchorage lengths for U- and L-hooks: plain bars
When hooks are formed in plain round mild-steel bars, the internal radius of the
bend should be at least twice the diameter of the bar. The length of straight bar
beyond the end of the curve should be at least 4 X the diameter of the bar and
effective anchorage lengths may be taken as 160 for U-hooks and 8D for L-hooks.
The bearing stress should be checked when the straight portion exceeds 4 x
the diameter.
3A.12.9 Links in beams and transverse ties in columns

Notwithstanding any of the provisions of these recommendations, in the case of links
and transverse ties complete bond- length and anchorage may be deemed to have
been provided when4he bar is bent through an angle of at least 90" round a bar of
at least its own diameter and the link or tie is continued beyond the end of the curve
for a length of at least eight diameters or, through an angle of 180" with the link or
tie continued beyond the end of the curve for a length of at least four bar diameters.
3A.12.10 Shear reinforcement

All bent-up bars acting as shear reinforcement should be fully anchored in both
flanges of the beam, the anchorage length being measured from the end of the
sloping portion of the bar nearest to the anchored end.
3A.12.11 General requirements for connecting reinforcement

All connections transferring stress may be lapped, welded or joined with suitable
mechanical devices. Laps should be placed, as far as possible, away from points of
high stress and should be staggered. Welded joints should conform with the
appropriate Code of Practice, but welding of bars is not recommended where loading
is predominantly cyclical.
Where the smaller bar at a lap is larger than 20 mm diametcr and the cover is less
than 1% x the bar size, links should be provided throughout the lap length. The
spacing of the links should not exceed 200 mm, and their diameter should be not
less than '/4 of the smaller main bar diameter.
Where lapped bars are of different diameters, the length of the lap may be based
on the diameter of the smaller bar.
The minimum lap for bar reinforcement should be 15 diameters or 300 mm,
whichever is greater, and for fabric reinforcement not less than 250 mm.
3A.12.12 Tension laps

For bars in tension, the length of lap should not be less than
the tensile stress in the bar
the bar diameter X
The following recommendations also apply to tension laps:
(i) Where a lap occurs in the top of a member as cast and the minimum cover
is less than twice the size of the lapped reinforcement, the calculated lap
length should be increased by 40%.
(ii) Where a lap occurs at the corner of a section and the minimum cover to
either face is less than twice the size of the lapped reinforcement, or where
the clear distance between adjacent laps is less than 75 m m or 6 X the size I
32 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations

of the lapped reinforcement, whichever is greater, the calculated lap length
should be increased by 40%.
(iii) I n situations where both (i) and (ii) apply, the calculated lap length should
be doubled.
At tension laps, the sum of the reinforcement sizes in a particular layer should
not exceed 40% of the breadth of the section at that level.
3A.12.13 Compression laps

For bars in compression the length of lap should not be less than
the compressive stress in the bar
the bar diamcter x
3A.12.14 Anchorage bond and lap lengths

Values for minimum anchorage bond and lap lengths for fully stressed bars as
multiplcs of bar size are given in Table 5 for grade 30 concrete. For other concrete
strengths, these values should be multiplied by the modification factors given in
Table SA.
Table 5 Anchorage bond and lap lengths as multiples of bar size for fully stressed bars
reinforcement type grade

460
plain deformed deformed fabric (see

type 1 type 2 subsection
3A.6)
concrete grade 30
tension anchorage and lap length

(see clause 3A.12.12)
compression anchorage length
II 36
25
I
I
4 4
30
II 35
24
27
23
compression lap length I 31 I 38 I 30 29

Note: The values are rounded up to the next whole numher. and the lengths derived from these values may
differ slightly from those calculated directed for each har or wire size.
Table SA Modification factors for various concrete grades
concrete grade 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
factor 1.20 1.06 1.00 0.90 0.86 0.82 0.75
3A.12.15 Effective perimeter

The effective perimeter of a single bar may be taken as n times its nominal
diameter.
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss recommendations 33

3A.12.16 Groups or bundles of bars
The effective diameter of a group or bundle of bars may be taken as the diameter
of a bar of equal total area. For calculation of bearing strcss under clause 3A. 12.4,
the effective diameter may be taken as the diamcter of a bar of equal area. At laps
between bundles of bars no more than four bars should be in contact at any point.
3A.13 Joints, crack control and minimum reinforcement

requirements
Consideration should be given to the extent of cracking of the structure and finishes
arising from the effects of thermal and shrinkage movements in the concrctc. Somc
structures, such as basements, are relatively well protected against scasonal
temperature effects, and in such cases, the principal cause of cracking is likcly to bc
drying shrinkage, the bulk of which takes place in a relativcly short period after
casting and can often be controlled by leaving sections of concrete for casting after
the concrete on each side has matured for a period (shrinkage bays). Shrinkage
effects reduce with time, and stable conditions eventually occur; however for
'summer casting' conditions, where the effects of drying shrinkage and thermal
contraction may be additive, enhanced provisions should be considered.
Thermal movements are of greater importance for cxposed concrete structures,
unprotected within a building envelope, such as cxtcrnal retaining walls, and while
movements predominantly produced by shrinkage can often be largcly accommo-
dated by shrinkage bays and spccified casting sequences, significant thermal
movements require the provision of permanent movement joints. The effects of all
movements tend to concentrate at weak points such as abrupt changes of section,
and the location of joints should be considered in relation to their probable
effectiveness and their impact on the overall design of the building and finishes. The
design and detail of permanent joints should be such as will permit movements to
occur without detrimental effects on stability, watertightness, durability, fire
resistance or other essential functions of the structure.
The question of the provision and spacing of joints is left to the discretion of the
designer in view of the large number of factors involved, but if joints are provided
their design should be carefully considered in relation to their probable performance
over the lifetime of the structure. Generally, if permanent joints can be avoided
(which may be the case where movements arise predominantly from shrinkage) this
may be regarded as desirable. Other non-structural elements such as brickwork,
blockwork, mosaic finishes, etc. will require to be jointed at considerably more
frequent intervals than is necessary in a concrete framed structure. Special
consideration should also be given to structures where the vertical supporting
elements are of loadbearing masonry, which has less flexibility and capability of
accepting horizontal movement of the floor slabs because of shrinkage and thermal
effects than would be the case in a fully framed structure.
The provision of joints may also be necessary to accommodate movements arising
from differential settlement or other anticipated causes producing vertical or
horizontal effects on the structure.
In considering the provision for movement of concrete structures caused by
thermal effects typical coefficients of expansion may be assumed as follows:
aggregate of flint and quartzite 12 x 1O4 per "C
aggregate of granite and basalt 10 x 104 per "C
aggregate of limestone 8 x 1O4 per "C.
34 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccomrncndations

For further information o n this subject, reference may be made to technical
literature and in particular to Concrete Society Report no. 22 and ClRlA reports
no. 91 and 107.
Under the specific design provisions of this manual, various recommendations for
a minimum amount of reinforcement to be provided are made. These minimum steel
quantities are given as general guidance and are suitable for many common
structures. Some elements of the structure may be regarded safely as mass concrete
without reinforcement and others by reason of their jointing, construction and
restraint may resist cracking without the use of higher quantities of controlling
reinforcement. These factors should be takcn into account in the design, where
relevant, in determining the amount of reinforcement to be provided. For further
guidance reference may be made to specialist literature and BS 8007.
3B BEAMS AND SLABS

3B.1 General
3 B l . l Effective span
The effective span, 1, of a beam or slab should be taken as the lesser of the following:
(i) the distance between the centres of bearings, or
(ii) the clear distance between supports plus the effective depth of the beam or
slab, the effective depth being the distance between the centre of tension and
the edge of the compression section.
3B.1.2 Slender beams

The clear distance between restraints should not exceed:
(i) simply supported or continuous beams: the lesser of 606 or 250b2/d
(ii) cantilevers with lateral restraints only at support: the lesser of 256 or 100b2/d
where b is taken as the breadth of the compression face, at midspan in case (i) and
at the support in case (ii).
d is the effective depth, which need not be taken as more than the minimum
value required to resist the design loads without compression reinforcement.
3B. 1.3 Minimum reinforcement

The minimum area of high-yield reinforcement provided in tension should be as
follows (areas of mild steel are given in parentheses). The area is expressed as a
percentage of the gross concrete area in the case of solid sections and as a percentage
of the rib area (6,h) in the case of T- or L-beams:
solid slabs, solid beams, flanged beams with webs in tension
and bJb at least 0.4 0.13% (0.24%)
flanged beams with webs in tension and b,/b less than 0.4 0.18% (0.32%)
T-beams with flange in tension (continuous support) 0.26% (0.48%)
L-beams with flange in tension (continuous support) 0.20% (0.36%)
3B.1.4 Compression reinforcement in beams

The compression reinforcement should be effectively anchored in two directions at
right-angles over the distance where it is required to act in compression, at points

._. .
not further apart, centre to centre, than 12 x the diameter of the anchored bar or
300mrn, whichever is less. Links used for this purpose should pass round, or be
hooked over, both the compression and tension reinforcement.
The amount of steel in compression should preferably not exceed 4%, but if it
does, only 4% should be allowed for in the calculation of the resistance moment of
the beam. This percentage should be calculated as follows:
(i) in rectangular beams, on the total cross-sectional area
(ii) in T- and L-beams, on an area equal to the total depth X the width of the rib.
Where compression reinforcement is needed, the area should not be less than
0.2%, except in the case of webs to T- and L-beams, where it should not be less
than 0.4%.
3B.1.5 T-beams
In T-beams, the breadth of the flange assumed as taking compression should not
exceed the least of the following:
(i) Vj of the effective span of the T-beam
(ii) the distance between the centres of the ribs of the T-beams
. (iii) the breadth of the rib plus 12 x the thickness of the slab.
3B.1.6 L-beams
In L-beams, the breadth of the flange assumed as taking compression should not
exceed the least of the following:
(i) '/h of the effective span of the L-beams
(ii) the breadth of the rib plus V'z of the clear distance between ribs
(iii) the breadth of the rib plus 4 x the thickness of the slab.
When a part of a slab is considered as the flange of a T- or L-beam, the
reinforcement in the slab transverse to the beam should cross the full breadth of the
flange. The quantity of such reinforcement should be related to the shear stress in
the slab produced by its acting as the compression member of the T- or L-beam, but
should not be less than 0.15% of the slab area and placed near thc top surface.
3B.1.7 Effect of wear

If the surface of a concrete slab is not adequately protected by a suitable finish
against the effect of wear, an appropriate addition should be made to the structural
thickness required.
3B.2 Deflection and stiffness of members
3B.2.1 General
Reinforced concrete members should possess adequate stiffness to prevent such
deflection or deformation as might impair the strength or efficiency of the structure
or produce unacceptably large cracks in finishes or in partitions.
Deflections may be calculated and compared with the serviceability requirements
appropriate to each particular case, which may include consideration of such
beneficial factors as secondary support, high-performance materials, reduction in
early deformations, chartacteristics of loading and redundancy. However, in all
normal cases the deflection of beams and slabs should not be excessive if the ratio
36 IStructE RC permissible stress rccommcndations

of spanleffective depth does not exceed the recommended values. In cases where
aggregates give unusually high shrinkage it may be necessary to reduce these values ,
(see BRE digest 35).
Span/effcctivc depth ratios are given below; they are based on limiting the total
deflection to span/250, and this should normally mean that the part of the deflection
occurring after construction of finishes and partitions will be limited to span/350 or
20 mm, whichever is less. Basic ratios are given in Table 6 and these should be
modified by factors obtained from Tables 6A and 6B. The term ‘steel tensile stress’
in Table 6 and the terms Mlhd’ and 100A,Jbd in Tables 6A and 6B apply to t h e
centre of the span or, in the case of a cantilever, to the support. Fig. 5 shows
graphically the modification factors for spanleffective depth ratios.
For T-bcams and ribbed slabs, the appropriate factor from Table 6A can be
obtaincd by interpolation between the values of h,/h = 1 and hr/h = 0.
Table 6 Basic spadeffective depth ratios for T-beams and ribbed slabs
steel tensile stress, N/mm’ I 140 I 250

cantilever 9 7
simply supportcd 25 20
continuous 32 26
Notes: I Intermediate values of the ratios may he obtained hy interpolation.
2 For spans greater than IOm. these ratios should be reduced hy the factor (IO/span in metres):
cantilevers exceeding 4 m should he justified hy calculiition, with due regard to rotation of the
support.
L
0
L
0 1 2 3 i
5 Modification factors for spanleffective depth ratios M/bd2 ,Nlrnrn2
IStructE RC permissible stress rccommcndations 37

, .
.
M/bd2, N/mm2 so.5 1 .o 2.0 3.0 24.0

b,Jb = 1 1.6 1.3 1.o 0.9 0.8
bdb = 0 1.2 1.1 ' 1.0 0.9 0.8
lOOA,Jbd 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
factor 1.07 1.14 1.20 1.25 1.33 1.40 1.50
total slab flat slab

dead and
imposed 1-way 2-way 2-way 2-way no
load, simply continuous cantilever simply continuous drops drops
kN/m2 supported supported
5 31 42 13 36, 50 42 45
10 27 36 11 31 44 36 39
20 23 31 9 27 38 31 33
3B.3 Bending moments

Bending moments in beams and slabs should be calculated for the effective span and
all loading thereon.
' The bending moments to be provided for at a cross-section of a continuous beam
or slab should .&the maximum positive and negative moments at such cross-section,
allowing, in both cases, if so desired, for the reduced moments arising from the width
of the supports, for the following arrangements of imposed loadings:
(i) alternate spans loaded and all other spans unloaded
(ii) any two adjacent spans loaded and all other spans unloaded.

Nevertheless, except where the approximate values for bending moments given
in Table 7 are used, the negative moments at the supports for any assumed
arrangement of loading may each be increased or decreased by not more than 1570,
provided that these modified negative moments are used for the calculation of the
corresponding moments in the spans. Redistribution of moments should be limited
to 10% in structures over 4 storeys high where the frame acting in sway provides
the structural stability.
The computation of bending moments in beams and slabs is dealt with in
subsections 3B.4 and 3B.5 and of bending moments in flat slabs in section 3C.
3B.4 Bending moments and shears in beams and slabs spanning

in one direction
3B.4.1 Calculation of bending moments
The bending moments in beams and slabs spanning in one direction may be
calculated on one of the following assumptions:
(i) Beams may be designed as members of a continuous framework, with
monolithic connection between the beams and columns, and the bending
moments calculated taking into account the resistance of the columns to
bending. Where beams are framed into external columns they should be
designed to resist bending moments in combination with the columns in
conformity with clause 38.2.6.
(ii) Beams and slabs may be designed as continuous over supports and capable
of free rotation about them. Nevertheless, where the supports to beams or
slabs are monolithic with them and stiff in relation to them, it is preferable
to design the beams or slabs with due regard to such stiffness.
(iii) For the purpose of calculating moments in beams or slabs in a monolithic
structure, it will usually be sufficiently accurate to assume that members
connected to the ends of such beams and slabs are fixed at their remote ends.
(iv) Unless more exact estimates are made, the bending moments in uniformly
loaded beams and slabs continuous over three or more approximately equal
spans may be assumed to have the values given in Table 7, provided that the
following limits are met:
0 beams: imposed load not greater than dead load, shortest span not less
than 85% of longest
0 slabs: imposed load not greater than either 5kN/m' (excluding partitions)
or 1% times dead load, area of each bay between lines of support
at least 30 m2.
(v) Where moments are calculated from Table 7, design shear forces may be
taken as follows:
beams: outer supports: 0.45 W ,
support next to end: 0.6W,
interior support: 0.55".
slabs: outer supports: 0.4W,
support next to end: 0.6W,
interior support: 0.5W

support middle of
middle of next to intcrior intcrior
end span end span supports
beams -0.08 WI
slabs +0.063 WI -0.063WI
3B.4.2 Detailing of beams

Beams designed in accordancc with Table 7 may be dctailcd in accordancc with the
following rules:
(i) all reinforcement for negative moments should extend a distance of 0. ISL
(or the bar anchorage length if greater) from the support face, 60% should
extend 0.251 from this line and at lcast 20% should be continuous throughout
the span
(ii) all rcinforcement for positive moments should extend to within 0.1SL of the
effective support and 30% extend into it at intcrior supports; at external
supports, all positive reinforcemcnt should extend to within 0.08L of the
effective support and 50% should extend into the support
(iii) where negative moments may occur at an end support but have not been
calculated, anti-crack reinforcement should be provided. This reinforcement
should be equal to half the midspan reinforcement for positive moments and
should extend 0.15L (or the bar anchorage length, if greater) i n t o the span.
3B.4.3 Detailing of slabs

Slabs designed in accordance with Table 7 may be detailed in accordancc with the
following rules:
(i) all reinforcement for negative moment should extend a distance of 0.1SL (or
the bar anchorage length if greater) from the support face and 50% should
extend 0.3L from this line
(ii) all reinforcement for positive moments should extend to within 0.2L of the
effective support and 40% should extend into it.
3B.5 Slabs spanning in two directions at right-angles with

uniformly distributed loads
Bending moments in two-way slabs may be calculated by elastic analysis, yield-line
analysis, Hillerborg’s strip method or other appropriate methods. Alternatively, the
methods and coefficients given in (i) and (ii) below may be adopted.
Simply supported slabs.
When simply supported slabs do not have adequate provision to resist torsion
at the corners and to prevent the corners from lifting, the maximum moments
per unit width may be assumed to have the values given by the following
equations:
M, = 0(,w1,2 (14)
My = O(,W1,2 (15)
IStructE RC permissible stress recomrncndations

~~~ ~
- ,
.* . r
- r _- . _,. ..
where M , and M y are the bending moments at midspan on strips of unit
width and spans I, and ly, respectively
w is the total load per unit area
I , is the length of the shorter side
1, is the length of the longer side
a, and ayare the coefficients from Table 8.
At least 50% of t h e tension reinforcement provided at midspan should extend to the
supports. The remaining 50% should extend to within 0.1 of the span from the
support.
Table 8 Bending moment coefficients for two-way slabs simply supported
on four sides
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0
0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.113 0.118 0.122 0.124
0.062 0.061 0.059 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029 0.020 0.014
(ii) Slabs restrained on four sides

( a ) Where the corners of a slab are prevented from lifting and adequate
provision for torsion in accordance with subclause 3BS(ii)(e) is made,
the bcnding moments may be assumed to have the values given in
subclause 3BS(ii)(c).
(b) Slabs are considered as being divided in each direction into middle strips
and edge strips as shown in Fig. 6, the middle strip having a width of
three-quarters of the width of the slab and each edge strip having a width
of one-eighth of the width of the slab, except that, for slabs for which
the ratio of the sides 1,11, exceeds 4.0, the middle strip in the short
direction should be taken to have a width of I, - I, and each edge strip
a width of 1,12.
(a) For span Ix (b) For span ly
6 Division of slab into middle and edge strips
IStructE RC permissiblc stress rccommcndations 41

(c) The maximum bending moments per unit width in thc middlc strip of a
slab are given by the following cquations:
M , = pXwIx7
M y = pywlx7
where M , and M y arc thc maximum bending moments on strips of unit
width in the direction of spans I, and Iy, respcctivcly
w is the total load per unit area
I, is the length of the shortcr sidc
Iy is the length of thc longer sidc
p, and p, arc cocfficicnts givcn in Table 9.
By adopting thc rclationship givcn in equation (17) for M y , it is possible
to use a single cocfficicnt for p, for all ratios of Iy//x for cach condition
of edge support.
( d ) N o reinforcement parallel to thc adjacent cdgcs of thc slab need be
inserted in thc edge strips above that rcquircd to comply with subscctions
3A. 1 I and 3B. I and subclause 3B.S(ii)(c).
(e) Torsion reinforcement should be provided at thc corncrs of a slab cxccpt
at corners contained by edges over both of which thc slab is continuous.
At corners contained by edges over neither of which thc slab is
continuous, top and bottom reinforccmcnt should bc provided for torsion
at the corners of the slabs. Both top and bottom rcinforccment should
consist of two laycrs of bars placed parallel to the sides of the slab and
extending in these directions for a distance of onc-fifth of the shortcr
span. The area of the bars in each of the four laycrs, pcr unit width of
the slab, should be thrce-quarters of the area required for the maximum
positive moment in the slab.
At corners contained by edgcs over only onc of which the slab is
continuous, the torsional rcinforcement may be reduced to one-half of
that required by the preceding paragraph.
Any reinforcemcnt provided for the purpose of complying with other
clauses of thcse rccommendations may bc includcd as part of the
reinforcement required to comply with this clausc.
(f) Where a slab ends and there is monolithic connection between the slab
and the supporting beam or wall, provision should be made for the
negative moments that may occur in the slab at such support. Thc
negative moment to be assumed in these cases depends on the degree of
fixity afforded to the edge of the slab, but for general purposes it may
be taken as two-thirds of the momcnt obtained using Table 9 for the
midspan of the slab.
(iii) Loads on supporting beams
The loads on supporting bcams may be assumcd to be in accordance with
Fig. 7. Where appropriate, allowance should be made for the cffects of clastic
shear.
3B.6 Trimmings for openings

When openings in floors or roofs are required such openings should be trimmed
where necessary by special beams or reinforcement so that the designed strength of

- -
the surrounding floor is not impaired by the opening. Due regard should be paid to
the possibility of diagonal cracks developing at the corners of openings.
'Y
k CI
Load included
--
in this shaded area
to be carried
I
B
Load included in this
shaded area to be
carried by beam B
7 Diagram showing the load carried by supporting beams
3B.7 Distribution of concentrated loads on slabs

Allowance should be made for bending moments due to Concentrated loads, using
methods based on the elastic theory, such as those of Piegaud, Westergaard or other
acceptable method. Alternatively, allowance should be based on an appropriate
plastic analysis such as Hillerborg's strip method or yield-line theory.
If a slab is simply supported on two opposite edges and carries one or more
concentrated loads in a line in the direction of the span, it should be designed to
resist the maximum bending moment caused by the loading system. Such bending
moment may be assumed to be resisted by an effective width of slab (mcasured
parallel to the supports) as follows:
(i) For solid slabs, the effective width may be taken as the sum of the load width
and 2.4a(l - U N ) , where a is the distance from the nearest support to the
section under consideration and 1 is the span
(ii) For other slabs, except where specially provided for, the effective width will
depend on the ratio of the transverse and longitudinal flexural rigiditics of
the slab. When these are approximately equal, the value for the effective
width as given for solid slabs may be used, but as the ratio decreases a smaller
value should be taken. The minimum value that need be taken, however, is
4a
the load width plus - (1 -A) metres, where a and I have the same mean-
1 I
ings as in (i); so that, for a section at midspan, the effective width is equal
to 1 m plus the load width.
(iii) Where the concentrated load is near an unsupported edge of a slab, the
effective width should not exceed the value in (i) or (ii) above as appropriate,
nor half that value plus the distance of the centre of the load from the
unsupported edge (see Fig. 8).
I 44 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccornrncndations

-
3B.8 Bearings for slabs on steel ioists
Concrete casing to steel frame mcmbcrs should be reinforced with steel binding wire
not less than 2.5 m m in thickness, not further apart than 300 m m (or the equivalent
in steel fabric), passing under but clear of the edges and soffit of the bottom flange
of the beam.
Load ,
Unsupported edge Effective width
Load width
- V
A
I
V
A
3B.9 Slabs: ribbed and hollow-block construction

I
3B.9.1 General
This type of construction consists of a series of reinforced concrete ribs cast in situ
between blocks that remain part of the completed floor or on forms that may be
removed after the concrete has set.
3B.9.2 Blocks and forms

Blocks and forms may be of any suitable material that will retain its shape and
dimensions and is strong enough to support the concrete when placed.
Blocks that are required to remain as part of the slab and to contribute to its
structural strength should be of concrete or burnt clay and should have a crushing
strength of at least 14 Nlmm’ measured on the net section when axially loaded in a
direction corresponding with that in which they will function in the floor slab. Burnt
clay blocks should also comply with BS 3921 Bricks and blocks of fired brick earth,
clay or shale.
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommendations 45

3B.9.3 Topping
The tops of the ribs may be connected by a topping of concrete cast in situ over the
blocks or forms. The concrete used for the topping should be of the same quality as
that used for the ribs and cast integral with the ribs or properly bonded to them.
3B.9.4 Calculation of resistance moment

I n determining the bending resistance of hollow-block construction, the blocks may
be neglected. Alternatively, they may be assumed to act in structural combination
with the ribs and topping (when used), provided that the blocks are properly jointed
with a 1:3 cement:sand mortar or that a topping of at least 25 mm is used.
Where the thickness of the top of hollow blocks composed of material other than
concrete is regarded as contributing to the structural strength of the floor slab, the
permissible working stress in the blocks should not exceed one-fifth of their crushing
strength.
For the purpose of calculation, the elastic modulus of the material forming the
block may be assumed to be the same as that for concrete.
3B.9.5 Resistance to shear

Where the blocks are considered as adding to the strength of the floor, the thickness
of one wall of the block may be added to the breadth of the rib. Alternatively, the
walls of both the adjacent blocks may be taken into account, using a shear stress
appropriate to the material.
3B.9.6 Thickness of topping

When topping is used the thickness, after allowance has been made for the effect
of wear if necessary, should not be less than the thickness given in (i) to (iii) below
for various conditions:
(i) in floors with permanent blocks regarded as contributing to the strength of
the construction, and with a clear distance between the ribs not exceeding
500 mm, 25 mm.
(ii) in floors with permanent blocks not regarded as contributing to the strength
of the construction, 30 mm or one-tenth the clear distance between the ribs,
(iii) in all other cases, 50 mm or one-tenth the clear distance betwecn the ribs,
It should be noted that the maximum size of aggregate may need to be restricted
if the minimum thickness of topping is used. The practical problems of constructing
thin toppings should be considered.
3B.9.7 Size and spacing of ribs

The breadth of the ribs should be not less than 65 mm. The depth, excluding any
topping, should be not more than 4 x the width. The spacing should be not more
than 1.5 m centre to centre. For longer spans, consideration should be given to the
provision of transverse ribs, particularly where no topping is used.
3B.9.8 Reinforcement in ribs

(i) General
In floors continuous over supports, it may sometimes be impracticable to
provide sufficient reinforcement to develop the full support moment on the
46 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations ,

basis of continuity. Such floors may be treated as simply supported and the
reinforcement in the slab determined accordingly. I f so treated, it is desirable
to provide reinforcement over the support to control cracking; it is
recommended that such reinforcement should have a cross-sectional area of
not less than one-quarter of that in the middle of the adjoining bays and
should extend at least 15% of the clear spans into the adjoining bays. At
least 50% of the total main tensile reinforcement should be carried through
at the bottom on to the bearing, and effectively anchored.
(ii) Reinforcement in topping
Consideration should be given to providing a single layer of mesh in the
topping having a cross-sectional area of not less than 0.12% of the topping
in each direction. Care should be taken that adequate cover can be provided
if a mesh is used, particularly where laps occur.
3B.9.9 Supports parallel to ribs

Where a slab reinforced in one direction only is built into a wall, or rests on a beam,
parallel to the ribs, a rib should be placed along the wall or beam, the minimum
breadth of such rib being that of the bearing. Consideration should be given to the
necessity for some reinforcement at right-angles to the rib.
Where a slab butts against a wall parallel with the ribs, there should be a rib
against the wall at least 50 m m wide.
3B.10 Resistance to shear

3B. 10.1 General
(i) The shear stress, v , at any cross-section in a reinforced concrete beam or slab
should be calculated From the following equation:
v = Vlbd (18)
where V is the total shearing force across the section
b is the breadth of a rectangular beam or the rib breadth, b,, of a T-
or L-beam
d is the effective depth of the section.
(ii) Values of the permissible shear stress, p v , are given in Table 10 and shown
in Fig. 9 for fCu = 30 N/mm’. For other concrete strengths, these should
r:
be multi lied byg(fCu/30), with the value of fCu not taken as less than
20 N/mm or more than 40 N/mm’ (see Table 10A).
(iii) Where at any cross-section the shear stress, v , as calculated from equation
(18), is less than %pV for a beam or pv for a slab, no shear reinforcement is
required. For beams of structural importance it is, however, recommended
that nominal shear reinforcement be provided.
(iv) Where at any cross-section the shear stress, v, as calculated from equation
(18), is greater than %pv for a beam or pv for a slab but does not exceed @,
+ 0.25), nominal links should be provided for the whole length of a beam
or, for a slab, over that length where v exceeds pv. The area of nominal links
should be not less than 0.12% of the concrete plan area for high-tensile steel
and 0.18% for mild steel.
(v) Where at any cross-section the shear stress, v , as calculated from equation
(18), is greater than (pV+ 0.25), shear reinforcement should be provided but,
even with such reinforcement, v should not exceed 0.5dfcu.

cffcctivc dcpth o f mcmbcr. tl
100A,,lhd S 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 2400
S0.15 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.22

0.25 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.26
0.50 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.36 0.34
0.75 0.52 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.38
1.00 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.46 0.42
1.50 0.65 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.52 0.48
2.00 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.63 0.62 0.60 0.57 0.53
33.00 0.82 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.66 0.61
Table 10A Adjustment factors for various concrete strengths

strength, fCu I S20 25 30 35 240
factor 0.87 0.04 1 .oo 1.05 1.10
-
0.8- -
0.7--
-
ul
E 0.6--
L
8 -
c
ul
-n
w
'j, o,s--
.-ul
E -
c
0.4 --
0.3-
0.2--
0 1
9 Permissible shear stress

3B.10.2 Shear reinforcement
(i) A link in reinforced concrete should pass round or be otherwise adequately
secured to the appropriate tension reinforcement, and all such links should
be adequately anchored (see clause 3 A . 12.9).
(ii) Where a beam or slab is reinforced with inclined bars, the shear resistance
at any section may be calculated on the assumption that the inclined bars
form the tension members of one or more single systems of lattice girders in
which the concrete forms the compression members. The shear resistance at
any section may then be taken as the sum of the vertical components of the
tension and compression forces cut by the section. Care must be taken that
such assumptions do not involve greater stresses in the horizontal bars than
the permissible stresses.
(iii) Where two or more types of shear reinforcement are used in conjunction,
their total shearing resistance may be assumed to be the sum of their
resistanccs. In a bcam, at least one-half of the shearing resistance provided
by the reinforcement should be in the form of links.
(iv) Where links alone are provided, the cross-sectional area, A,, of those links
should be not less than:
hs( I’ - p”)
A, =
PSI
where s is the spacing of the links along the member
p,, is thc permissible reinforcement stress given in clause 3A.7.4.
(v) Where links arc provided the longitudinal spacing should not exceed 0.75d.
In beams the lateral spacing of the vertical legs should not exceed the
effective depth; in areas of solid slab the lateral spacing should not exceed
1 ’/r x the effective depth.
(vi) In slabs less than 200 mm thick shear links should not bc used unless bending
and fixing details are employed that ensure their structural effectiveness.
3B.11 Loads near supports of beams: shear enhancement

For loads applied close to beam supports, the shear strength is enhanced. This may
be allowed for by using appropriate theory or as follows:
(i) Where a beam supports an approximately uniform load, the portion of
loading within a distance d from the support may be ignored in calculating
the shear stress, with permissible shear stress calculated in accordance with
subsection 3B. 10.
(ii) Where a beam supports a concentrated load and the distance a,. from the
face of the support to the nearest edge of the concentrated load is less than
2d, an enhanced permissible concrete shear stress may be taken in this zone
if all thc main reinforcement is continued to the support and provided with
an anchorage length (or equivalent) not less than either the effective depth
or 20 x the bar diameter. Shear reinforcement as described in subsection
3B.10 should be provided over the length a\., but in equations (18) and (19),
the term p,. may be replaced by p , x 2 d l 4 provided that this does not exceed
the maximum value of allowed. For cantilever beams and corbels where
11
a, < 0.6d, horizontal links should normally be provided, and special attention
should be paid to the anchorage of the main reinforcement. Fig. 10 shows
possible methods of anchoring the main tension reinforcement in corbels.

.. . .. . . .
.I
3B.12 Deep beams

Where appropriate, deep beams may be designed on the basis of truss theory.
Reference should be made to relevant specialist literature for detailed guidance.
3B.13 Torsional resistance of beams

3B.13.1 General
In normal slab and beam or framed construction specific calculations are not usually
necessary, torsional cracking being adequately controlled by shear reinforcement.
However, when the design relies on the torsional resistance of a member, the
recommendations given in clauses 3B.13.2 to 3B.13.7 should be taken into account.
3B. 13.2 Calculation of torsional rigidity

If required in structural analysis or design, the torsional rigidity (C X C) may be
calculated by assuming the shear modulus, C , equal to 0.42 X the modulus of
elasticity, E, of the concrete and assuming the torsional constant C equal to half the
St. Venant value calculated for the plain concrete section. Values for modulus of
elasticity are given in subsection 3A.6.
Main steel welded to Main

a transverse bar of reinforcement
equal diameter ' in the form of
horizontal loops
rizontal shear steel rs provided

SV)as stirrupsover anchor
orizontal stirrups
(C 1
Outside edge of bearing
to be kept clear of bend
in main reinforcement
(minimum ckarance
D 1 bar diameter) Detailing rules
(1) hy 4. 0 5 h
(2) 04S100Astlbd < 1.3
(3) 0.6S 100(Ast+A~v)lbdS2.0
(4)Other details as per diagrams
I 10 Possible methods for anchoring main tension reinforcement in corbels

The St. Venant torsional stiffness of a rectangular section may be calculated from
equation (20)
C = k~h~minhrnax (20)
where kT is a coefficient depending on the ratio hm,,/hminwith the values given in
Table 11
h,,, and hminare the larger and smaller dimensions, respectively, of a
rectangular section.
Table 11 Values of coefficient kT
l 1 1.5 2 3 5 >5
kr I 0.14 0.20 0.23 0.26 0.29 0.33
The St. Venant torsional stiffness of a non-rectangular section may be obtained

by ‘dividing the section into a series of rectangles and summing the torsional
stiffnesses of these rectangles. The division of the section should be arranged so as
to maximize the calculated stiffness. This will generally be achieved if the widest
rectangle is made as deep as possible.
3B.13.3 Torsional shear stress

(i) Rectangular sections
The torsional shear stress v , , at any section should be calculated assuming a
plastic stress distribution and may be calculated from equation (21)
2T
1’. =
(
hlnli,, h,,;,, - A)
3
where T is the torsional moment acting on the member.
(ii) T-, L- or I-sections
T-, L- or I-sections are divided into their component rectangles; these are
chosen in such a way as to maximize h3nlinhnlzlx
in the following expression:
The torsional shear stress, v,, carried by each of these component rectangles
may be calculated by treating them as rectangular sections subjected to a
torsional moment of:
h3niinhm:ix
( t(h3minhm;ix) )
(iii) Hollow sections
Box and other hollow sections in which wall thicknesses exceed one-quarter
of the overall thickness of the member in the direction of measurement may
be treated as solid rectangular sections.
(iv) Other sections
For other sections, specialist literature should be consulted.

3B.13.4 Limit to shear stress
In no case should the sum of the shear stresses resulting from shear force and torsion
( v + v , ) exceed 0.5dfc, nor, in the case of small sections where yl < 550, should
the torsional shear stress vt exceed 0.5vfc, X yl/.%O, where y l is the larger centre-
to-centre dimension of a rectangular link. Values of 0.5vfc, are given in Table 12.
Table 12 Values of permissible torsion and shear stress, N/mm2

concrete grade I 0.042 d fCu 0.5 d feu
20 I 0.19 2.24
25 I 0.21 2.50
30 I 0.23 2.14
40 or above 0.26 3.12
3B.13.5 Reinforcement for torsion

(i) Torsion reinforcement, where required, should be in addition to that
required for shear and bending.
(ii) Where the torsion shear stress, v,, is less than 0.042dfc, no torsion
reinforcement is required. Values of 0.042dfc, arc given in Table 12.
(iii) Where the torsion shear stress, v , , is greater than 0.042dfc,, torsion
reinforcement should be provided.
(iv) Recommendations for reinforcement for combinations of shear and torsion
are given in Table 13.
Table 13 Reinforcement for shear and torsion
v c 'hp,. nominal shear reinforcement; designed torsion reinforcement,

no torsion reinforcement but not less than nominal
shear reinforcement
designed shear reinforcement; designed shear and torsion

no torsion reinforcement reinforcement
3B.13.6 Torsion reinforcement

(i) Torsion reinforcement should consist of rectangular closed links, together
with longitudinal reinforcement, and should be such that:
' A" T
-3 and
s 0.hI YIPst
A,.(Xl + YI)
A, 2
S
I
52 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccommcndations
I
where A, is the area of longitudinal reinforcement
A, is the area of two legs of closed links at a section
s is the spacing of the links
xI is the smaller centre-to-centre dimension of a rectangular link
is the permissible reinforcement stress given in clause 3A.7.4
yl is the larger centre-to-centre dimension of a rectangular link
(ii) I n a section with multiple links only the legs lying closest to the outside of
the section should be used as torsion reinforcement.
(iii) The longitudinal spacing of the links, s, should not exceed the least of x,, y,/2
or 200 mm.
(iv) The links should be of the closed type complying with shape code 74 of BS
4466.
(v) Longitudinal torsion reinforcement should be distributed evenly round the
inside perimeter of the links. Thc clear distance between these bars should
not exceed 300 mm, and at least four bars, one in each corner of the links,
should be used. Additional longitudinal reinforcement required at the level
of the tension or compression reinforcement may be provided by using larger
bars than those required for bending alone. The torsion reinforcement should
extend a distance at least equal to the largest dimension of the section beyond
where it theoretically ceases to be required.
(vi) Consideration should be given to the congestion that may arise in providing
the required amount of reinforcement for torsion. This may result in the need
for larger member sizes than would result from other considerations.
3B.13.7 Arrangement of links in T-, L- or I-sections

In the component rectangles, the reinforcement cages should be detailed so that they
interlock and tie the component rectangles of the section together. Where the
torsional shear stress in a minor component rectangle does not exceed 0.042 dfcu,
no torsion reinforcement need be provided in that rectangle.
3C FLAT SLAB CONSTRUCTION

3C.1 General
The term flat slab means a reinforced concrete slab with or without drops,
supported, generally without beams, by columns with or without flared column
heads (see Fig. I I). A flat slab may be a solid slab or may have recesses formed on
the soffit so that the soffit comprises a series of ribs in two directions. The recesses
may be formed by removable or permanent filler blocks.
3C.2 Methods of design

Flat slabs may be designed:
(i) as continuous frames using the method described in subsection 3C.11 or by
any other method satisfying the principles of statics and continuity; or
(ii) by the empirical method described in subsection 3C.12 to 3C.17 which is
applicable only to the more common forms of this construction described in
subsection 3C. 12.
In both methods subsections 3C.3 to 3C. 10 apply.

3C.3 Division of panels
Flat slab panels should be assumed to be divided into strips (see Fig. 12) as follows:
(i) Column strip
The width of the column strip should be taken as one-half of the width of
the panel. Where the panel is oblong the widths in both directions should be
based on the shorter panel dimension. Where dimensions in adjacent panels
lead to strips in one panel of a width different from those in the other, the
dimension of the panels in the region of the common support should be based
on the panel giving the wider column strip. Where drops arc used, the width
of the column strip may be taken as the width of the drop.
(ii) Middle strip
The width of the middle strip should be taken as the difference between that
of the panel and that of the column strip.
3C.4 Notation for flat slab construction

I n the following subsections and formulae relating to flat slabs, L , is the length of
the panel in the direction of the span, L2 is the width of the panel at right-angles
Any concrete in
this orea is to
be neglected
in the calculations
(a) Slab without drop and (b) Slab withoutdrop and

column without column head column with column head
l+-r
I I
Any concrete in this

a r m is to be neglected
in the colplotions
(c) Slab with drop and

column with column head
11 Types of column head
54 IStructE RC pcrrnissiblc stress rccomrncndations

(measured in each case from the centres of the columns), L , is the average of L ,
and L2, D is the diameter of the column o r column head (see Fig. 11 and subsection
3C.10), and w is the total load per unit area on the panel.
3C.5 Thickness of slab

The limiting span/depth ratios are given in subsection 3B.2, but in no case should
the total thickness of the slab be less than 125 mm.
3C.6 Shear stresses in flat slabs

3C.6.1 Shear at column face
The effective stress on the perimeter of the column face or column head (as
appropriate) should not exceed O . S d f c , (see subsection 3B. 12).
3C.6.2 Slab shear

The effective shear stress in the slab o r drop calculated on a perimeter 1 % x the
effectjve depth of slab or drop from a column, column head o r drop should not
exceed the permissible stresses, p v , in subsection 3B. 12.
I I
12 Divisions of panel into strips

- . ..
r----- 1
I
I I
13 Shear perimeter for internal columns
Perimeter a
i
14 Shear perimeter for edge column
Critical sections for shear are given in Figs. 13 and 14.

In some situations it may also be necessary to check shear on a plane across a
panel.
Where slab reinforcement in two directions is not equal, the capacity of the faces
in each direction may be calculated separately and added to give the total capacity
of the perimeter.
To calculate the effective shear stress the applied shear force should be increascd
to allow for the effect of moment transfer and stress concentrations. This should be
determined as follows:
(i) Internal columns
In braced structures with approximately equal spans the increase may be
taken as 15%. In other cases the effect of moment transfer should be
calculated and the increase taken as (15OM,/Vx)% if this exceeds 15%,
where:
M, is the moment transferred to the column
V the shear
x the length of the side of the perimeter considered parallel to the
axis of bending.
IStructE RC permissible stress rccommcndations

(ii) Edge columns
In braced structures with approximately equal spans the increase may be
taken as 40%.
I n other situations the effect of moment transfer and stress concentration
should be calculated and the increase taken as (25 + 15oM,/Vx)%0or 40%,
whichever is greater, where:
M, is the moment transferred to the column running parallel to the
edge.
(iii) Corner columns
The increase may be taken as 25% in all cases.
3C.6.3 Shear reinforcement

I f the effective shear stress exceeds the permissible value, shear reinforcement
should be provided. This may takc the form of links, bent-up bars or fabricated
components. The design of bent-up bars or other components should be justified by
established theory andlor test data.
Links should be designed in a similar manner to those in beams with A, taken as
the total area provided on one perimeter (see clause 3B.10.2). Spacing of link legs
along the perimeter should not exceed 1 S d .
The links required at the critical perimeter defined in clause 3C.6.2 should be
provided uniformly between this perimeter and the face of the support. Shear
stresses should then be checked at successive perimeters at 0.75d intervals outside
the critical perimeter and appropriate shear reinforcement provided if the effective
shear stresses exceed the permissible value.
3C.6.4 Openings
When openings are less than 6 X the effective depth of the slab from the edge of a
column then that part of the perimeter that is enclosed by radial projections from the
centroid of the column to the openings should be considered ineffective as shown in
Fig. 15.
Length deducted from

shear perimeter
-1
I
1
I
I
15 Effect of opening on shear perimeter
I IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccommcndations 57

f-.- .. -
3C.7 Openings in panels

Except for openings complying with (i), (ii) or (iii) below, openings should be
completely framed on all sides with beams to carry the loads to the columns, and
an opening should not encroach on a column head or drop.
(i) Openings of a size such that the greatest dimension in a direction parallel to
a centre-line of the panel does not exceed 0.4L may be formed in the area
common to two intersecting middle strips, provided that the total positive
and negative moments specified in clause 3C.11.5 or subsection 3C.14 are
redistributed between the remaining principal design sections to meet the
changed conditions.
(ii) Openings of aggregate length or width not exceeding one-tenth of the width
of the column strip may be made in the area common to two column strips,
provided that.'the reduced sections are capable of carrying the appropriate
moments specified in clause 3C.11.5 or subsection 3C.14.
(iii) Openings of aggregate length or width not exceeding one-quarter of the width
of the strip may be made in any area common to one column strip and one
middle strip, provided that the reduced sections are capable of carrying the
appropriate moments specified in clause 3C.ll.5 or subsection 3C.14.
3C.8 Concentrated loads

Significant concentrated point and line loads should be carried on a framework of
beams carried back to the columns unless a more exact analysis is adopted.
3C.9 Bending moments in edge panels

3C.9.1 Slab supported by marginal beam
Where the slab is supported by a marginal beam with a depth greater than 1.5 X
the thickness of the slab, or by a wall then:
(i) the total load to be carried by the beam or wall should comprise those loads
directly on the wall or beam plus a uniformly distributed load equal to one-
quarter of the total load on the slab; and
(ii) the bending moments on the half-column strip adjacent to the beam or wall
should be one-quarter of the bending moments specified in clause 3C.11.5
or subsection 3C.14.
3C.9.2 Edge moments

Unless an edge strip or edge beam is designed for the necessary torsion the moment
transmitted to edge columns should be limited to M,,,, = 0.1fcub,d2 where b, is
defined in Fig. 16. Calculated edge moments that exceed M, max should be reduced
to this value and positive moments adjusted accordingly. However, in no
circumstances should the calculated edge moment exceed 2M,
3C.10 Column heads

Where column heads are provided, the heads of interior columns and such portions
of the heads of exterior columns as will lie within the building should satisfy the
following requirements:

. . ' , ,i
-. - 8
(i) the angle of greatest slope of the head should not exceed 45" from the vertical
(ii) the diameter of the column head, D, should be taken as its diameter
measured at a distance of 40 mm below the underside of the slab or the
underside of the drop where provided, as shown in Fig. 11
a
Edge of
slab
b
b
b
4
ba=b+d
I L b
be= b + y
+Column strip
j
1 . 16 Definition of breadth of effective moment transfer strip, b,.

(iii) the diameter, D,should be not more than O.25Lm
(iv) where the column and column head are not of circular cross-section the term
diameter used in this subsection should be deemed to mean the diameter of
the largest circle that can be drawn within the section.
3C.11 Design of flat slabs as continuous frames
3C.ll.l General
Flat slabs may be designed as continuous frames on the assumptions given in clauses
3C.11.2 to 3C.11.7.
Subsections 3B.3 and 3C.3 to 3C.10 are also applicable to this method of design.
3C.11.2 Bending moments and shearing forces

The bending moments and shearing forces may be determined by an analysis of the
structure as a continuous frame and the following assumptions may be made:
(i) the structure may be considered to be divided longitudinally and transversely
into frames consisting of a row of columns and strips of slab with a width
equal to the distance between the centre-lines of the panels on each side of
the row of columns
(ii) each frame may be analysed in its entirety, or each strip of floor and roof
may be analysed as a separate frame with the columns above and below
assumed fixed at their extremities. The spans used in the analyses should be
the distances between the centres of the supports except where the slab is
supported by a wall, when thc span should be the distance to the face of the
wall plus one-half the depth of the slab.
3C.11.3 Stiffness of members

For the purpose of determining the relative stiffnesses of the members, the moment
of inertia of any section of a slab or column may be assumed to be that of the gross
cross-section of the concrete alone based on the full width of the slab. Variations of
the moment of inertia along the axes of the slabs and columns should be taken into
account. The joints between the columns and slabs may be assumed to have an
infinite moment of inertia. Flat slab structures should not normally be designed as
unbraced frames. Where sway resistance is used, a conservative value of effective
slab width should be used.
3C.11.4 Maximum bending,moments in slabs

The maximum bending moments near the midspan of a slab and at the centre-line
of the supports should be calculated for the following arrangements of the imposed
loads:
(i) alternate spans loaded and all other spans unloaded
(ii) any two adjacent spans loaded and all other spans unloaded.
3C.11.5 Design moments for flat slabs

The slab should be designed for the bending moments so calculated at any section,
except that provision need not be made for greater negative moments than those at
a distance of D/3 from the column centre-line. In all cases the sum of the maximum
positive bending moment and the average of the negative bending moments used in
60 IStructE RC pcrmissible strcss rccommcndations

the design of any one span of the slab should, for the whole panel width, not be less
than:
wL2
8
(.,?) 2
where w is the total load per unit area on the panel and D is the diameter of the
column heads supporting the slab concerned (see subsection 3C.10). Where the
diameters of the column heads supporting the slab are not equal, D should be
assumed to be the average of the two diameters.
The bending moments for which provision is made should be divided between the
column and the middle strips in the proportion given in Table 14.
Table 14 Distribution of bending moments in panels of flat slabs designed as

continuous frames
apportionment between column and middle strip expressed
as percentages of the total negative or positive moment*
column strip middle strip
negative moments 75 25
positive moments 55 45
3C.11.6 Design moments in columns

The maximum bending moments in the columns may be assumed to occur when the
imposed load is applied to alternate panels. The columns should be designed to resist
that combination of bending moment and direct load consistent therewith which
produces the greatest stresses in a column.
3C. 11.7 Arrangement of reinforcement

Curtailment of reinforcement should be determined from the analysis. I n other
respects reinforcement should be arranged in accordance with subsection 3C. 16.
3C.12 Empirical design of flat slabs
3C.12.1 General
This empirical method is described in subsections 3C. 13 to 3C. 17. Subsections 3C.3
to 3C. 10 are also applicable.
3C.12.2 Applicability of method

The bending moments given in subsection 3C.14 apply only when conditions (i) and
(ii) below are satisfied.

(i) Limitations regarding numbers and shape of a series of panels. The slabs
should comprise a series of rectangular panels of approximately constant
thickness, arranged in at least three rows in two directions at right-angles,
and the ratio of the length of a panel to its width should not exceed 4 : 3.
The lengths andor widths of any two adjacent panels in a series should not
differ by more than 15% of the greater length of width. End spans may be
shorter, but not longer, than interior spans. Where adjacent spans differ, the
length should always be taken as that of the longer span in calculating the
bending moments.
(ii) Limitations regarding drops. Drops should be rectangular on plan, and have
a length in each direction not less than one-third of the panel length in that
direction. For exterior panels the width of drop at right-angles to the non-
continuous edge and measured from the centre-line of the columns should
be equal to one-half the width of drop for interior panels.
3C.13 Critical sections for bending moments in flat slabs

For interior panels, fully continuous, the critical sections for the bending moments
given in subsection 3C. 14 are as follows:
(i) positive moment along the centre-lines of the panel
(ii) negative moment along the edges of the panel on lines joining the centres of
the columns and around the perimeter of the column heads.
3C.14 Bending moments in flat slab panels

The bending moments for which provision is made should be divided between the
column and middle strips as shown in Table 15, where
w L2 20
8
3C.15 Widths of reinforcing bands

In slabs reinforced in two directions only, the reinforcement should be so disposed
that each strip is reinforced over its full width.
3C.16 Arrangement of reinforcement in flat slabs

In the following L is L , or L2 as appropriate:
(i) In each strip or band all the reinforcement for positive moments should
extend in the lower part of the slab to within 0 . 2 L , and at least 40% should
extend to within 0.125L of the line joining the centres of the columns.
(ii) The reinforcement for negative moments in the top of the slab should extend
into adjacent panels for an average distance, measured from the line joining
the centres of the columns, of not less than 0.25L, and no bar should extend
less than 0.2L from this line.
(iii) When D is less than 0.15L, two-thirds of the reinforcement required to resist
the negative moment in the column strip should be placed in a width equal
to half that of the column strip and central with the column.
~ 62 IStructE RC pcrmissible stress recomrncndations

(iv) The above rules may be applied where the ratio of column thickness to slab
thickness exceeds the value given in Table 16 for the relevant ratio of imposed
to dead load. The values given have been calculated with 1.4 x the dead load
and 1.6 x the imposed load applied to alternate spans, with bottom
reinforcement stressed to 0.87fy.They are based on an assumed column
height 10 X its thickness; for other heights the ratios may be multiplied by
' v ( L / l O h ) , where L and h are the length and thickness of the column. If the
midspan reinforcement is increased by 20%, or a light (15% of support value)
top reinforcement is provided throughout the span, the limits in brackets
apply. Limits for intermediate ratios of imposed to dead load may be
interpolated. Where no value is quoted or where imposed load exceeds twice
the dead load, reinforcement for negative moments in the span should be
determined from analysis.
Table 15 Distribution of bending moments in panels of flat slabs designed by the

empirical method
apportionment of moments between the column and
middle strips expressed as percentages of M,,
I column strip middle strip
lntcrior panels
with drops
negative moments 50 15
positive moments 20 15
without drops
negative moments 45
positive moments 24
column wall column wall
supports supports supports supports
exterior panels
with drops
exterior negative moments 45 6 10 6
positive moments 25 35 19 26
interior negative moments 50 72 15 22
withoirt drops
exterior negative moments 40 6 10 6
positive moments 28 36 22 28
interior negative moments 48 65 16 20
Notes I Where the column strip is taken as equal to the width of the drop. and the middle strip is therehy
increased in width to a value greater than half the width of the panel. the moments to he resisted
by the middle strip should he increased in proportion to its increased width. The moments to be
resisted by the column strip may then he decreased hy an amount such that there is no reduction
in either the total positive or the total negative moments resisted hy the column strip and middle
strip together.
2 Where end spans are shorter than interior spans. the moments given in this table may he suitably
modified.
IStructE RC pcrmissible stress rccommcndations 63

column above and below column below only
no drops I drops no drops I drops
w,= %W, 1.5 (1.2) 1.9 (1.4) 1.8 (1.4) 2.2 (1.7)
w,= w, 1.8 (1.4) 2.3 (1.7) 2.1 (1.7) 2.7 (2.0)
w,= 2w, 2.1 (1.6) 2.8 (2.0) 2.5 (1.9) 3.3 (2.4)
3C.17 Bending moments in columns

External columns should be designed for the total negative moment at the edge
specificed in subsection. 3C.14. Internal columns should be designed for the
difference in total negative moment between adjacent spans calculated with dead
load on one span and both dead and imposed load on the other.
(i) These moments should be apportioned between the upper and lower columns
in proportion to their stiffness. I n internal columns, the direct load acting
with the moment may be reduced to allow for the panel on one side being
free of imposed load.
(ii) I n the case of external columns carrying portions of the floors and walls as
a cantilevered load, the specified column moments may be reduced by the
moment arising from the dead load on the cantilevered portion.
3D STAIRS
3D.1 Distribution of loading on stairs
In the case of stairs with open wells, where spans partly crossing at right-angles
occur, the load on areas common to any two such spans may be taken as one-half
in each direction as shown in Fig. 17. Where flights or landings are built into walls
a distance of not less than 100 mm and are designed to span in the direction of the
flight, a 150 mm strip may be deducted from the loaded area and the effective
breadth of the section increased by 75 mm (see Fig. 18).
3D.2 Effective span of stairs

The effective span of stairs without stringer beams should be taken as the following
horizontal distances:
(i) where supported at top and bottom risers by beams or walls spanning parallel
with the risers, the distance centre to centre of supports.
(ii) where spanning on to the edge of a landing slab that spans parallel with the
risers (see Fig. 19) a distance equal to the ‘going’ of the stairs plus, at each
end, either half the width of the landing or 1 m, whichever is smaller.
(iii) where the landing slab spans in the same direction as the stairs, they should
be considered as acting together to form a single slab and the span
determined as in (i) of this subsection, the going being measured horizon-
tally.
I 64 IStructE RC permissible stress rccommcndations

I
- UP
I
I
I
E
I
SI W Loading
I
-Down
I
I
I
I
I.
-4 L w 1 2
The load on areas common

-L to two systems to be taken
a s one half in each direction
Loading
I7 Loading on stairs with open wells
18 Loading on stairs built into walls
IStructE RC pcrrnissiblc strcss rccornmcndations 65

X
I
Going (G) --
L -
Y
I
I
L--+--
Max 1M Max 1M
Effective span
19 Effective span for stairs sirpportcd at cwch cwcl by lanrlings spanning purallrl with
the risers
3E COLUMNS
3E.1 Reinforcement in columns
3E. 1.1 Longitudinal reinforcement

A reinforced concrete column should havc longitudinal steel reinforcement, and the
cross-sectional area of such reinforcement should not be less than 0.8% nor more
than 8% of the gross cross-sectional area of the column required to transmit all the
loading in accordance with these recommendations.
I t should be noted that the use of 8% of steel may involve serious practical
difficulties in the placing and compacting of concrctc, and a lower percentage would
be recommended. Where bars from the column below have to be lapped with those
in the column, the percentage of steel should usually not excecd 4%.
A reinforced concrete column having helical rcinforccmcnt should have at least
six bars of longitudinal reinforcement within this helical reinforcement. The
longitudinal bars should be in contact with the helical reinforcement and equidistant
around its inner circumference.
For laps in longitudinal bars see subsection 3A. 12.
The bars should be not less than 12 mm in diameter.
3E. 1.2 Transverse reinforcement

(i) General. A reinforced concrete column should have transverse reinforcement
so disposed as to provide restraint against the buckling of each of the

\
longitudinal reinforcing bars. Every corner bar and each alternate bar in a
column near the face should be properly linked by having at least one link
with a change of direction at that bar. The ends of such transverse
reinforcement should be properly anchored. No longitudinal bar within a
compression zone should be further than 150 m m from a restrained bar.
(ii) Pitch. The pitch of transverse reinforcement should be not more than the
least of the three following distances:
(a) the least lateral dimension of the column
(h) 12 X the diameter of the smallest longitudinal reinforcement in the
column
( c ) 300 m m .
(iii) Helical reinforcemenr. Helical reinforcement should be of regular formation,
with the turns of the helix spaced evenly, and its ends should be anchored
properly. Where an increased load on the column on account of the helical
reinforcement is allowed for under subclause 3E.2.l(ii), the pitch of the
helical turns should be not more than 75 m m or more than one-sixth of the
core diameter of the column, nor less than 25 m m nor less than 3 X the
diameter of the steel bar forming the hclix. In other cases the requirements
of (ii) above should be met.
(iv) Diameter. The diameter of the transverse reinforcement should be not less
than one-quarter the diamctcr of the main rods, and in no case less than 5 mm.
3E.2 Permissible loads on columns

3E.2.1 Axially loaded columns
The capacity of an axially loaded column is kf,, where k is a factor to cover the
effects of buckling (see Table 17) and f,,is the section capacity calculated as in (i)
or (ii) below:
( i ) Columns with lateral ties. For a column reinforced with longitudinal bars and
lateral ties:
where p,, is the permissible compressive stress for the concrete

A, is the gross cross-sectional area of concrete
p,, is the permissible compressive stress in the reinforcement
A,, is the cross-sectional area of the longitudinal steel.
(ii) Columns with helical reinforcement. The permissible axial load f, on a
column reinforced with helical reinforcement is that given by the greater of
equations (24) or (25):
where A k is the gross-sectional area of concrete in the core

A h is the equivalent area of helical reinforcement (volume of helix
per unit length of the column)
f,,calculated from equation (25) should not exceed 0.5 fc,Ac.
3E.2.2 Columns subject to both direct load and bending

The permissible direct load is kf, and the permissible bending moment k M ,

where k is a factor to cover the effects of buckling (see Table 17)
P, is the capacity for direct load
M, is the capacity for bending moment
coexisting }
The column should be designed to have a load factor generally of 1.8; however
in the strength calculations the cube strength should be taken as 75% of the actual
cube strength. This allows for the difference in likely strength between concrete in
the structure and that in wet-cured laboratory test cubes. I t should be assumed that
the maximum concrete strain in compression does not exceed 0.35% at failure; that
the compressive stress distribution on the concrcte at failure is rectangular, parabolic
or such other shape as is shown by tests to be reasonable; and that the maximum
stress in the concrete at failure does not exceed two-thirds of the cube strength of
the concrete. I t is also necessary to see that the stresses at working loads are not
such as to cause excessive cracking.
These requirements will be satisfied for symmetrical columns of rectangular
section with longitudinal reinforcemcnt in the two faces parallel to the axis of
bending if the following procedure is adopted:
(i) assume a depth to the neutral axis d,
(ii) assume concrete stress is uniform (= pcc)over a depth of 0.9dn
(iii) calculate stress in reinforcement as
fbI = - 385 (T) d-d,

* ps, (tension)
+ 375 (T)
d, - d
or + pbc(compression)
-
+ 375 (T) + plc (compression)
d, d'
f,r =
385 (T)
d' - d,
or - + p5, (tension)
Vbl + fd)
(iv) P, = 0.9pC,bd, + 2
A,
+ *{
(y) h - 0.9d A h h
( v ) M, = 0.9p,,bdn (T- f,, d ) +f,? ( T - d.,>,,7)
where d, is the depth to neutral axis from the compression face
d is depth to the reinforcement farthest from the compression face
d' is depth to the reinforcement nearest the cornpression face
A, is the area of longitudinal reinforcement
f,l is the stress in steel layer farthest from the comprcssion face
f,* is the stress in steel layer nearest the compression face
f, is the permissible direct load
M, is the permissible moment.
Note that in equations (26) and (27) 0.9pc,bd, # pobh and in equation (27) the
first term should not be taken as less than zero.

. . . .
_.
. ._ ._
a .. - 1.
.
. . .L . . .
.. .. . .
. .
. . .. ...
4,
.‘ .. ’ -.
:
Columns subjected to biaxial bending may be designed on the basis of calculations

or design charts based on the above theory or the following equation:
(S,”
(2,” +
M , and M y are the applied moments and M,, and M y , the corresponding moment
capacities for uniaxial bending. O( may be taken as I where PIP, 0.2 and 2 where
PIP, 2 0.8, with intermediate values obtained by interpolation. PO is the capacity
of the column section in pure compression ( P O = pccAc+ pbcAbc). See clause 3E.2.5
for values of k .
For convenience, equation (28) is shown graphically in Fig. 20.
20
3E
Alternatively, column design may be based on elastic theory with a modular ratio
of 15 and the permissible stresses given in subsections 3A.6, 3A.7 and 3A.8. The
direct load on an eccentrically loaded column should not exceed that permissible for
an axially loaded column.
33.2.4 Overturning
Where appropriate, the factor of safety against overturning should be checked in
accordance with subsection 3A.4.

. . .., . . ,. . - .. ... . .
__
3E.2.5 Reduction coefficients for columns
(i) The permissible direct load and bending moments calculated for a column
should be reduced by the appropriate factor from Table 17 to allow for
buckling effects based on the ratio of effective column length to least lateral
dimension (for rectangular columns) or radius of gyration (for other cross-
sections). Where the permissible load on a helically reinforced column is
based on the core area, the least lateral dimension should be taken as the
diameter of the core.
Where column proportions comply with the limits for slender beams (see
clause 3B.1.2), the value of k applied to moment resistance may be taken as
that corresponding to the slenderness ratio in the plane of bending. Thus k
for major axis bending may be based on Llh,,,,, and k for minor axis bending
based on a L/hm,i,l,where h,,;,, and hmi, are the larger and smaller column
dimensions, respectively.
Table 17 Reduction coefficient k for columns

Effective length Effective length Cocfficient
+ least radius + least lateral concrete grade
of gyration dimension 20 50
0 0 1.oo 1 .oo
17 5 0.95 0.95 0.95
34 10 0.89 0.85
52 15 0.81 0.71
69 20 0.69 0.56
86 25 0.56 0.43
104 30 0.45 0.32
121 35 0.34 0.23
138 40 0.26 0.18
172 50 0.13 0.09
207 60 0 0
Type of column Effective column length
( a ) Properly restrained at both ends in 0.75 L

position and direction
(b) Properly restrained at both ends in A value intermediate between
position and imperfectly restrained in 0.75L and L depending on the
direction at one or both ends efficiency of the dircctional
restraint
(c) Properly restrained at one end in A value intermediate between L
position and direction and imperfectly and 2L depending on the
restrained in both position and direction efficiency of the imperfect
at the other end restraint
70 IStructE RC pcrmissible strcss rccommcndations

Where, due to bending, the maximum moments on the column occur at the
ends of the column and the effective length is in category ( a ) or (b) of Table
18 the permissible load may be determined without reference to the reduction
coefficient for sections within one-quarter of the column length L from the
centre-line of the beams.
Where a column is in category ( c ) , the eccentricity, e , of the applied load
at the restrained end should be increased by additional eccentricity
PccA ce L
= - 0.25h where - 5 15
P,, h
L
e;ldd = 0 where - h
=0
where h is the depth of the section in the plane of bending

Intermediate values may be interpolated.
(ii) Determination of effective length. Effective length should be determined from
Table 18 where L is the length of the column from floor to floor, or between
adequately restrained supports. The effective column length values given in this
Table refer to typical cases only and embody the general principles that should
be cmploycd in assessing thc appropriate valuc for any particular column.
33.2.6 Bending moments in columns

Bending moments in internal columns supporting an approximately symmetrical
arrangement of beams and loading need not be provided for except in the case of
flat slab construction (see section 3C).
Bending moments in external columns and in internal columns supporting an
arrangement of beams and loading not approximately symmetrical should be
calculated and provided for.
The expressions given in Table 19 may be used for estimating the moments.
Table 19 Moments in columns

Moments for frames Moments for frames
of one bay of two or more bays
External (and similarly loaded)
columns
Moment at foot of upper column
Moment at head of lower column
Internal columns
Moment at foot of upper column
Moment at head of lower column

whcrc M, is thc bending momcnt at thc cnd of thc bcam framing into thc column,
assuming fixity at both cnds of thc bcam
M,, is thc maximum diffcrcncc bctwccn thc niomcnts at thc cnds of thc two
beams framing into opposite sidcs of thc column, cach calculatcd on
thc assumption that thc cnds of the bcams iirc fixcd a n d assuming onc
of thc bcams unloadcd
Kh is thc stiffncss of thc bcam
K b l is the stiffness of thc bcam on one sidc of thc column
Kb2 is thc stiffness of thc bcani on thc othcr sick of thc column
KI is the stiffncss of thc lowcr column
K, is thc stiffncss of thc uppcr column.
For the purposcs of this Tablc, thc stiffncss of ii mcmbcr may bc obtaincd by
dividing the momcnt of inertia of a cross-scction by tlic lcngth of thc mcmbcr,
providcd that the mcmbcr is of constant cross-section throughout its Icngth.
The equations for thc momcnt a t thc hcad of tlic lowcr column may bc uscd for
columns in a topmost storey by taking K,, as zcro.
Whcrc the bcnding momcnt is calculatcd in tlic intcrnal columns it is pcrniissiblc
to take into account thc rcduction in dircct loxl rcsulting from thc bcam on onc sick
of the column being fully loadcd and thc bcam o n the othcr sidc hcing londcd with
dead load only.
The cffects of shcar arc not gcncrally significant in column dcsign. Howcvcr i n
some circurnstanccs thcy may warrant considcration.
3F REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS

3F.1 General
Sections with a Icngth/thickncss ratio of grcatcr than 4:l should bc treatcd as
reinforccd concretc walls (as opposed to columns) providcd t h a t thcy havc thc
minimum reinforcement required to comply with this clausc.
Wherc reinforced concrete walls arc intcndcd to carry vcrtical loads, thcy should
be designed gcnerally in accordancc with the rccommcndations given for columns.
The cross-sectional area of thc vcrtical rcinforcemcnt may howcvcr be rcduccd to
not less than 0.4% and the lateral rcinforcemcnt parallel to thc wall facc to not less
than 0.25% (high-yield steel), 0.3% (mild stccl).
Wherc the vertical bars arc not assumcd to assist in rcsisting compression. tlic
provisions of clausc 3E.1.2 with regard to transverse rcinforccmcnt to prevent
buckling need not be takcn to apply, and the minimum vcrtical rcinforccmcnt may
be reduced to 0.25% (high-yicld stccl), 0.3% (mild stccl).
The minimum pcrcentages of reinforccmcnt specified in thc subscction may not
always be sufficient to providc adequate rcsistancc to thc effects of temperature and
shrinkage. These factors should be takcn into account if thcy iirc liable to bc
significant. In general, the wall thickness should not be less than 100 mni.
3F.2 Permissible loads

The permissible load on any storey height should be calculated in thc general manner
specified for columns (omitting, however, the contribution of the vcrtical reinforce-
ment in compression if transverse reinforcement satisfying clausc 3E. I .2 is not
provided).
72 IStruetE RC permissible strcss rccommcndations

The effective height of the wall may be determined as for columns in accordance
with subclause 3E.2.5(ii). Where, as may occasionally happen, the wall is stiffened
by closely spaced crosswalls such that the length of wall between adjacent crosswalls
is less than the effective height, the slenderness ratio may be asumcd to be the ratio
of this length to the wall thickness.
3F.3 Walls subjected to concentrated loads

Additional stresses of a purely local nature, as at girder bearings, column bases,
lintels or other Concentrated loads are to be calculated, and the maximum stress
resulting from these and other loads should not exceed the permissible compressive
stress by more than 50%.
3F.4 Shear stresses

Shear stresses need not be checked where the applied shear force is less than one-
quarter of the vertical compression on the wall. Otherwise, the recommendations of
subsection 3B. 10 apply.
3G BASES AND PILE CAPS

3G.1 Bases for reinforced columns and walls
3Gl.l Bending moments in bases

I The bending moments at any section of a base for a reinforced concrete column or
wall should bc taken to be the moment of the forces over the entire area on one
I side of the section. The critical section for bending in the base should be taken at
the face of the column or wall.
3G.1.2 Reinforcement in bases

If the breadth of thc section exceeds 1S(c + 3 4 , where c is the column width, two-
thirds of the reinforcement provided to resist the bending moment should be
concentrated in the central half width of the base beneath the column. Otherwise it
I may be spaced uniformly.
,
3G.1.3 Shear
The critical sections for shear are:
(i) a line across the width of the base, taken 1 l/r X the effective depth from the
column face
(ii) a punching pcrimeter 1% X the effective depth from the column face, with
stresses assessed in the same manner as in flat slabs (sec subsection 3C.6).
Where the shear stress does not exceed p v , no shear reinforcement is necessary.
3G.1.4 Bond in reinforcement of bases

, Bond stresses should be checked in accordance with clause 3A.12.3. Anchorage
bond should also be checked. Due care should be taken in the size of reinforcement
I chosen so that the anchorage bond length can be provided, and this may involve
extending the bars through 90" up the face of the base.

3G1.5 Pockets for precast members
Pockets are often employed in bases for prccast construction, a wedge-shaped pocket
being formed in the base plan area such that a column can be inserted and grouted
in. The following points should be considered (see Fig. 21):
t m
Plan
Section X - X Section V - V
21 Base with pocket for precast column
(i) The walls surrounding the pockets should be sufficiently thick and adequately
reinforced to avoid bcing damaged by wedges driven in between the precast
column and the wall to secure the column.
(ii) Dimension t should be a minimum of 75 mm to allow efficient grouting with
a concrete composed of cement, sand and small aggregate.
(iii) The wedge should be bevelled at such an angle as to carry in vertical
compression the load from the column. If this cannot be achieved then the
concrete in the base below the column must be checked for punching shear.
(iv) The whole base should be reinforced as though it was monolithic to accept
the critical bending moments and shears described in clauses 3G.l.l and
3G. 1.3.
3G.1.6 Mass concrete bases

For an unreinforced concrete pad or strip footing the projection of the foundations
beyond the wall or column face should not normally exceed the depth of the concrete
in the foundations.

3G.2 Pile caps
These should be designed in a similar manner to pad bases except:
(i) I f pile spacing exceeds 3 pile diameters, tension reinforcement should be
concentrated in bands 3 pile diameters wide across the pile heads.
(ii) Where pile spacing does not exceed 3 x the pile diameter, the permissible
shcar stress may be enhanced in accordance with subsection 3B.11. Where
the spacing exceeds 3 pile diameters. this enhancement should be limited to
strips 3 pile diameters wide which cross the pile heads. a, should be measured
from the column face to one-fifth of the pile diameter inside the pile face.
The dcsign of pile cap reinforcement may be carried out using truss analogy
assuming that all tensile forces are carried by reinforcement determined in
accordance with subsections 3A.7 and 3A. 12. The compression in the concrete
should not exceed the permissible stresses in subsection 3A.6.
3H REINFORCED LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE

3H.1 General
The recommendations of all the previous clauses in Section 3 apply to lightweight
aggregate concrete except for the modifications required in subsections 3H.2 to 3H.7
inclusive. In considering lightweight aggregate concrete the properties for any
particular type of aggregate can be established far more accurately than for most
naturally occurring materials, and the engineer should therefore obtain specific data
direct from the aggregate producer in preference to using tabulated values taken
from British Standard Codes of Practice or British Standard Specifications.
3H.2 Permissible stresses in reinforced lightweight aggregate

concrete
The permissible stresses where lightweight aggregates are used are:
(i) compressive stresses: as for normal-weight aggregate concrete
(ii) shear stresses: for concrete grades of 25 or more, shear stresses should be
80% of those in subsection 3B.10; for concrete grade 15, shear stresses should
be limited to those in Table 20; stresses for grades between 15 and 25 may
be interpolated
Table 20 Limitation of shear stress in lightweight aggregate concrete
P V
p, - grade 25 for effective depth of member, d
grade
100 A,,lbd 15 6125 150 175 200 225 250 300 3400
60. I 5 0.09 0.22 0.21 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.17
0.25 0.10 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20
0.50 0.11 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.25
0.75 0.12 0.38 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.33 0.31 0.29
1 .oo 0.13 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.34 0.32
1S O 0.14 0.49 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.41 0.39 0.36
2.00 0.15 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.40
33.00 0.17 0.61 0.58 0.57 0.54 0.53 0.51 ,0.49 0.45

- - __.
(iii) bond and laps: bond stresses should be limited to 80% of those given in sub-
section 3A.6; for foamed slag or similar aggregates stresses may have to be
restricted further where reinforcement is in a horizontal position during
casting, and the design should be based on test data
(iv) bearing stress inside bends: stress should be limited to two-thirds of the value
given in clause 3A. 12.4.
3H.3 Deflection and stiffness

Where the imposed load on slabs does not exceed 4kN/mZ, the spardeffective depth
limits in clause 38.2.2, Table 6C may be applied. Where the imposed load exceeds
4kN/m2, the limits should be taken as 93% of the relevant values in Table 6C. Beams
should be based on clause 3B.2.1, with basic spanleffective depth ratios reduced to
85% of those given in Table 6.
3H.4 Permissible loads on columns

Design should be in accordance with subsection 3E.2 except that the reduction
factors in Table 17 should be replaced by those in Table 21, which have been
prepared for concrete of a density of 1800 kg/m3. Where the density is less than this,
the reduction coefficient should be based on a slenderness ratio equal to the actual
ratio multiplied by (1800/dcnsity).
3H.5 Reinforced concrete walls

Design should be in accordance with section 3F except that reduction factors should
be as in Table 21.
Table 21 Reduction coefficient for columns of lightweight aggregate concrete
Effective length Effective length
t least radius t least lateral
of gyration dimension 20 30 40 50
0 0 1.oo 1.oo 1 .oo 1 .oo
17 5 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90
34 10 0.87 0.83 0.82 0.81
52 15 0.71 0.66 0.63 0.59
69 20 0.55 0.49 0.46 0.42
86 25 0.41 0.35 0.32 0.28
104 30 0.27 0.23 0.21 0. I9
121 35 0.19 0.16 0. I5 0. I3
138 40 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08
172 50 0 0 0 0
~
3H.6 Modular ratio

Where the design calculations for the strength of a member are bascd on the elastic
theory, the modular ratio for lightweight aggregate concrete should be assumed to
be 15. However, calculation of the stiffness of members should be based on a
modular ratio of 30.
3H.7 Cover
Cover should be 10 mm greater than that specified in subsection 35.1.
76 IStructE RC pcrrnissiblc strcss rccornrncndations

3J DURABILITY AND RESISTANCE TO CHEMICAL ATTACK
3J.1 Durability
35. I. 1 General
In a rcinforced concrete design one of the most important aims is the production of
a durable structure. To produce it requires the integration of all aspects of design,
materials and construction.
Much of the damage to reinforced concrete structures arises from water
penctration to the reinforcement causing rusting and subsequent cracking and
spalling of the concrete cover, but the effects of other potentially deleterious
substances need also to be considered. To prevent such damage, it is necessary that
the cover specified is adcquatc for the conditions applying, that the concrete is of a
suitable quality and that it is correctly placed to give a dense impermeable whole.
35.1.2 Drainage
Care should bc taken that surfaces exposed to water are laid to adequate falls or
other appropriate measures taken to avoid ponding.
35.1.3 Waterlcement ratio

For low permeability, it is necessary that a concrete mix should have an adequate
cement content and a sufficiently low waterlcement ratio and be fully compacted.
35.1.4 Chloride content of mixes

Chlorides in concrete increase the risk of corrosion of embedded metals and may
adversely affect the sulphate resistance of the concrete. The total chloride-ion
content of the constituents of each mix, expressed as a percentage by weight of
cement (including ggbfs or pfa if used) in the mix, must not exceed the following:
concrete made with cement complying with BS 4027 or BS 4248 0.2%
concrete containing embedded metal and made with cement
complying with BS 12, BS 146, BS 1370, BS 4246 or combinations 0.4%
with ggbfs or pfa
Calcium chloride and chloride-based admixtures should never be added to reinforced
concrete, prestressed concrete and concrete containing embedded metal.
35.1.5 Admixtures
Where admixtures are used their effect on the durability of the concrete and the risk
of corrosion of the reinforcement should be considered. The chloride-ion content of
admixtures must not exceed 2% by mass of the admixture or 0.03% by mass of the
cement.
35.1.6 Air entrainment

Air-entraining agents are of value where severe frost conditions are likely to occur.
The agent and dosage used should be such that the air content can be readily
maintained within the limits specified at the time of placing. When concrete lower
than grade 50 is used, the average air content by volume of the fresh concrete at the
time of placing should be:

7% for 10 mm nominal maximum sized aggregate
All concrete lower than grade 50 should contain appropriate amounts of entrained
air where surfaces are subject to the effects of de-icing salts.
35.1.7 Requirements for durability of concrete

Table 22 gives recommended maximum free waterkement ratios and minimum
cement contents for various conditions of exposure and nominal cover for reinforced
concrete using 20 mm nominal sized aggregate. Subsection 35.2 gives rccommenda-
tions for concrete mixes used below ground.
Table 22 Durabilitv and concrete cover

qominal cover to all reinforcement
Conditions of exposure for durability, mm
Mild
(Internal concrete) 25 20 20* 20%
Moderate
(Sheltered from severe rain and against
freezing while saturated with water) - 35 30 25
Severe
(Exposed to driving rain, alternate
wetting and drying, occasional freezing
or severe condensation) - - 40 30
Very severe
(Exposed to seawater spray, de-icing
salts, corrosive fumes and severe freezing
while wet) - - 50 40
Maximum free waterkement ratio 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50

Minimum cement content, kg/m3 275 300 325 350
* These covers may be reduced to 15 mm provided that the nominal maximum size of aggregate does not
exceed 15 mm.
Notes: I For work against earth faces. the cover should not he less than 40 mm for all reinforcement in
concrete cast against forms or protected hy blinding. For concrete cast directly against earth filces.
cover should not he less than 75 mm.
2 Where concrete is subject to severe freezing when wet. air entrainment should be used.
3 Where the face of the concrete is protected hy a suitahle coating, it may he reasonahle t o vary
these recommendations.
4 I n no case should the cover to the main hars be less than the diameter of such reinforcement.
Table 23 gives adjustments to minimum cement contents where other sized

aggregates are used. However, any adjustment made is subject to the condition that
the minimum cement content should not be less than 240 kg/m3.

Table 23 Adjustment to cement content for different sized aggregate
Adjustment to minimum cement
Nominal maximum aggregate size content in Tables 22 and 24
mm kg/m3
10 +40
14 +20
20 0
40 -30
The above requirements have been found to be adequate for many common
structures and circumstances. However where particular conditions might be
relevant or an unusual design life is required, consideration may be given to such
factors as concrete mix design, admixtures, cement replacements and enhancers,
special surface treatment of steel, stainless steel and surface treatment or protection
of the concrete surface. The influence of wear on the concrete surface should also
be considered where relevant.
35.1.8 Reactive aggregates - alkali-silica reaction

Some aggregates containing particular varieties of silica may be susceptible to attack
by alkalis (Na20 and K20)originating from cement or other sources, producing an
expansive reaction that can cause cracking and disruption of concrete. There are at
present no British Standard tests for the reactivity of aggregates with alkalis.
Damage to concrete from this reaction will normally occur only when all the
following are present together:
(i) a sufficiently strong alkaline pore solution
(ii) a proportion of reactive silica in the aggregate lying within the sensitive range
(iii) sufficient moisture in the concrete.
Where there is a local history of alkali-silica reaction, an aggregate free from an
alkali-reactive constituent should be used where possible. Where this cannot be
achieved appropriate procedures need to be taken to avoid the conditions necessary
to produce the reaction. Guidance is given in:
Concrete Society report no. 30
BRE digest no. 330
35.1.9 Finishing and curing

Good finishing practices are essential for durable concrete. Overworking the surface
and the addition of water as an aid to finishing should be avoided: the resulting
laitance will have impaired strength and durability, and will be particularly vulnerable
to freezing and thawing in wet conditions and to the action of de-icing salts.
The permeability of concrete will be reduced and its durability, enhanced the
greater the extent of hydration of the cement, particularly in the surface zone of the
concrete; thus i t is essential to use proper and adequate curing techniques (see
Section 5).
3J.2 Resistance to chemical attack

Concrete structures are susceptible to chemical attack either in the ground or from
environmental pollution. Chemical reagents such as vegetable oils, fats and sugar

solutions, which are found in many industrial processes, also slowly attack Portland
cement concrete. The most common chemicals in the ground or groundwater are
sulphates, which may be of sodium, potassium, calcium or magnesium, and these
can cause severe damage if appropriate precautions arc not taken. Scvcre pollution
can be encountered when building on sites previously used for industrial purposes,
or filled sites.
Careful consideration must be given during the design proccss to assessing
potential risks and specifying that a concrete is used capable of providing the
required durability. Thinner sections are more vulnerable to damage from cheniical
attack than thicker sections. Where high concentrations are present, i t may be
necessary to provide a protectivc coating to the concrete, e.g. floors or foundations.
Where permanently acidic conditions of pH value of 5.5 or less exist, the use of
Portland cement in thc concrete is not recommended. Concretes containing
supersulphated cements or mixes including ccmentitious materials containing slag or
pfa can have some acid-resisting properties, but each situation requires its own
individual solution. The choice of aggrcgatc may also be affcctcd by the type of
chemical attack expected. Table 24 indicates thc rcquircments for concrete cxposcd
to sulphate attack.
In all cases it is essential that the concrctc is fully compaetcd and that adequate
cover is provided (see Section 5). Specialist advice should be sought whcrc ncccssary.
3K RESISTANCE TO FIRE
3K.1 General
The following text gives simple tabular methods for checking that a structure has ade-
quate resistance to fire for the required pcriods. Other methods of assessment may be
used, such as the direct application of the rcsults of fire-resistancc tests, or calculations
I
based on the reduced strength of steel and concrete at elevated temperatures.
3K.2 Robustness
In the consideration of fire resistance, such factors as robustness, continuity and
availability of alternative paths of support are important.
3K.3 Elements exposed to fire

In considering the elements of structure, the surfaces normally considered to be
exposed to fire are:
l
walls: one side
slabs: soffit
beams: sides and soffit
columns: all sides fully exposed, or one or more sides depending on degree
of protection afforded by adjacent walls.
In special circumstances it may be necessary to consider more adverse exposure
conditions for walls.
3K.4 Aggregates
Concretes made with lightweight aggregates have better fire resistance than normal-
weight aggregate concretes, and rarely exhibit spalling. Calcareous (limestone)

y
C
F
m
C
c -
-e
t
C
a
a
2
U
=
b-,
L
c w
3
L P 6
E
EL c
x
e,
v.
e,
E
m
.c
c 'c:
-a r,
L
0
e
E
d
0
J
C
e Y
3 3
N
L
e,
5
I

aggregates are superior to siliceous (flints, quartzites, granites), but data on their
relative performance are not available except for columns, where reductions in cover
are possible.
3K.5 Average cover to main bars

The cover to the main reinforcement should te taken as the minimum average cover
measured from the surface exposed to fire, considering the areas of individual bars
in each layer and their respective covers.
3K.6 Cover to secondary bars

Where cover to all reinforcement including links exceeds 40 m m (normal-weight
concrete) or 50 mm (lightweight concrete), measures should be taken to avoid
spalling. A mesh of light supplementary reinforcement may be used, placed with 20
mm cover to the concrete face; however, this should not be used where durability
problems could result and unless particular precautions are taken to maintain the
reinforcement in its correct position during concreting. Consideration should be
given to the use of additional protection.
3K.7 Contribution to cover of additional protection

The following materials may be used in applications up to 25 mm total thickness.
The tabulated concrete covers may be reduced by the following proportions of the
thickness of additional protection:
mortar and gypsum plaster {0.6 x thickness
lightweight plaster and 1.0 x thickness up to 2h
. - lightweight
sprayed I - insulation 2.0 x
1.0 x
thickness above 2 h
thickness up to 2 h
vermiculite slabs 1.5 x thickness above 2 h
For example, 15 mm of gypsum plaster reduces the concrete cover requirement by
0.6 x 15 mm = 9 mm. 15 m m of sprayed lightwcight insulation reduces the cover
requirement by 1 x 15 mm = 15 mm for ratings up to 2 h and 2.0 x 15 = 30 mm
for ratings above 2 h.
3K.8 Floor thickness

For a solid floor, the thickness may be deemed to be the actual thickness plus any
screed or incombustible finishes.
For hollow slabs with filler blocks, the effective thickness should be taken as the
actual thickness X the proportion of solid material per unit width, plus the thickness
of incombustible finishes.
For ribbed slabs, the thickness should be taken as thc topping thickness plus the
thickness of incombustible finish on the top.
3K.9 Beam widths

The width of the beam rib should be taken as the width at the level of the lowest
reinforcement. For I-sections the web thickness should not be less than half the
appropriate tabulated beam width.
3K.10 Beam and ribs

Ribs should not be placed at centres exceeding 1.5 m unless the tabular requirements
for beams are satisfied.

. _ . .
Table 25 Fire resistance of reinforced concrete

Minimum dimensions mm,
excluding any finish, for a fire
resistance of
Nature of construction and materials l h %t 2h 3h 4h
--
Fully exposed
(a) Normal-weight width 150 200 250 300 400 450
concrete cover 20 25 30 35 35 35
(b) Lightweight concrete width 150 160 200 240 320 360
cover 20 20 25 35 35 35
50% exposed
cover 20 20 25 25 30 30
One face exposed
( a ) Normal-weight thickness 100 120 140 160 200 240
concre te cover 20 25 25 25 25 25
(b) Lightweight concretc thickness 100 100 115 130 I60 190
cover 10 20 20 25 25 25
-
Reinforced concrete
(simply supported)
( a ) Normal-weight width 80 120 150 200 240 280
(6) Lightweight concrete width 80 100 I30 160 200 250
cover 15 20 35 45 55 65
Rein forced concrete
(continuous)
cover 15 20 25 35 45 55
Reinforced concrete
(simply supported)
( a ) Normal-weight thickness 75 95 110 I25 I50 170
(b) Lightweight concrete thickness 70 90 I05 115 135 1-50
cover 15 15 20 25 35 45
Reinforced concrete
(continuous)
( a ) Normal-weight thickness 75 95 I10 125 150 I70
(b) Lightweight concrete thickness 70 90 105 I15 135 150
cover 15 15 20 20 25 35
- - - - - -

, .
Table 25 Fire resistance of reinforced concretc continued)

Minimum dimensions m m ,
excluding any finish, for a fire
resistance of
-
Nature of construction and materials h I 2h 3h
~
'/2 l h '/2 4h
-
Reinforced concrete
(simply supported)
( a ) Normal-weight thickness 70 90 105 1 I5 135 150
concrete width 75 90 110 125 150 I75
cover 15 25 35 45 55 65
(6) Lightweight concrete thickness 70 85 95 100 1 I5 130
width 60 75 85 100 125 150
cover 15 25 30 35 45 55
Reinforced concrete
(continuous)
(a) Normal-weight thickness 70 90 I05 1 I5 135 150
concrete width 75 80 90 110 125 150
cover 15 20 25 35 45 55
(b) Lightweight concrete thickness 70 85 95 100 115 130 II
width 70 75 80 90 100 125

cover 15 20 25 30 35 45
- -
Less that 0.4% steel
Normal-weight aggregate thickness 150 150 175 200
-
1% steel
Normal-weight aggregate thickness 100 I20 140 160 200 240
(concrete density cover 25 25 25 25 25 25
2400 kg/m3)
- -
More than 1% steel
I
Normal-weight aggregate thickness 75 75 I00 100 150 180
(concrete density cover 15 15 20 20 25 25
2400 kg/m3)
-
Lightweight aggregate
(concrete density thickness 100 100 115 130 160 190
1200 kg/m3) cover 10 20 20 25 25 25
(Note: intermediate
densities may be
interpolated.)
-
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations

3K.11 Continuity
Where provision is made for fixity in the resistance to normal loads by the presence
of reinforcement properly detailed and adequately anchored into adjacent members,
the tabulated data relevant to continuous structures may be used.
3K.12 Use of tabular data (Table 25)

(i) Where a column is built into walls, the walls should have at least the same fire
resistance as the column and extend to the full column height. They should be
imperforate, except for external walls where openings should not occur within
a minimum width of 600 m m each side of the column.
(ii) The tabulated cover data given relate to members of the minimum width
tabulated. Where greater widths are employed, the cover to main reinforcement
may be reduced in accordance with Table 25A, but in no case should the cover
provided be less than that given for plain soffit slabs, or walls (as appropriate),
having the same fire resistance.
Table 25A Decrease in cover for given increase in width

Decrease in cover
Minimum increase Normal-weight Lightweight
in width concrete aggregate concrete
mm m," mm
25
50
100
2 150 15 20
3L STABILITY AND DISPROPORTIONATE COLLAPSE

3L.1 Stability
3L. 1.1 General

The ovcrall stability of the building including the stability during the period of
construction should be considered in the design, together with the compatability of
the design and details of the parts and components. This is particularly important
where different engineers are involved in the preparation of the design and details.
3L. 1.2 Planforrn

I n addition to designing the building to support loadings arising from normal use,
there should be a reasonable probability that it will not collapse disproportionately

or progressively under the effects of misuse or accident. N o structure can be
expected to withstand the effects of high explosive, set deliberately, or to be fully
resistant to the excessive loads and forces that could arise from an extreme overload
condition, but it should not be damaged to an extent that is disproportionate to the
original cause.'The layout of the structure on plan, returns at the ends of walls,
interaction between intersecting walls, interaction between walls and other parts of
the structure and the general strength and detailing of the structural components
and their interconnection should be fully considered to provide a robust and stable
design.
3L.1.3 Vehicle impact

Where there is a possibility of a vehicle running into a building, the vulnerability of
the lower parts of the structure to damage should be considered and permanent
protection provided wherever possible by the use of bollards, raised flower beds,
high kerbs or other construction that will shield the key elements of the structure.
Reference may be made to BS 6180.
3L. 1.4 Accidental loads

For the type of misuse or accident likely to be met in practice, minimum
recommendations arc given in subsection 3L.2, based on current practice and
experience. Enhanced design provisions and reduced limits of acceptable damage
may be deemed necessary in the case of buildings where the consequences of failure
could be particularly severe, e.g. certain public buildings.
3L.1.5 Exceptions
Generally, it is not considered necessary to make special design provisions (other
than the normal attention 10 the matters outlined in clauses 3L.1.2 and 3L.1.3) for
buildings up to four storeys in height including the basement storey (if any).
3L.2 Ties
Floors and roofs of all buildings should be capable of resisting the following tic
forces, assuming no other forces arc acting:
(i) fnternal ties. These should be located at each floor and roof level in two
directions approximately at right-angles. They should be effectively con-
tinuous throughout their length and should be anchored to the peripheral tics
at each end. The total tie force may be spread over the width of the floor or
grouped at uniform intervals in the top or bottom of the floor, or in the beams
or walls (within 0.5m of the top or bottom of the floor slab). Spacing of ties
should in no case be greater than ISL;,, where L a , is the greater distance (in
metres) in the direction of the tie between the centres of columns, frames or
walls supporting any two adjacent floor spans.
In each direction, ties should be capable of resisting a tensile force (in k N
per metre width) equal to the greater of:
(a) +
F, = the lesser of (20 4N) or 60, where N is the number of storeys in
the structure, or
( 6 ) ((dead + imposed floor loading)/7.5) X (L,/5) X ( F J , where L, is as
defined above.

For crosswall construction, where walls occur in one direction only, the
value of L , should be taken as either the actual length of the wall, or the
length that may be considered lost in the event of an accident, whichever is
the lesser. The length that may be considered lost should be taken as the
length between adjacent lateral supports or between a lateral support and a
free edge.
(ii) Peripheral ties. At each floor and roof level, an effectively uninterrupted
peripheral tie should be provided, within a strip not more than 1.2m wide
(or within the supporting wall or beam) to take a force equal to F1 as defined
in (i) above.
(iii) Horizontal column and wall ties. Every external column, and if the peripheral
tie is not located within the wall, every metre length of external wall carrying
vertical load, should be anchored or tied into the structure at each floor and
roof level with a tie capable of developing a force (in kN) equal to the greater
Of
(a) 2 x F,, or ( L J 2 . 5 ) x ( F 1 )if less (where L, is the floor-to-ceiling height

in metres), or
( h ) 4'/2% of the total vertical load carried by the column or wall at that level.
Where the peripheral tie is located within the wall, only such horizontal
tying as is required to anchor the internal ties to the peripheral ties needs to
be provided.
Corner columns should be tied into the structure in two directions
approximately at right-angles, with ties each capable of developing the tic
force given above.
(iv) Vertical ties. For buildings of 5 or more storeys, in addition to the ties
described above, vertical ties should be provided effectively continuous
through beam-to-column or slab-to-column (or wall) connections and should
extend through the full height of the column (or wall). Vertical ties should
be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to the dead load plus imposed
load carried from any one storey. Vertical reinforcement should in no case
be less than the minimum steel requirements for columns and walls given in
subsection 3E. I and section 3F.
Such ties are intended to allow for catenary, bridging or other action to be
developed in the event of local damage to the supports, and ties should be
provided in all cases unless alternative paths of support are available, or the
configuration of intersecting walls is such as to provide effective safeguards
against local collapse, or local failure can be shown to be limited as provided
in subsection 3L.1.
3L.3 Acceptable limits of damage

For buildings or parts of buildings of all occupancy classes having five or more
storeys (including the basement storeys, if any) not complying with the requirements
of subsection 3L.2, and for public buildings of any height that include a structure
having a clear span exceeding 9 m between supports, the structure should be
designed such that if any element of structure (other than one designed in accordance
with subsection 3L.5) were to fail or be forcibly removed, due to misuse or accident,
the structural failure consequent on such removal would be localized within an area
not exceeding 70 m2 or 15% of the area of the storey, whichever is less. Further,
IStruetE RC permissible stress recommendations 87

- . ..
. .. .: ..
.
.* .. .
I-
the failure would be localized within the storey in which the element occurs, the
storey next above (if any) and the next storey below (if any).
For the application of this clause ‘public buildings’ may be defined as theatres,
halls or other place of public resort, schools, churches, chapels or other places of
public worship. I t need not apply to restaurants, shops, stores, warehouses or private
houses to which members of the public are admitted.
3L.4 Loads
In considering the ability of the structure to withstand removal of a supporting
member as described in subsection 3L.3, the dead load of the structure above the
level of collapse should be considered, together with one-third of the tabulated
imposed loading. However, loads due to plant, machinery or other equipment
should not be reduced. For buildings such as warehouses, storage buildings, factories
and workshops where the imposed loading is likely fo be of a permanent nature, the
full imposed loading should be considered. Wind loads should be taken as one-third
of the normal design loading.
3L.5 Key elements

In the case of any structural support member that is deemed to be an essential key
element with no alternative path or safeguard against uncontrolled collapse of thc
structure resultin from its removal, or which supports an area of floor exceeding
g,
the lesser of 70 m- or 15% of the area of any storey, such member and its supports
should be capable of resisting a load of 34kN/m2 acting on the whole surface of that
member in any direction.
Where a key element is ticd to other construction, or where it may experience
loading because of interaction with elements connected to it, an appropriate
additional load related to the geometry and strength of the attached construction
should be taken into account in addition to the loadcd area of the member under
consideration.
3L.6 Stresses
For all strength calculations arising from the emergency loading conditions described
in section 3L, the permissible stresses may be taken as 1.75 X the values given in
subsection 3A.7 for steel and subsection 3A.6 for concrete.

. .
. . . .. .
- .-
,
.-- ..
. . . . . .. .
4 Precast and composite construction

4.1 General
This Section covers the design and detailing of structures of partly or wholly precast
construction. The general recommendations included elsewhere in these recommen-
dations apply equally to precast and in situ construction, but where there are
particular requirements related to precast work they are given in the clauses below.
4.2 Detailing
4.2.1 Handling stresses

Precast units should be designed to withstand all stresses arising from handling,
storagc, transportation and erection.
4.2.2 Connections
Connections are of vital importance in precast construction and should be carefully
checked to ensure adequate strength, practicability, compatability with other
associated construction and durability.
4.2.3 Anchorage at supports

All reinforcement used to provide structural integrity in bearings or in corbels and
nibs should bc very carefully overlapped and anchored.
4.3 Stability
Thc rcconimendations regarding stability and disproportionate collapse given in
scction 3L apply also to precast and composite construction. In particular, the
following points should be noted concerning ties:
(i) All ties should be arranged so as to minimize eccentricity.
(ii) Ties should be effectively continuous and may be provided wholly or partly
within in situ toppings, in situ concrete or precast members.
(iii) A tie may be considered effectively continuous if one of the following
conditions is satisfied:
( a ) A bar in a precast member is lapped with a bar in in situ concrete
bounded on two opposite sides by rough faces of the same precast
mcmber (see Fig. 22)
(h) A bar in a precast member is lapped with a bar in in situ topping or other
concrcte anchored to the precast member by enclosing links (see Fig. 23).
The tensile capacity of the links should not be less than that of the tie
(c) Bars projecting from the ends of precast members are lapped or
interconnected in accordance with clauses 3A. 12.11, 3A.12.12, 3A. 12.13
and 3A. 12.14.
(d) Bars are lapped within it1 situ topping or connection concrete and
projecting links are provided from the precast concrete members to
anchor the in situ concrete (see Fig. 24).

. . . . ., - ... .-
\-Tie
22 Continuity of ties: bars in precast member tapped with bar in in situ concrete
23 Continuity of ties: anchorage by enclosing links
Tie Tie
24 Continuity of ties: bars lapped within in situ concrete
4.4 Framed structures and continuous beams

The analysis of precast, framed or continous beam structures designed to achieve
full continuity and interaction between members should be carried out as for in situ
construction.
4.5 Design of slabs
4.5.1 Wide units or series of jointed narrow units

Slabs consisting of wide precast units or a series of narrow precast units with effective
jointing between them capable of shear transfer may be treated as in situ slabs.
4.5.2 Concentrated loads on slabs without reinforced topping

For concentrated loads (including partitions in the direction of the span), the width
of slab that may be assumed to contribute to support should not exceed the width
of three precast units and joints plus the width of the loaded area, nor extend more
than a quarter of the span on each side of the loaded area. I n some forms of
construction, e.g. long-span wide units, these limits may be inappropriate, and more
detailed considerations may be made.
90 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress recomnicndations

.. ..,. I
. . . . . . .:..
. . .... .. . . . . . . I .
4.5.3 Concentrated loads on slabs with reinforced topping
For concentrated loads on slabs with reinforced topping, the provisions of clause
4.5.2 apply in all respects except that, instead of three, the width of four precast
units and joints may be allowed to contribute.
4.5.4 Slabs carrying concentrated loads

Where test results justify a greater width of slab for dispersion of concentrated loads
than those set out above, the effective width assumed on each side of the loaded
area should not exceed one-quarter of the span.
4.6 Bearings'for precast members .
4.6.1 General
In the design of bearings it is important to make allowance for proper overlap of
reinforcement in the supported member and the support, as well as for any loss of
bearing through movement or rotation. A net bearing width is first calculated, and
this is increased to cover these other effects. Fig. 25 is a schematic arrangement of
the allowance to be made for bearing.
4.6.2 Net bearing width

The net bearing width should be 60 mm or the value calculated from:
support reaction
net bearing width =
effective bearing length x permissible bearing stress
The net bearing widtl must be increased to allow for spalling, constructional
inaccuracies, effects of rotation, etc.
4.6.3 Effective bearing length

This may be taken as the least of:
(i) actual bearing length
(ii) one-half of actual bearing length plus 100 mm, or
(iii) 600 mm.
4.6.4 Permissible bearing stress

The permissible bearing stress (assumed uniform) should be based on the weaker of
the bearing surfaces and may be taken as follows:
(i) for dry bearing on concrete: 1.0 pcC
(ii) for bedded bearing on concrete: 1.5 pcc
(iii) for contact face of a steel bearing plate cast into member or support and not
exceeding 40% of the concrete dimension in either direction: 2.0 pcc
Consideration should be given to the actual surface area of contact achieved with
wide units because of tolerances in the units and/or bearing structure so that the
recommended bearing stresses are not exceeded. Where in doubt, the units should
be bedded, or dry packed after erection.
Bearings using flexible padding may be designed using stresses intermediate
between those for dry and bedded bearings.
IStructE RC pcrrnissiblc strcss rccornmcndations 91

Elevation
\
-L -----
I A'\, Ineffective bearing
Allowance for **Allowance for Net bearing
inaccuracies inaccuracies width
* Nominal bearing width
m
I
Maximum bearing width
*
I
I
I
Bearing
length I Plan
a b
Bearing width
25 Schematic arrangement of allowance for bearing
92 IStructE RC permissiblc stress recommendations

4.8 Horizontal forces at bearings
Horizontal movements at bearings because of creep, shrinkage, temperature effects
or other such causes should be provided for by suitable sliding bearings, or else
reinforcement should be provided for the forces developed so that the strength of
the bearing is not adversely affected.
4.9 Rotation of bearings of flexural members

Where large rotations are likely to occur, particularly at end supports, suitable
bearings designed to accommodate rotation should be used, or the bearing should
be designed to accommodate the high stresses produced by such rotation.
4.10 Concrete corbels

Concrete corbels should be designed in accordance with subsection 3B. 1 1 .
Reinforcement should be provided for horizontal forces, which should be taken as
not less than half the vertical load on the corbel unless calculations justify otherwise.
At the front face of the corbel, the reinforcement should be anchored either by:
(i) welding to a transverse bar of equal strength in which case the bearing area
should stop short of the face of the support by a distance equal to the cover
of the transverse bar, or
(ii) bending back the bars to form a loop, in which case the bearing area should
not project beyond the straight portion of the bars at the start of the bend.
Shear reinforcement should be provided in the form of horizontal links distributed
in the upper two-thirds of the effective depth of the root of the corbel. Such links
should be adequately anchored and be of not less than one-half the area of the main
reinforcement.
4.11 Continuous concrete nibs

Generally, where a continuous nib is less than 300 m m deep, it should be designed
as a short cantilever slab where:
(i) The line of action of the load is assumed to occur at the outer edge of the
loaded area (e.g. at the front edge of the nib without a chamfer, at the upper
edge of a chamfer, or at the outer edge of a bearing pad), and
(ii) The maximum bending moment is calculated at the nearest vertical leg of the
links in the supporting member. The area of tension reinforcement in the nib
should not be less than 0.8% for round bars and 0.45% for deformed bars.
Such reinforcement should project from the supporting member, across the
top of the nib to a point as near the front face of the nib as considerations
of adequate cover will allow. I t should be anchored either by welding to a
transverse bar of equal strength or by bending through 180" to form loops in
the horizontal or vertical plane. For vertical loops the bars should not
generally be greater than 12 mm.
The bond and shear resistance of the nib should be checked as provided in
subsections 3A.12 and 38.10.
94 IStructE RC pcrrnissiblc stress rccomrncndations

-. .. .
.:.._ , _ . . .
4.6.5 Allowances for spalling at supports

Distances to be assumed to be ineffective at bearings are given in Tables 26 and 27.
Table 26 Allowances for effect of spalling at supports

Distance assumed ineffective
Material at support mm
Steel 0
Concrete grade 30 or over, plain or reinforced 15
Brickwark or masonry 25
Concrete below grade 30, plain or reinforced 25
Reinforced concrete less than 300 m m deep at Not less than nominal cover to
outer edge steel on outer face of support
Reinforced concrete less than 300 m m deep at Cover plus internal radius
outer edge, but with vertical loop of bend
reinforcement larger than 12 m m diameter
Table 27 Allowances for effect of spalling at supported member

-
Distance assumed ineffective
Reinforcement at bearing of supported member mm
Straight bars, horizontal loops or vertical loops 10 or end covcr, whichever is

not exceeding 12 mm diamcter close to end greater
of mcmber
Straight bars exposed at end of member 0
Vertical loop reinforcement of bar size End cover plus inner radius of
cxceedine 12 mm bend of bars
Notes: I Where unusual spalling characteristics are known to apply when particular constituent nliiterials
are heing used. adjustment should he made to the distances recommended.
'7 Chamfers occurring within areas suhject to spalling may he discounted. If steel packs are used for
erection. they should he kept clear of areas suhject to spalling.
4.6.6 Allowance for construction inaccuracies

For supported members up to 15 m span and with average standards of accuracy,
allowances may be taken to be the greater of:
(i) 15 m m or 3 mm per metre span for stecl or precast concrete supports
(ii) 20 m m or 4 m m per metre span for masonry supports
(iii) 25 m m or 5 m m per metre span for in situ concrete supports.
4.7 Bearings transmitting compressive forces from above

Bearings required to transmit load from above from a column or wall should
generally be bedded. However, for buildings of masonry construction up to four
storeys where thc compressive forces are low, dry bearings may be used.

4.12 Connections between precast units
Connections between precast units should be designed by methods appropriate to
reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete or structural steel. Where such methods
arc not applicable the efficiency of the connections should be checked by appropriate
tests.
The following points should be considered in the design stage:
(i) Where projccting bars or sections are required, they should be kept to a
minimum and made as simple as possible. The lengths of such projections
should not be more than necessary for security
(ii) Fragile fins and nibs should be avoided
(iii) Fixing devices should be located in concrete sections of adequate strength
(iv) The practicability of both casting and assembly should be considered
(v) Most connections require the introduction of suitable jointing material.
Sufficient space should be allowed for the proper filling of the joint
(vi) It may be desirable for levelling devices (e.g. nuts and wedges having no
loadbearing function in the completed structure) to be slackened, released or
removed. Where this is necessary, the details should be such that inspection
can be carried out
(vi;) Connections should be designed to maintain the standard of protection
against weather, fire and corrosion required for the remainer of the structure
(viii) The possibility of torsional strcsscs in supporting members because of
eccentrically applied loads should be considered.
4.13 Site information

Information on the following matters should be provided, where appropriate:
(i) sequence of forming the joint
(ii)critical dimensions, allowing for tolerances
(iii)critical details, e.g. accurate location rcquired for a particular reinforcing bar
(iv) method of correcting possible lack of fit at the joint
(v) details of temporary propping and time when it may be removed
(vi) description of general stability of the structure with details of any necessary
temporary bracing
(vii) extent to which the uncompleted structure may proceed above the completed
and matured section
(viii) details of any special materials
(ix) fully specified weld sizes.
4.14 Continuity of reinforcement
4.14.1 Loops
Where continuity of reinforcement is achicved by overlapping loops of reinforce-
ment, the bearing stresses inside the loops should be checked (see subsection 3A. 12).
4.14.2 Sleeves
Sleeves should be provided with cover not less than that specified for normal
I reinforcement. The detailing should be such that the ends of the two connccted bars
can be accurately aligned in the sleeve.
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations 9s

4.14.3 Threading of reinforcement
Connection by threading is permissible using couplers, steel plates or threaded
anchors. Where there is a risk of a threaded connection working loose, e.g. during
vibration of concrete, a locking device should be used.
4.14.4 Welding
Welded connections should conform with the appropriate Code or Standard.
4.15 Other connections
4.15.1 Joints with structural steel inserts

Where steel plates, rolled sections or bolted details are used in precast concrete
connections they should be designed in accordance with the appropriate Standards.
Permissible bearing stresses up to 2.0 pECmay be used unless other values can be
justified by testing.
Consideration should be given to the possibility of vertical splitting as a result of
shrinkage effects and high localized bearing stresses, e.g. under narrow steel plates.
4.15.2 Resin adhesives

Resin adhesives may be used only in compression joints when suitably protected
against fire. They should not be used to resist tension or shear stresses.
4.15.3 Compression joints

For simple compression joints such as most commonly occur at horizontal joints
between loadbearing walls or columns, the joint should be designed to resist all the
calculated forces and moments derived from the design coiisiderations. Generally,
the area of concrete that may be considered in calculating the strength of the column
or wall joint should be the greater of:
(i) 75% of the area of contact between wall or column at the joint
(ii) the area of the in siru concrete ignoring the area of any intruding floor or
beam units. This area should not be taken as more than 90% of the gross
column or wall area. Only those parts of the floor units that are solid over
the bearing and properly bedded on concrete or mortar of adequate quality
should be considered.
4.16 Joints transmitting shear

These joints may occur when a wall acts as wind bracing or a floor acts as a horizontal
girder and like situations. They may be assumed to be effective if the joint is grouted
with a suitable concrete or mortar mix and the appropriate following condition is
satisfied:
(i) Joints fransmitting shear in plane. These should be restrained to prevent their
moving apart. No reinforcement need be provided in or across the joint and
the sides of the units may have a normal finish, provided that the shear stress
does not exceed 0.15 N/mm2. Very smooth moulded finishes should be
roughened.

(ii) Joints under compression in all design conditions. No reinforcement need be
provided when the sides or ends of the units have a rough as-cast finish and
when the calculated shear stress does not exceed 0.3N/mm2. In checking the
presence of permanent compression across the joint, the provisions of
subsection 3A.4 should be observed.
(iii) Shear stresses less than 0.85N/mm2on the minimum roof area of a castellated
joint. In such cases, separation of the units normal to the joints should be
prevented either by steel ties across the ends of the joints or by the presence
of a permanent compressive force across the joint under all loading conditions
(see subsection 3A.4).
(iv) Reinforcement provided to resist the entire shear force. I n this case, the shear
force V should not excced:
V = 0.6 Fb tan a,
where Fh = p,, A,, or the anchorage values of the reinforcement,
whichever is less
A,, = the minimum area of rcinforcement
a, = the angle of internal friction between the faces of the joint.
This may be determined by tests, or the value of tan afmay
be taken as:
for smooth interface (untreated concrete)
tan a,= 0.7
roughened or castellatcd joint without continuous in situ
strips across the ends of joints
tan a,= 1.4
roughened or castellated joint with continuous in situ strips
across the ends of joints
tan af= 1.7
4.17 Composite construction
4.17.1 General
Where in situ concrete is used in conjunction with precast units to provide a
composite structure, provision for horizontal shear transfer should be made at the
interface.
The design should take into account construction methods, including the effects
of propping on the stresses and dcflection in the structure.
The relative stiffness of the composite materials should be based on the concrete
gross or transformed section, making due allowance for differences of more than
10N/mm' concrete strength in the precast and in situ components.
Where therc is an appreciable difference between the age and quality of concrete
in the precast and in situ components, differential shrinkage effects should be
considered, and in particular, the occurrence of tensile stresses, which may be
significant.
The minimum re'commended thickness of structural topping to precast units is
40 m m with a local minimum of 25 mm. The topping should be well vibrated on to
a surfacc that has been dampened but is without standing water.
IStructE RC permissible stress rccommcndations 97

Gradc of in situ concrctc
Prccast unit Surface type 25 I30 I

40 and
over
Without links As-cast or extruded 0.25 0.34 0.41

Brushed, screcded or 0.38 0.41 0.47
rough-tamped
Washed to remove laitcnce 0.44 0.47 0.50
or treated with retarder
and cleaned
With nominal links As-cast or extruded 0.75 1.13 I .25

projecting into Brushed, scrceded or 1.13 I .25 I .38
in situ concrete rough-tamped
Washed to remove laitance 1.31 I .38 I .56
or treated with retarder
and cleaned
Notes: 1 The description %-cast’ covers those cases where the concrete is placed and vibrated leaving a
rough finish. The surface is rougher than would he required for finishes t o he applied directly
without a further finishing screed hut not as rough a s would he ohtained if tamping. brushing or
other artificial roughening had taken place.
2 The description ‘as-extruded’ covers those c:iscs in which an open-textured surface is produced
direct from an extruding machine.
3 The description ‘Brushed, screeded or rough-tamped‘ covers those cases where some form o f
deliberate surface roughening has taken place, but not t o the extent o f exposing the aggregate.
4 For nominal links see subclause 3B.IO.l(iv).
4.17.3 Nominal links

Where provided, nominal links should have a cross-section of at least 0.15% of the
contact area. The spacing of links in T-beam ribs with composite flanges should not
generally exceed 4 x the thickness of the in situ concrete nor 600 mm, and all links
should be properly anchored on both sides of the interface.
98 IStructE RC permissible strcss rccommcndations

4.17.4 Designed links
Where the calculated horizontal shear stress exceeds the value given in Table 28 all
the horizontal shear force should be carried on reinforcement anchored on either
side of the interface. The amount of steel required (in mm2 per metre) should be
calculated from:
1000 b V I ,
At, = -
AI
where vt, is the calculated shear stress.
4.17.5 Vertical shear

The design of composite members resisting vertical shear should be carried out in
accordance with subsection 3B. 10.

. ,. '
5 Workmanship
5.1 Concrete
5.1.1 Concrete quality

Concrete should be specified, produced and tested in accordance with the
requirements of BS 5328.
5.1.2 Transportation
Concrete should be handled from the place of mixing to the place of final deposit
as rapidly as practicable by methods that will prevent the segregation or loss of
ingredients. I t should be deposited as nearly as practicable in its final position to
avoid rehandling.
Ready-mixed concrete should be transported and delivered in accordance with the
requirements of BS 5328.
5.1.3 Placing
(i) Generul. The concrete should be placed before setting has commenced and
should not be subsequently disturbed unless specifically permitted by the
engineer.
(ii) Construction joints. Concreting should be carried out continuously up to
construction joints, the position and arrangement of which should be
approved by the engineer.
When work has to be resumed on a surface that has hardcned it should be
scabbled, swept clcan and wetted, and it may be covercd with a layer of
mortar composed of cement and sand in the same ratio as the cement and
sand in the concrete mixture. This mixture should be freshly mixed and
placed immediately before the placing of the concretc.
Construction joints should be at right-angles to the general direction of the
member and provided with joggles where appropriate.
(iii) Compacting. Concrete should he thoroughly compacted by vibration or other
means, worked around the reinforcement and embedded fixtures, taking care
not to displace them, and i n t o the corners of the formwork to form a solid
void-free mass having the required surface finish.
Over vibration causing segregation should be avoided.
5.1.4 Curing
After placing, appropriate curing procedures should start as soon as the concrete
has lost its free surface water. The method adopted should prevent loss of moisture
from the concrete surface and maintain a satisfactory temperaturc of the concrete
during the curing process.
Faces of concrete should be kept moist by approved means for 4 days after placing
(Portland cement concrete) or six days after placing (concrete containing pfa or
ggbfs). In cold dry weather these periods should be extended to 6 and 10 days,
respectively. I n freezing conditions, special arrangements should be made to protect
the concrete from frost.

.. - - .-
.. .
5.1.5 Concreting in cold weather

When depositing concrete at or ncar frcczing temperatures precautions should be
taken to sec that the concrete has a tempcraturc of at least 5"C, or preferably 1O"C,
until it has thoroughly hardened, and that formwork, reinforcement, etc. are free
from snow, icc or frost. The procedures adopted should be approved in advance by
thc engineer.
Whcn ncccssary, concrctc materials should bc heated before mixing and carefully
protectcd aftcr placing. I f the water is hcatcd abovc 60°C it should be mixed with
the aggrcgatc bcforc coming into contact with the cement.
Altcrnativcly, the ccmcnt contcnt of thc mix may bc increased or a rapid-
hardening ccmcnt uscd. I f accelerators arc uscd, thcy should be chloride free.
Concrctc damagcd by frost should be removed.
5.1.6 Concreting in hot weather and drying winds

Hot wcathcr or drying winds can cause rapid loss of moisturc and/or rapid stiffening
of the concrete, making propcr compaction difficult. High temperatures and loss of
moisturc aftcr compaction can cause plastic and thcrmal cracking and a reduction
in strength and durability.
The use of retardcrs to slow the rate of hardening, a watcr-rcducing agent to
increase workability, or a cement with a low rate of hydration may assist in slowing
down thc rate at which the concrctc hardcns, but will not ncccssarily prevent plastic
and thermal cracking.
Thc concrete should not havc ii temperature in excess of 30°C. The use of water
to cool the aggrcgatc helps reduce the concrete temperature.
Carcful attcntion should be paid to protective materials to prevcnt moisture loss
during curing.
The procedure adopted should be approved in advance by the cngincer.
5.2 Reinforcement
I 5.2.1 Specification
Reinforcement should comply with current British Standards.
I 5.2.2 Cutting and bending

I Rcinforccment should be cut and bent in accordancc with BS 4466. Rcbending of
I
reinforcement should be done only with the engineer's approval.
5.2.3 Fixing
All reinforcement should be placed and maintained in the position shown on the
drawing. Unlcss otherwise specified, the actual concrete cover should be not less
than the specified cover minus 5 mm. Spaeers, chairs or other supports should be
used to maintain the reinforcement in its correct position. Spacers should be of such
materials or designs as will be durable, not lead to corrosion of the reinforcement
or cause spalling of the concrete cover. Spacer blocks made from cement, sand and
small aggregatc should match the mix proportions of the surrounding concrete as
far as is practicable.

5.2.4 Surface condition
All reinforcement should be free from loose mill scale, loose rust, oil and grease,
snow and ice or other harmful matter immediately before placing the concrete.
5.2.5 Welding
Welding on site should be avoided if possible, but where suitable safeguards and
techniques are employed, and provided that the types of steel have the required
welding properties, it may be undertaken. All welding should be carried out in
accordance with the relevant British Standards and the recommendations of the
reinforcement manufacturers, and only with the engineer’s prior approval.
5.2.6 Mechanical splices

Butt jointing of reinforcement with mechanical splices or couplers of approved
design is permissible, but the cover to any sleeve should not be less than that
specified for normal reinforcement. Mechanical couplers should be used in
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations, and for bars in tension they
should satisfy the following criteria:
(i) When a test is made of representative gauge length assembly comprising
reinforcement of the size, grade and profile to be used and a coupler of the
precise type to be used, the permanent elongation after loading to 0.6 fy
should not exceed 0.1 mm.
(ii) The design ultimate strength of the coupled bar should exceed the specified
characteristic strength by the percentage specified in BS 4449.
5.3 Formwork
5.3.1 Design and construction

The design and construction of formwork should be in accordance with BS 5975.
Reference may also be made to the IStructE/Concrete Society rcport on Formwork.
5.3.2 Cleaning and treatment of forms

All rubbish should be removed from the interior of the forms before concrete is
placed. Faces of the forms in contact with the concrete should be clean and treated
with a suitable release agent. Release agents should be applied so as to provide a
thin coating to the forms without contaminating the reinforcement.
5.3.3 Striking of formwork

Forms should not be struck until the concrete reaches a cube strength of at least
twice the stress to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of striking.
Alternatively, Table 29 gives recommended minimum periods before striking which
may be used. Formwork should be removed without such shock or vibration as
wouid damage the partially hardened concrete. Where formwork is struck before
the specified curing period is complete (see clause 5.1.4) appropriate alternative
arrangements should be made to complete curing.

5.3.4 Camber
Where it is desirable to give formwork an upward camber to counteract deflection
or an apparent sag when the formwork is removed, the method adopted should be
approved by the engineer.
5.3.5 Tolerances
Tolerances should be in accordance with BS 5606, unless otherwise specified.
Table 29 Minimum period before striking formwork or removing props (concrete

made with ordinary or sulphate-resisting Portland cement)
Minimum period before striking
Surface temperature of concrete
16°C and t°C (any temperature

Type of formwork above 7°C )etween 0°C and 25°C)
Vertical formwork to columns, 300

walls and large beams 12 h 18 h -h
t + 10
100
Soffit formwork to slabs 4 days 6 days -days
f+lO
Soffit formwork to beams 250
and 10 days 15 days -days
t + 10
Props to slabs
360
Props to beams 14 days 21 days -days
t+ 10
Further guidance is provided in ClRlA Report 67.
1 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommendations

.. -
.. ,
. .. . . . .,
6 Testing and inspection

6.1 Methods of testing
- concrete
Thc methods of testing concrete are set out in BS 1881, and testing of aggregates is
covered by BS 812. Both of these publications contain full details of sampling and
testing procedures, and refcrence should bc made to them for such details.
6.2 Rate of strength testing

Suggested rates of strength testing are:
for highly stressed elements (e.g. columns) I test per 12 m3
for ordinary elements (e.g. beams and slabs) I test pcr 20 in3
for mass concrete I test per 50 m3.
One of these or, if appropriate, a different rate should be adopted for designed mixes.
6.3 Inspection
Immediately after stripping the formwork the concrete should be completely
inspected. Any defects should be made good as soon as practicable.
6.4 Load testing of structures or parts of structures
6.4.1
Load testing of completed structures or components may be required by the
specification or may be demanded if there is reasonable doubt a s to the adequacy
of the strength of the structure or component. Such testing should not generally be
carried o u t until the concrete may reasonably be expected to have obtained its design
strength, and the objective should be to obtain sufficient information to enable an
assessment of the adequacy of the structure to be made without affecting its long-
term strength or durability.
6.4.2
During testing, struts or other supports should be provided sufficient to take the
whole load in the event of collapse. Such supports should be designed so as not to
inhibit the deflection of the structure or place undue constraints on the recording or
reading of the test results.
6.4.3
The test load should in the first application be equal to and in latcr applications
equal to 1% X the spccified imposed load used for the design, making due allowance
for any finishes etc. that may not be in position at the time of test. However the
total test load plus the dead load in place should not be less than 1 % X the total
combined dead and imposed load used in the design.
Test loads should be applied and removed incrementally, while observing all
proper safety precautions. The test loading should be applied at least twice, with a
minimum of 1 h between tests, and allowing 5 min after a load increment is applied
before recording deformation measurements. A third application of load should be
made that is left in position for 24 h.

6.4.4 Assessment of results
In determining deformation measurements, due allowance should be made for
changes in environmental conditions that have occurred during the test.
6.4.5 Test criteria

In assessing test data, the following criteria should be considered:
(i) The deflection and cracking o n first loading should be in accordance with the
design requirements
(ii) Where significant deflections (exceeding span/1000) occur on second loading,
the percentage recovery on removal of load should be at least 85% and at
least equal to that for the first loading cycle
(iii) The percentage recovery after third (24 h) loading should be at least 75% of
the total deflection produced by the test
(iv) The structure should be examined for defects, which should be noted,
photographed where appropriate, and evaluated in the assessment of results
(v) If during the test or on removal of the load, the structure shows signs of
weakness, undue deflection or faulty construction, it should be reconstructed
or strengthened as necessary.
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccommcndations

. .. . .
., -. . - . . . .. ~ . e
7 Protection, maintenance and repair

7.1 General
Concretc structures that havc bccn propcrly dcsigncd and constructcd with good
quality materials are gcnerally durable. Howcvcr, for ;I varicty o f rcasons, many
unpredictable, damagc does occur. This may bc bccause of ii particularly aggrcssivc
environmental condition that had not bccn anticipatcd, accidcntal impact loading,
fire, settlement, carbonation of thc concrctc, unsuitablc matcrials, bad dcsign or
construction, or other similar causc. T o avoid such happcnings, i t should bc thc aim
of good dcsign to minimizc their chancc of occurring.
7.2 Protection
Protection of a concrcte surfacc is somctimcs ncccssary particularly whcrc aggrcssivc
chemicals are in contact with i t . Many protcctivc coatings arc available, and cxpcrt
advice should bc sought from the nianufacturcr to dctcrminc thc corrcct coating for
thc conditions which apply.
Any coating used should be durablc and ablc to adjust itsclf to clastic and thcrmnl
movement of thc structures and should bc rnaintaincd in good condition by rcncwcd
applications during the lifc of thc building. Any concrctc paint iiscd should bc
suitable for the alkaline charactcr of concrctc.
7.3 Maintenance
The effect of unforcseen happcnings on a striicturc can bc minimizcd if thc problem
is discovcrcd at an early stage. Periodic inspections should therefore bc carried out
to detect early signs of cracking or spalling of the concrctc or dctcrioration of the
surface. Remcdial action should be taken immcdiatcly damagc is discovered.
7.4 Repair
The repair of reinforced concrete structurcs is a specialist mattcr end rcquircs a high
level of skill and cxpericncc in determining thc cause of thc problem and the
specification of the repair tcchniqucs to be adopted.
The most common causc of damage to concrete structures is corrosion of the
reinforcement causing staining of the surface or spalling or loosening of the concrete
cover. I n such cases the whole of thc loose concrcte should be cut away back to
sound concrete, the reinforcement complctcly exposed and thoroughly cleaned to
remove rust or replaced if ncccssary and frcsh concrctc or mortar placed. The prccisc
method adopted will depend o n the location and thc cxtcnt of thc repair required,
and information should be sought from available technical literature.*
Repairing concrete structures i s a skilled job, and unless the work i s done correctly
and effectively by contractors experienced in the field furthcr repair work may
become necessary i n a short time.
* See Allen. R. T. L.: The rcpuir of concww .witctiircs, 4th ed.. C & C A . Wexham Springs 19x5.

Appendix A Nominal concrete mixes ..
A.1 Proportions
A. I . 1 Cement and aggregates

Thc finc aggrcgatc and thc coarsc aggrcgatc should bc mcasurcd scparatcly. Thc proportions
of ccmcnt to finc aggrcgatc and coarsc aggrcgatc should bc as sct out in Tablc A I o r in any
intcrmcdiatc proportions in which thc volumc o f coarsc aggrcgatc is twicc thc volumc o f finc
aggrcgatc. Whcrc, howcvcr. a dcnscr or morc workablc concrctc can bc produccd by a
variation in thc ratio of thc volumc of coarsc aggrcgatc t o that of finc aggrcgatc, this ratio
may bc varicd within thc limits I ‘/2 to I and 3 to I .
Thc sum of thc volumcs o f coarsc and finc aggrcgatc. cach mcasurcd scparatcly, should
ncvcrthclcss cqual thc sum of thc volumcs of coarsc and finc aggrcgatc appropriatc to thc
nominal mix (or intcrmcdiatc mix whcrc applicablc) in Tablc A I .
I t is morcovcr dcsirablc to adjust thc ratio tosuit thc maximum sizc of thc coarsc aggrcgatc
and also thc grading of thc finc aggrcgatc. For cxamplc. whcn thc finc aggrcgatc is within
grading M of BS 882. ratios o f I ‘/2 to I . 2 to I and 3 to I may bc suitablc for maximum sizcs
of 10 mm. I Y mm and 38 mm. rcspcctivcly. For finc aggrcgatcs within othcr grading zoncs.
thc ratio should bc incrcascd as thc finc aggrcgatc gcts fincr.
I n proportioning concrctc. thc quantity o f ccmcnt should bc dctcrmincd by wcight. Thc
quantitics o f finc and coarsc aggrcgatcs may bc dctcrmincd by volumc. but this should
prcfcrably bc donc by wcight. I n thc lattcr casc thc wcight should bc dctcrmincd from thc
volumc rcquircd by thc Tablc and thc wcight pcr cubic mctrc o f thc aggrcgatc. Thc proportions
givcn i n this clausc and in Tablc A l arc bascd on thc assumption that thc aggrcgatcs arc dry.
I f thc finc aggrcgatc is moist. duc allowancc must bc madc for bulking.
A.1.2 Waterkement ratio

Thc quantity of watcr uscd for rcinforccd concrctc should bc sufficicnt. but not morc than
sufficicnt. to producc a dcnsc concrctc of adcquatc workability for its purpose. which will
surround and propcrly grip all thc rcinforccmcnt. So far as possiblc. thc workability o f thc
concrctc should bc controllcd by maintaining a watcrkcmcnt ratio that is found to give a
concrctc that is just sufficicntly wct to bc placcd and fully compactcd without difficulty, with
thc mcans availablc.
A.1.3 Workability
Thc workability should bc controllcd by dircct mcasurcmcnt of watcr content. making
allowancc for any watcr in thc finc and coarsc aggrcgatcs. Thc slump tcst or thc compacting
factor tcst dcscribcd in BS 1881: Meih0d.y ofiesiing C ~ ~ C I ’ C I Cmay
. bc uscd as a guidc. The lattcr
tcst is primarily dcsigncd for laboratory conditions and is particularly uscful for concrctc mixcs
of vcry low workability.
A.2 Strength requirements for nominal concrete mixes
A.2.1 Portland cement concrete or Portland-blastfurnace cement concrete with

aggregates complying with BS 882
Concrctc madc with Portland ccmcnt or Portland-blastfurnacc ccmcnt should comply with the
strcngth rcquircmcnts of Tablc A I . columns 3 and 4 (works tcst). Whcrc intermediate
proportions o f aggrcgatc to ccmcnt arc uscd. as provided i n clausc A.1.1, the cubc strengths
rcquircd should bc obtaincd by proportion from thc two nearest nominal mixcs.
I f thc rcquircd cubc strcngths at 7 days, givcn in Table A I . column 4. arc not rcachcd. the
concrctc may still bc acccptcd i f thc 28 day strcngths givcn in column 3 arc attained.

,-
Table A1 Proportions and strength requirements for nominal concrete mixes with Portland
cement or Portland-blastfurnace cement and with aggregates complying with BS 882
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Cubic metres Cubc strcngth Altcrnativc cubc
aggrcgatc per within 28 days strcngth within
Mix 50 k g of ccmcnt aftcr mixing 7 days aftcr mixing
proportions Nlmm’ Nlmm?
Prcliminary Works Prcliminary Works
Finc Coarsc tCSt tCSt tcst tcst
l:1:2 0.035 0.07 40 30 26.7 20

l:lfi:3 0.05 0.10 34 25.5 22.7 17
1:2:4 0.07 0. I4 28 21 18.7 14
A.3 Tests of concrete quality
A.3.1 Preliminary cube strength tests

Unless satisfactory cvidcncc of strcngth is produccd from rcliablc sourccs. prcliminary strcngth
tcsts should bc madc in accordancc with BS 1881 both prior to thc commcnccmcnt o f thc
constructional work and subscqucntly whcncvcr any important changc is to bc madc in thc
matcrials or in thc proportions o f thc matcrials to bc uscd. Thc strcngths should comply with
thc rcquircmcnts of subappcndix A.2 for prcliminary tcsts.
A.3.2 Works cube strength tests

Work cube strength tcsts should bc made in accordancc with BS 1881 as may bc ncccssary and
particularly whcncvcr matcrials or proportions arc changcd. to provc thc quality o f thc
concrctc. A rccord of such tcsts. identifying thcm with thc part of thc work cxccutcd. should
bc kcpt on thc works.
A.3.3 Standard of acceptance for cube strength tests

Three tcst cubcs should bc madc for cach agc at which tcsts arc rcquircd. Thc cubc strcngth
should be calculated for cach agc at which tcsts arc rcquircd. Thc cubc strcngth should bc
calculatcd from thc maximum load sustaincd by thc cubc at failure. Thc appropriatc strcngth
rcquircmcnt may bc considcrcd to bc satisfied i f nonc o f thc strcngths of thc thrcc cubcs is
bclow thc spccificd cubc strcngth. o r i f thc avcragc strcngth o f thc thrcc cubcs is not lcss than
thc spccificd cubc strcngth and thc diffcrcncc bctwccn thc grcatcst and thc lcast strcngths is
not more than 20% o f that avcragc.
108 IStructE R C pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations

. . . . ..* . _. .~ .
Appendix B Column design charts

B . l Charts
The following design charts cover
(U) rectangular columns reinforced with four equal bars and
(h) circular columns with evenly distributed bars.
The lines give values of
8.25
r -
P\C
-
215 ~ r c
so that for high-tensile steel and 30Nlmm’ concrete (P,~= 215, pur = 8.25). the required
reinforcement may be read off directly. Reinforcement for other values of pcc and psc may be
determined pro rata.
B.2 Rectangular columns with bars in side faces

Where a rectangular column has some of its reinforcement placed in its side faces, this reduces
its moment resistance compared with the 4-bar columns considered in the charts. However the
charts may still be used for the design of such columns if the actual reinforcement arrangement
is translated into an equivalent 4-bar column of reduced effective depth. The Table and Figure
show equivalent effective depths for various proportions of side steel.
Equivalent effective depth ratios for multibar 095

connections
Actual dlh 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 090
TU
0.2 0.72 0.76 0.79 0.83 0.87 0.85

0.4 0.70 0.74 0.76 0.79 0.83 f
0.6 0.68 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.78 U
0.8 0.64 0.67 0.69 0.71 0.73 .-5 0 8 0
w”
075
0.70
0.65
075 080 0.85 090 095
dlh

U
9 2 0
0
110 IStructE RC permissible strcss rccommcndations ~

, .. .- . .
. . I
.. .
..
. I
, .
- -. . . . I ....
II
L
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress recommendations 111

E
112 IStructE RC permissible stress rccommendations

. .
T
i
7
4
/
7
4
/

U a
I 0
YI U
0I

IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations
, .
. .
. . .. .... .. - -
//A
I16 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations
. .. , '
.. .
. . . -- .~_.., - .
.-
. :... . . -. ,. '.,.
. ,
. ... ..
cf
0
rn
0
IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccommcndations I17

1 I8 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccommcndations
__ .. ._
.
.
.r _Y.,.,..-. - .
.*
. ’... .-.....---_
!
. . . ,
i
. \. .
I2
..- ._ --.
B.3 Worked example

The following worked example is based o n the design principles in the recommendations and
illu5trates the use of the charts
Exurtzple In a braced structure, a column 6m long is to resist the loads

shown. Try 300mm X 300mm column in 30N/mm’ concrete with
40mm cover to main bars. ,,,iN
Check erid section, no slenderness reduction.
p/p,,bh = 450 X ’ 10” = 0.606 M/p,,bh’ = 80 X 10‘/8.25 X 300’ = 0.36

8.25 x 300’
Try 4-bar coli(t?zti

Assume d = 300 - 40 - Y 2 = 242Ymm = 0.808h
40 kN
Check cohrrm slrufi
Effective length I = (say) 0.85L = 5 . l m I/b = 17
Maximum moment at %L from end = 80 - 30 = 50 kNm
Table 17 gives k = 0.724. Design section for
p = 450/0.724 = 622 kN M = 50/0.724 = 69.1 kNm
p = 622 X 10’ = 0.837 = 69.1 X 106 = 0.31
pobh 8.25 x 300’ p&i’ 8.25 x 300’
d = O.8h : r = 3.4%
= o.85/l : = 3,0yo d = 0.808L : r = 3.3% = 2970mm’
use 4T32 = 3220mm’
Try alrertiurii~e8-bur colirttiri

Assume d = 300 - 40 - Y?= 244mm = 0.813h
if bars are equal, r4 = 0.25 giving equivalent d = 0.7611 (see sub appendix B.2)
d = 0.7512 : r = 4.0%
= 0,8011: I’ = 3,4yo
d = 0.7612 : r = 3.9% = 3510mm’
use 8T25 = 3927mm‘

...
Technical notes
These notes do not form part of the Recommendations for the pert~zissiblestress design of
reinforced concrete bidding structures. The notes are meant to show where the Recorntnenda-
tions differ technically from the requirements of BS 8110 (other than those due to the
permissible stress format) and to explain the differences.
General
Overall safety factors are generally conservative or similar to BS 8110. Principal values are as
follows, with BS 8110 average values (Y = 1.5) in parentheses:
steel tension, compression - 1.8 (1.72):
concrete compression - 2.4 (2.25):
concrete shear - 1.98 (1.88): bond - 2.08 (2.1).
Subsection 3B.2 Deflection and stiffness of members

The recommendations are based on a revised presentation of the spanleffective depth rules of
C P 110: 1972 as are those in BS 8110.’.’
Section 3C Flat slab construction

Recommendations are generally similar t o BS 8110 except for design moments. In subsection
3C.11 the critical section for hogging moments has been taken as D/3 from the column centre
rather than D/2, making it more consistent with the general design moments and because of
a concern that strict application of the BS 8110 rules could lead to unrealistically low hogging
moments in some situations. BS 8110 introduces major changes in design moments from
traditional ‘empirical’ values, but no published research evidence to justify the change has been
presented. Because of concern that:
0 the use of low design hogging moments may lead to cracking and shear problems at columns,
and
0 BS 8110’s increases in sagging moments make the method needlessly conservative,
particularly where column heads are large.
Moment coefficients close to the well-established ‘empirical’ values have been retained.
However these have been slightly adjusted to improve performance under ‘alternate spans’
imposed loading.
Limitations on column stiffness have also been introduced: these have been calculated so that
the standard design moments and reinforcement details will combine with them to give
adequate resistance to ‘alternate spans’ loading, as described.
Clause 3C.6.3 Shear reinforcement

In CP 110, the effectiveness of shear links in flat slabs was taken to be 0.75 x those in beams,
but BS 8110 gives new recommendations which effectively double this, making links in slabs
apparently 50% stronger than those in beams. No research or theoretical findings have been
presented in support of this change and there is doubt as to whether it is justified. In clause
3C.6.3 it is therefore recommended that links in slabs are designed similarly to those in beams,
giving consistency in design for different elements and avoiding the possibility of under-design
of this critical reinforcement.
Subsection 3E.2 Permissible loads on columns

The treatment of slender columns in BS 8110 is complicated to use and has been criticized on
theoretical grounds. The method in subsection 3E.2 is based closely on the results of a rigorous
theoretical analysis but is relatively simple to use. The results are similar to BS 8110 in many
cases but tend to be more conservative for Ilb ratios between 10 and 20.3
1. Beal. A. N.: ‘Spanldepth ratios for concrete beams and slabs’, Srrucr. Eng., 61A, no. 4. April 1983. p. 121.
2. Venulam: ‘Control of deflection in reinforced concrete‘. Srrrrcr. Eng., 62A, no. 3. March 1984, p. 101.
2. Beal. A. N.: ‘The design of slender columns’, Proc. ICE, 81, Part 2. September 1986. p. 397.
122 IStructE R C permissible stress recommendations

Index
This index supplements, and does not repeat, the contents list
Accelerators, 18, 101 spacing, 29, 49

Acidic conditions, 80 resistance to bending, 39
Admixtures, 79 shear reinforcement, 47, 49
air-entraining, 18, 77-78 shear stress, 47
calcium chloride, 77 size, 53
retarders, 18, 101 small sections, 52
specifying, 19 strength testing, 104
using, 17-18 T-beams,
water-reducing, 101 flanges, 36
Aggregates, shear stress, 53
basalt, 34 torsion reinforcement, 53
chemical attack, 80 webs, 36
coefficients of expansion, 34 Bearing stress, hooks, 31-32
fire resistance, 80, 82 Blocks,
flint, 34, 82 elastic modulus, 46
foamed slag, 76 hollow, 45
granite, 34, 82 Blockwork, movement joints, 34
limestone, 34, 80 Bond stress, 30
measuring, 107
quartzite, 34, 82
size, 18, 46
-
Braced structures,
corner columns, 57
edge columns, 57
testing, 104 internal columns, 56
Air entrainers, 18, 77-78 Brickwork, movement joints, 34
Buckling effect, 24
Basements,
cracking, 34 Cantilevers, 21. 35, 37. 49, 64
drying shrinkage, 34 Casing, to steel members, 45
thermal movements. 34 Castellated joints, 97
Beams, Casting sequences. 34
bending moments, 35 Cement,
beams supporting slabs, 58 hydration, 79, 101
box beams, 51 proportioning. 107
concentrated loads, 49, 58 specifying, 18-19
continuous, 39 Chamfers. precast. 93
exposure to fire, 80 nibs, 94
flanged, 35 Characteristic strength. 13
framing openings, 58 concrete, 25
hollow beams, 51 reinforcement, 17
L-beams, 35. 51 Churches,
flanges, 36 see public buildings
shear stress, 53 Coatings. 78. 80, 106
torsion reinforcement, 53 formwork, 103
webs, 36 Cold-weather curing, 100
non rectangular, 51 Columns.
rectangular, 51 asymmetrically loaded. 71
reinforcement, buckling, 70
cover, 29 circular. 64. 70
for torsion, 52-56 concrete density, 76
links, corner, 57, 87
anchorage, 32, 49 eccentrically loaded, 69. 71
bond length, 32 edge, 57
IStructE R C permissible stress recommendations 123

heads, 58 Damage to concrete, 106
effective length, 71 Deep beams, 29
exposure to fire, 80, 82 Density.
external, 58, 64, 71, 87 normal-weight concrete, 22
fire resistance, 83 lightweight concrete, 76
internal, 56, 64, 71, 72 Detailing, reinforcement spacing, 29
heads, 58 Disproportionate collapse, 13, 20, 86
lightweight concrete, 82 composite construction, 89
moment of inertia, 60 precast concrete, 89
rectangular, 60, 64, 68, 70 Durability, 29. 34, 101
reduction in direct load, 72 connections, precast concrete, 89
reinforcement,
cover, 29 Effective span, 35, 38
transverse ties, 32 Erection, precast units, 89
resistance to bending, 39 Explosions, 20
shear, 72
square, 60, 70 Factories, loads, 88
stiffness, 72 Fats, 79
strength testing, concrete 104 Finishes,
unreinforced bases, 74 composite construction, 98
Compacting concrete, 56, 100, 101 joints transmitting shear, 96
Concentrated loads, mosaics, 34
beams, movement joints, 34
shear enhancement, 49 reinforcement cover, 29
supporting slabs, 58 Fire protection, 29
walls, 73 resin adhesives, 96
Constuction work, Fire resistance, 34
compacting, 66, 100, 101 Frames,
composite construction, 97 beams, 39
construction joints, 100 braced, 21, 57
floor toppings, 46 columns, 39
inspecting work, 104 continuous, 39
precast units, 95 subframes, definition, 21
stability of buildings, 83 unbraced, 21, 60
Contaminated land, 80 Frost, 77-79
Corbels, 49 curing concrete, 100
Corrosive environments, 79-80 damage, 101
tensile stress, 24 deicing salts, 78, 79
Cracking,
anti-crack reinforcement, ggbs, 77. 80
beams, 40, 50 curing, 100
slabs, 47 Grades, concrete, 18
columns, 68 defini:ions, 19
load tests, 105 Grouting, pockets, 74
openings, corners, 44
plastic, 101 Halls,
tensile stress, 24 see public buildings
thermal, 101 High-alumina cement, 13
torsion, 50
Creep, precast members, 94 Insulation, sprayed, 82
Crushing strength, hollow blocks, 45
Cube strength, 103, 107-108 Joggles, 100
columns, 68 Jointing materials, precast units, 95,96
compressive strength, 23
Curing, 25, 79, 103 Levelling devices, precast units, 95
I
I 124 IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations

- ...._-,..I , . , _,
Lightweight concrete, 18 Positive moments,

fire resistance, 80, 82 reinforcement,
modular ratio, 23 beams, 40
weight of concrete, 22 slabs, 40, 42
Lintels, 73 slabs, 60, 62
Load factor, 25 Prestressed concrete, 13, 77
columns, 68 Public buildings, stability, 87-88
Loads, Punching shear,
accidental, 20, 86, 106 column bases, 73, 74
compressive, walls, 72-73 wall bases, 73
concentrated,
beams, 49, 58 Quality control, mixes, 19
walls, 73 .
constrqction, 20, 22
cyclical, 32 Radius of gyration, columns, 70
dead, 21, 22 Ready mixed concrete, 100
impact, 20, 106 Redistribution of moments, 38, 39
lateral, 21 Reinforcement,
partitions, 90 anchorage, 31-32, 35, 49, 73
plant, 88 beams, 49
slabs, 22 length, 32
stairs, 22 precast concrete, 89
uniform, beams, 49 nibs, 94
wind, 20, 21, 23, 24, 88 anticrack, beams. 40
bars,
Masonry, loadbearing, 34 bundles, 29, 34
Mass concrete, strength testing, 104 deformed, 23
Monolithic structures, 39 bond stress. 24
Mortar, as fire protection, 82 high-yield, 31, 35
Movements, inclined, 49
drying shrinkage, 34 plain, 23, 32
movement joints, 34 beams,
precast members, 91, 94 anchorages, 49
settlement, 20, 34 anti-crack, 40
shrinkage, 34 cover, 29
thermal, 20, 34 shear reinforcement, 49, 52
coefficients of expansion. 34 bond stress, 24, 13
lightweight concrete, 76
Suckling, 66. 67. 68, 72
Negative moments,
casing to steel members, 45
columns, 64
columns, 29
reinforcement,
compression, 28, 35, 72
beams, 40 laps. 33
slabs, 40, 42, 62-63 compressive stress, 24, 26
slabs, 60, 62
congestion, 53
Nibs, 95
corbels. 49. 89. 94
corners, 32
Oils, vegetable, 79 corrosion, 106
cover, 83, 101
Padding, bearings, 91 chemical attack. 80
Permeability, concrete, 79 laps, 32
pfa, 77, 80 sleeves, 95. 102
curing, 100 fabric, 23, 45
Pigments, 18 laps, 32
Placing, concrete, 25 helical, 66-67, 70
columns, 66 pitch, 67
Plaster. 82 joining, 32
IStructE R C permissible stress recommendations 125

laps, 32-33 lightweight concrete, 75
columns, 66 pile caps, 75
lightweight concrete, 76 resin adhesives, 96
precast concrete, 89 slabs, 36, 5 5 , 57
tension, 32 Shear transfer,
lateral ties, columns, 67 composite construction, 97
links, 23, 49, 52-53, 57, 82, 89, 98 joints, 90
columns, 67 precast concrete, 90, 96
corbels, 49, 94 Shops, 88
fire, 82 Shrinkage ,
shape, 53 aggregates, 37
spacing, 53
differential, 97
loadbearing walls, 72, 73
precast members, 94, 96
longitudinal, 53, 66, 67, 68
walls, 72
buckling, 66
mesh, 47, 82 Shrinkage bays, 34
movement, 94 Slabs,
precast concrete, 89 bending moments, 39,40-41,44, 58
nibs, 89, 94 columns strips, 54, 62, 63
quantity, 35-36, 52 openings, 58
rebending, 101 continuous, 38, 39
shear, 49, 73, 94 corner bays, 38
precast units, joints, 96-97 corners, 40, 41, 42
& torsion, 52 drops, 62, 63
slabs, 49, 66 edge strips, 41, 62
anti-crack, 47 torsion, 58
cover, 29 effective stress, 55
torsion, 40-42 effective width, 44
spacing, 29, 49, 53, 73, 98, 101 end spans, 38, 62, 63
stainless steel, 79 exposure to fire, 80
steel binding wire, 45 finishes, 36
tensile stress, 24-25 flat, 38, 71
tension, 35 definition, 53
laps, 32 hollow, 82
pile caps, 75 horizontal movements, 34
tests, couplers, 102 joints with columns, 60
welded joints, 32 landings, stairs, 64
Restaurants, 88 loads, 22
I Restoring moment, 21 middle strips, 41, 42, 54, 62
Retaining walls, 34 openings, 58
Retarders, 18, 101 moment of inertia, 60
Rotation, bearings, 91 reinforcement, 56, 62
cover, 29
S t Venant value, 50, 51 spacing, 29, 49
Schools, ribbed, 38, 53, 82
see public buildings shear reinforcement, 47, 49
Serviceability, 36 shear stress, 36, 47, 55-56
Settlement, differential, 20 simply-supported, 40, 44, 47
Shear forces, spaddepth ratio, 55
beams, 39 lightweight concrete, 76
columns, 72 strength testing, concrete, 104
slabs, 39 supporting beams, walls, 42, 58
Shear resistance, 20 tensile, 47
Shear stress, torsion, 40, 41, 42, 58
composite construction, 99 two-way, 38, 40-42
joints transmitting, 96-97 Specifying concrete, 18, 100

Stability, horizontal, columns & wall, 87
construction work, 95 internal, 86
movement joints, 34 peripheral, 87
precast units, 95 precast concrete, 89, 97
unbraced frames, 21 spacing, 86, 89
Stairs, loads, 22 vertical, 87
Stiffness, Toppings,
composite materials, 97 composite construction, 89, 97
supports, beams or slabs, 39 hollow block slabs, 46
structural members, 21 precast concrete, 89
Storage, precast units, 89 reinforcement, 47
Strength. thickness, 46, 97
concrete. design, 23 Torsional rigidity, beams 50-51
connections, precast. 89 Torsional stresses, precast units, 95
floors, 46 Transporting, precast units, 89
in fire, 80 variable depth members, 30
lightweight concrete, 76 Truss analogy, pilecaps, 75
precast, connections, 89 Truss theory, 50
S t r e s s k a i n relationship, 25
Strip footings. 74 Uniform loads, beams, 49
Sugar solutions, 79
Sulphate resistance, 77, 80
Sulphates, 80 Vermiculite slabs. 82
I Superplasticizers, 18
I Supersulphated cement, 17. 18, 80 Walls.
I Sway. crosswalls, 73, 87
I frames, 39 definition, 72
unbraced. 21 effective height, 72-73
Sway resistance, 60 exposure to fire, 80
fire resistance, 83
Temperature effects. openings, 83
precast members, 94 precast concrete. joints, 96
walls. 72 slenderness ratio, 73
Tensile stresses. 20 thickness, 72
composite construction, 97 ties. 86-87
Test cubes. strength 23. 25. 107-108 Warehouses, 88
Tests. Water-reducing admixtures, 18. 101
aggregates. I04 Water-retaining structures, 13, 35
alkali-silica reaction, 79 Waterproofing, 34
concrete. 100 admixtures, 18
load tests. 104-105 Wear on surfaces, 79
reinforcement couplings. 102 Wedges. columns, 74
workability, 107 Weight of materials, 22
Theatres. Workability, concrete. 107
see public buildings Workshops, loads. 88
Ties.
composite construction, 89 Yield strength. reinforcement, 17

Institution of Structural Engineers-Recommendations For The Permissible Stress Design of Reinforced Concrete Building Structures PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Institution of Structural Engineers-Recommendations For The Permissible Stress Design of Reinforced Concrete Building Structures PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Institution of Structural Engineers

Recommendations for the

Published by the Institution of Structural Engineers

01991: The Institution of Structural Engineers

2 IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations

Amendment No. 2, August 2009

Amendments (the following text supersedes Amendment No. 1)

Tables 5, 6 and 6c Replace with revised tables:

reinforcement type grade 250 grade 500 grade 500

steel tensile stress (N/mm²) 140 275

simply supported 25 19.6

Table 6c Span/effective depth limits for slabs (pst = 275N/mm2)

total dead slab flat slab

3A.12.6 Dimensions of hooks

Cl. 3B.2.1 Add at end:

3J.1.7 Requirements for durability of concrete

Table 22 Durability and concrete cover

External concrete (general) 40 RC28/35 35 RC32/40 30 RC40/50

External concrete in coastal areas 50 RC40/50

Design sulphate class Concentration of sulphate1 Designated concrete

In groundwater In soil or fill

1 <0.4 <0.5 RC28/35

2 0.4 to 1.4 0.5 to 1.5 FND2

3 1.5 to 3 1.6 to 3.0 FND3

4 3.1 to 6 3.1 to 6 FND4

Contents page number

IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccommcndations 3

3A.9 Calculation of resistance moments of beams and slabs 25

3B Beams and slabs

4 IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations

3C Flat slab construction 53

IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations 5

3C. 12 Emperical design of flat slabs 61

3F Reinforced concrete walls 72

3G Bases and pile caps 73

3H Reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete 75

6 IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations

3L Stability and disproportionate collapse 85

4 Precast and composite construction 89

IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations 7

IStructE RC pcrrnissiblc strcss rccommcndations

6 Testing and inspection 104

7 Protection, maintenance and repair 106 I

Appendix A Nominal concrete mixes 107

IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations 9

IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations 11

IStructE RC pcrmissiblc stress rccornmcndations 13

Dry bearing A bearing with no intermediate padding material

I 14 IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations

maximum bending moments, for spans I, and ly, respectively, on strips of

moment capacity of a column for uniaxial bending about x- and y-axes,

IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations 1s

Ph permissible stress in concrete in average bond

I 16 IStructE RC permissiblc stress rccommcndations

IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations 17

18 IStructE RC pcrrnissiblc strcss rccornmcndations

2.5.2 Special prescribed mix

2.5.3 Ordinary prescribed mix

2.6 Nominal mixes

IStructE RC pcrmissiblc strcss rccommcndations 19

3A.1.2 Moments of inertia

3A.2 General stability

I 20 IStructE RC permissible stress recommendations