Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Regularization of Informal
Settlements in Latin America
Edésio Fernandes
Regularization of Informal Settlements
in Latin America
Edésio Fernandes
Regularization itself remains a work in progress, and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy’s
Program on Latin America and the Caribbean has long been concerned about how to address
informality and its impacts. This report is part of an ongoing set of research, education and
training programs, and related publications that document the work of many colleagues in
countries throughout the region and the world. Additional information on this topic is available
on the Institute’s Web site at www.lincolninst.edu/aboutlincoln/latin-america-caribbean.asp.
Contents
2 Executive Summary
10 Chapter 2. Defining and Measuring Informal Development and Assessing its Causes
10 Problems of Definition
12 Challenges of Measurement
14 Causes of Informal Development
17 Summary
47 References
48 Glossary
49 About the Author
49 Acknowledgments
49 About the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 1
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Executive Summary
D
An expanding informal wellings in informal settlements that informality comprises a significant
settlement on the generally lack formal legal titles, share of urban development in large Latin
periphery of Lima,
and they may exhibit irregular American cities, ranging from one-tenth
Peru, serves an active
community.
development patterns, lack essen- to one-third of urban residences.
tial public services such as sanitation, and A key aspect of informality is the lack
occur on environmentally vulnerable or public of de jure or formal title, although many
land. Whether they are built on private or urban residents feel secure with de facto
public land, informal settlements are devel- property rights of ownership based on
oped progressively over many years, and customary practices. Residents in informal
some have existed for decades. settlements developed on private land often
Such settlements often become recognized have bills of sale or related documents,
legally as part of the regular development and these properties are bought and sold
of the city—through either official actions regularly.
or the accretion of rights over time. Accord- Informality is attributed to many causes,
ingly, the definition of informality is impre- including low income levels, unrealistic urban
cise and multidimensional, covering physical, planning, a lack of serviced land and social
socioeconomic, and legal aspects. Differences housing, and a dysfunctional legal system. It
in definitions lead to noncomparable metrics generates large costs for residents, including
across space and over time, yet it is accepted insecurity of tenure, lack of public services,
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 3
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Chapter 1
The Challenges of Informal
Development
Improvised housing
offers an alternative but
inadequate option for
low-income families in
Villa Nueva, Guatemala.
I
nformal settlements constitute a who occupy public, communal, or private
long-standing form, and often a large land. In most cases the developers or resi-
share, of urban residential development dents demarcate lots and begin to construct
in most Latin American countries. rudimentary dwellings. Public services such
Such development results in part from the as pavement, street lighting, water, and
illegal occupation or unlicensed subdivision sanitation are initially absent. Over time,
of land, and in part from exclusionary prac- buildings are expanded, more durable con-
tices that have contributed to historically struction materials replace temporary ones,
unequal conditions of economic growth and and some public services begin to appear.
wealth distribution. While informal processes Public service provision often stimulates more
to obtain access to land have provided housing building construction. This physical consoli-
to large numbers of the urban poor, they dation can go on for many years, creating
are ultimately an inadequate and inefficient communities with substantial masonry
means to meet the growing need for the buildings with two or more floors, paved
sustainable development of safe and secure streets and sidewalks, and commercial
communities in Latin America and around centers.
the globe. In the early stages of such settlements,
Typically informal settlements are estab- tenure is often insecure, particularly if the
lished by illegal developers or new residents settlement takes place on public, communal,
or private lands that have been occupied This latter view holds that the same legal
illegally by the new residents. Settlements on order can accommodate rights generated
private land typically lack any formal regis- through both formal statutory processes and
tration of ownership, but occupants often informal customary rules, such as some social
purchase illegally demarcated lots from the practices (marital relations, for example)
parcel owner or previous occupiers, and that simultaneously accommodate statutory
they may even possess bills of sale. and customary laws and norms.
Over time, tenure security may increase, It is also evident that informal rules
but it is normally de facto rather than de jure. do not emerge spontaneously; they reflect
In many cases, the informal settlements are traditional processes and practices—such
regularized much later through formal rec- as those regarding building rights, permits,
ognition by public authorities, the provision rights of way, sale, inheritance, and registra-
or upgrading of public services, and formal tion—and they are constantly adapted to
acknowledgment of individual or other suit the specific needs of the affected social
forms of plot ownership or legal possession. groups. The distribution of rights and jus-
The continued lack of legal recognition of tice in informal settlements is usually highly
legal tenure can impede service provision, but informally regulated. In many consoli-
the availability of other urban infrastructure, dated settlements, informal land use and
and the overall legality of urban residency. development are strictly governed by estab-
Public authorities, and public opinion, lished practices, and many transactions are
tend to be more tolerant of informal settle- authorized (with fees charged) by informal
ments in which precarious legal documents powers, even including an informal regis-
(e.g., bills of sale, contracts, receipts) establish tration process.
the successive links in the chain of property However, legal systems undoubtedly
transfer, but they deal more severely with favor those socioeconomic groups that can
settlements originally resulting from land more easily find the instruments and mech-
invasion (Fernandes 2007). However, a basic anisms they need to effectively defend their
legal principle holds that time generates rights, land rights and interests. More often than
and precarious land claims may become full not, the “other form of legality” of informal
land rights over time, as through adverse settlements means the recognition of second-
possession. class rights for second-class citizens. Residents
in informal settlements not only lack full
S o c iol e gal A sp e c ts land rights, but they also lack the financial
of I n formalit y and other resources—literacy, information,
While local practices vary widely, most in- education, networking, and access to lawyers
formal land development in Latin America —that are often necessary to have access
exhibits violations of the prevailing formal to the administrative and judicial systems.
legal order governing land use, planning, Informal settlers are especially vulnerable
registration, building, and taxation. Thus, as regards eviction and “negotiated”
from a legal perspective, informal settlements relocation.
have fundamental problems of illegality. Acknowledging the illegal aspects of
However, this is often minimized by those informal development does not in any way
who dismiss the legal order as illegitimate and mean that the people living in informal set-
use instead the notion of “legal pluralism” tlements have no rights, or that they should
to explain informal land development. be repressed or evicted. In some cases they
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 5
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may not have land rights of their own or the reflected in the daily practices of these
right to stay on the land they occupy, but they informal settlements.
almost always have other rights resulting from
their occupation status. These rights need to B u rd e n s of I n formalit y
be recognized by policy makers and judges From a broader perspective, the combined
—for example, in the case of eviction, the burdens of informal development have been
resident’s rights to be fairly compensated fundamentally harmful to cities, to the over-
for their own building construction and all urban population, and to the residents of
community facilities. informal settlements themselves. The impli-
Such rights do matter, and therefore cations of the phenomenon are serious and
the legal dimensions of the phenomenon of manifold in numerous ways: legal, social,
informal development cannot be dismissed, environmental, political, and economic.
underestimated, or taken for granted by
policy makers. Above all, those who fail to Legal Burdens
understand the extent to which informal Informality principally means a lack of
development is a result of the prevailing full security of tenure, which exposes the
legal order often foster a legal status quo residents in informal settlements to the
that excludes a large number of people. ever-present risk of eviction by the public
Rather than opposing legitimacy and legal- authorities or landowners. Forced eviction
ity, the challenge is to construct a legitimate was a regular public policy in some cities in
and inclusive legal order that respects the the past, but the practice was largely aban-
informal processes of distributive justice doned after political democratization in
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The informal provision of services, such provide services on the grounds that the
as water, is much more costly than formal situation is informal. In other cases, resi-
provision. In Bogotá, the costs of regularizing dents have sought to pay property tax as
informal settlements have been calculated as a means of strengthening their legal hold
2.8 times higher than the costs of developing over the land.
serviced urban land for the poor. Improvised
access to services is also more expensive, I n t e r v e n tio n s to R e solv e
as illustrated by the case of Monte Olivos, I n formalit y
Guatemala, where the price of water from Eliminating informality requires two types
a truck is seven times higher than from the of interventions. One is to prevent the es-
pipe system. The irony is that the same pri- tablishment of new informal settlements.
vate “utility” company provides both services The other is to address the deficiencies of
—a perverse incentive against private invest- existing settlements through programs that
ments in extending pipe service (Smolka (1) provide formal legal recognition of the
and Biderman 2011). communities, as well as individual or other
Some informal settlements are excluded forms of ownership and legal possession;
from official property tax systems, resulting (2) remedy gaps in public services; and
in a loss of potential revenue for public ad- (3) promote local economic opportunities
Informal settlers living
on a former garbage ministrations. This limited tax base makes and growth.
dump in San Salvador, it even more difficult for public authorities While stressing the crucial importance
El Salvador, wrote: “We to provide services (Smolka and De Cesare of conceiving and implementing a set of
want you to fulfill your 2006). preventive policies that widen the condi-
promises to the people
At the same time, in other informal set- tions of access to serviced urban land and
for water, housing, light-
tlements the residents are charged property housing, this report focuses primarily on a
ing, wood, and roofing
materials. Comply with tax by the public authorities despite their review of experience with the regularization
accords that exist in lack of valid land titles. Sometimes the same of existing informal settlements. Within this
the constitution.” administrations that levy the taxes refuse to experience, it pays particular attention to
the legal aspects of regularization, and it
also refers to other dimensions—such as ac-
cess to infrastructure and service provision,
upgrading requirements, building quality,
and socioeconomic programs—particularly
when these actions interact with legal
dimensions.
Recognizing the difficulties involved in
drawing general conclusions from policies
and processes that are intrinsic expressions
of national and local realities, this report
organizes the main conceptual aspects of
the sociolegal discussion on land regulariza-
tion efforts in Latin America by focusing
on the two most distinct legal paradigms
in the region, those of Peru and Brazil.
The report aims to provide elements for
a general assessment of the Latin American
Metrovivienda, a
public agency in Bogotá,
Colombia, produced
this new social housing
development in the
Nuevo Usme area.
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 9
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chapter 2
Defining and Measuring Informal
Development and Assessing Its Causes
Informal settlements,
new public housing devel-
opments, and established
neighborhoods spread
across the periphery of
Panama City.
A
n important debate has continued P robl e ms of D e fi n itio n
for nearly 50 years concerning the Several sets of characteristics are relevant
magnitude and persistence of in- in trying to define informality.
formal access to urban land and
housing in Latin American countries. Policy Development Features
makers, legislators, and academics regularly Informal development encompasses many
discuss the causes and implications of infor- dimensions and variations in Latin American
mal development, and consider the nature cities, including:
and context of the public policies necessary • occupation of public, communal, and
to confront it, both to regularize existing private land, followed by self-construction
informal settlements and to prevent the (favelas, barriadas, villas-miseria, villas-emergencia,
phenomenon from expanding. Progress is chabolas, tugurios), sometimes in originally
often difficult, however, because of a lack of approved subdivisions;
agreement about what constitutes informal- • the unlicensed subdivision of private,
ity, and analysis has been hindered by long- communal, and public land followed by
standing, intertwined problems of definition the sale of individual plots and self-con-
and measurement. struction (barrios, loteos piratas, loteamentos
irregulares, loteamentos clandestinos);
• irregular public housing projects (conjuntos consolidated Brazilian favelas are better
habitacionais), some of which have gradu- equipped with urban infrastructure, services,
ally become extralegal; or solid building construction than newer for-
• the urbanization and development of mal land subdivisions on the urban periphery.
areas defined as rural; Indeed, incremental consolidation over time
• the unauthorized subdivision of previously has been the general rule of informal devel-
existing legal plots for the construction of opment in Latin America.
additional buildings (casas-de-frente-e-fundo); The Brazilian Institute of Geography
• the widespread occupation of riverbanks, and Statistics (Instituto Brasileiro de Geo-
water reservoirs, mountain sides, and grafia e Estatística; IBGE 2000) defines a
other environmentally protected areas; and “subnormal” census block as one that satis-
• the occupation of public spaces such as fies the following conditions: (1) forms a
streets, pavements, and viaducts. group of more than 50 housing units; (2)
occupies the land illegally; and (3) exhibits
While differing in specific characteristics, a disorderly pattern of urbanization and/
settlements with one or more of these features or lack essential public services.
are often categorized as informal. Such a
general term has the advantage of being Socioeconomic Characteristics
broad in scope, but its generality can impede The socioeconomic profile of the individuals
effective public policies. For example, Calderon living in informal settlements cannot be the
(1998) distinguished between illegal, irregular, main criterion to define informality. Most
and clandestine settlements to discuss the people living in informal settlements are in-
different situations of informal land devel- deed poor, and most socioeconomic indicators
opment in Peru. —literacy, education, health, mortality, in-
come, and employment—demonstrate their
Physical Characteristics low incomes and poor-quality living and
The various criteria used to identify existing housing conditions. However, residents in
developments as informal settlements often many informal settlements represent a wide
reflect the distinct professional backgrounds range of socioeconomic categories, especially
and academic or institutional outlooks of in high-value established urban locations
the involved policy makers and analysts. Such where many residents are considered more
physical criteria may include precarious urban middle-class.
infrastructure, public services, and collective Moreover, many poor people live in for-
equipment; inadequate construction; envi- mal settlements. According to the Pereira
ronmental degradation; absence of public Passos Institute (2002), 64 percent of the
spaces and of leisure, community, and cul- poor in Rio de Janeiro (here defined as fam-
tural facilities; and predominance of poor ilies living on the equivalent of less than one
residents. In some of the surveys mentioned Brazilian minimum wage) resided outside
below, possessing one or two of these criteria favelas in peripheral (both irregular and
has been enough to classify a settlement as regular) loteamentos (IBGE 2000).
informal. Neither is informal employment a hall-
However, the presence of one or more mark of informal settlements. Rocinha, Rio
of these features does not necessarily distin- de Janeiro’s largest favela, has a dynamic and
guish these settlements from other so-called diversified informal economy involving several
formal settlements. For example, some long- social and capital networks, as well as the
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C h all e n g e s of
M e as u r e m e n t
The large scale of informal urban land de-
velopment is confirmed by various indica-
tors from many sources. In Latin America,
informal development has been one em-
blematic characteristic of rapid urban
growth as millions of people have gained
access to urban land and housing primarily
through informal mechanisms. However,
precisely quantifying informality remains a
challenge. Information and data at all levels,
from global to local, tend to be fragmented,
imprecise, and often questionable.
UN-HABITAT, the World Bank, Cities
Alliance, and other international bodies have
attempted to provide reliable statistics. In a
Informal housing increasing presence of formal providers of widely referenced report, UN-HABITAT
expands upward in
consumption goods and services. (2003) suggested that more than one billion
this neighborhood of
people were living in slums or informal set-
La Plata, Argentina.
Legal Aspects tlements globally, and that this number would
If there is an underlying and characteristic grow to 1.4 billion by 2020. UN-HABITAT
determinant in virtually all types of infor- more recently defined informal development
mal settlements, it is the violation of the or slums as encompassing at least one of
prevailing legal order in one way or another. five specific criteria (box 1).
Informal settlements often have similar Based on an assessment of the situation
physical characteristics, but their different, in 15 Latin American countries, MacDonald
specific legal problems have varying impli- (2004) estimated that at least 25 percent of
cations. Informal development usually in- the urban population lives in informal set-
volves the existence of one or more intrinsic tlements, increasing from 111 million to 127
forms of illegality, through violations of pri- million between 1990 and 2001. The World
vate, public, or communal land ownership Bank (2007, 1) reported that informal
rights; urban, environmental, or building tenure “is common, accounting for about
regulations and standards; registration re- one third of home ownership.”
quirements; and taxation provisions. The statistics vary in different countries,
The key issues in addressing informal but the realities are similar. For example,
land development in Latin America are the 20 to 25 percent of the dwellings in the main
determinants of legal security of land ten- cities of Brazil are estimated to stem from
ure and effective access to serviced urban illegal land occupation. In Argentina, the
land and housing. Unlike the matter of ur- population living in villas-emergencia in Buenos
ban upgrading, the lack of full legal security Aires has grown 25 percent over the past
of land tenure depends largely on the action few years, housing some 200,000 people,
of the public authorities, as there is a limit- a figure equivalent to almost 7 percent of
ed scope for what the individuals and com- the city’s inhabitants (Clichevsky 2006).
munities can do by and for themselves. Different estimates of the size and growth
U
without secure tenure jumps from 1.37 per- N-HABITAT has developed a household level definition in
cent, if the measure is defined as households order to use existing household level surveys and censuses
not owning the land they occupy, to 10.19 to identify slum dwellers among the urban population. A slum
percent, if it is defined as the lack of title household lacks any one of the following five elements:
or legal documents proving tenure security
• Access to improved water (access to sufficient amount of water
(Smolka and Biderman 2009, 14). Data in the
for family use, at an affordable price, available to household
Brazilian census indicate that the population
members without being subject to extreme effort);
living in “substandard” urban settlements de-
clined from 7.0 million in 1990 to 6.5 million • Access to improved sanitation (access to an excreta disposal
in 2000. Improved cartographic analysis system, either in the form of a private toilet or a public toilet
may be able to identify more precise infor- shared with a reasonable number of people);
mation on informal settlements. • Security of tenure (evidence of documentation to prove secure
Although most censuses and surveys tenure status or de facto or perceived protection from evictions);
have been more precise in determining the • Durability of housing (permanent and adequate structure in
levels of public service provision, they have non-hazardous location); and
not been able to measure the number of
• Sufficient living area (not more than two people sharing the
dwellings with illegal land tenure. A recurrent
same room).
survey problem is self-perception. When asked
if they own their house, residents often re- Using this definition, UN-HABITAT estimates indicate that in 2001,
spond positively, because this is how they 924 million people, or 31.6 percent of the world’s urban popula-
perceive their status. The lack of efficient tion, lived in slums. In developing regions, slum dwellers account
land cadastres and centralized land registries for 43 percent of the urban population, compared to 6 percent of
in many countries also limits the option of the urban population in Europe and other developed regions.
collecting alternative data on illegality. In 2001, Asia had 554 million slum dwellers, or 60 percent of
While recognizing that the basic illegal the world’s total; Africa had 187 million (20 percent of the total);
nature of informal development may make and Latin America and the Caribbean had 128 million (14 percent
its definition more precise, the many potential of the total). It is projected that in the next 30 years, the number
and overlapping layers of illegality also make of slum dwellers worldwide will increase to 2 billion if no firm or
quantification of the problem a serious chal- concrete action is taken to arrest the situation.
lenge. The essential legal dimensions involve
both land tenure aspects (occupation of pri- Source: UN-HABITAT (2006).
vate, public, and/or communal land, and
informal subdivision of land) and urban
planning aspects (mainly the unlicensed is by no means new. Informal settlements
subdivision of one’s own land). Other legal in cities such as Rio de Janeiro and Bogotá
aspects such as lack of registration, violation span many decades and have increased
of building rules, and taxation matters are significantly over the last 30 years. Most
certainly important and need to be acknowl- informal land development used to take
edged, but they are not essential determinants place in capital and large cities, but it is
of informal development. also observed in middle-sized and even
The process of informal access to small cities (table 1).
urban land and housing in Latin America
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Table 1
Number of Favelas in Brazilian Municipalities by Population Size, related to the configuration of the spatial
2000 order. The current situation reflects what
has been called the structural inability of
Occupancy of Favelas
Total public administrations in Latin American
Municipal Population Number of Total Number Total Households
Size Category Municipalities of Favelas in Favelas countries, especially at the local level, to
Up to 5,000 1,371 61 1,995
guarantee sufficient access to accessible and
affordable serviced land and/or housing units
5,001–20,000 2,688 436 39,104
in urban areas (Smolka and Larangeira 2008).
20,001–100,000 1,275 1,693 132,834
Infrastructure investment has typically been
100,001–500,000 194 3,373 532,047 underfunded or spatially biased to high-income
More than 500,000 32 6,191 1,654,736 areas. Public authorities have rarely made
TOTAL 5,560 11,754 2,360,716 a consistent effort to recapture for the
Source: IBGE (2000).
community any surplus value generated
by public infrastructure service provision
Ca u s e s of I n formal and changes in land use and development
D e v e lopm e n t regulations.
Low Income
Poverty and underlying global and national Shortage of Social Housing
macroeconomic factors, especially wealth Informal development is also affected by
distribution and job creation, play a central the nature and scope of government housing
role in determining the process of informal policies. Insufficient social housing production
development. Although most inhabitants of is aggravated by the inadequate conditions
informal settlements are indeed poor, poverty of existing housing projects (many of which
is not the sole cause of informal land devel- are illegal in some way, often because of lack
opment. Some data indicate that the levels of registration or municipal licenses, or vio-
of absolute poverty have decreased while lations of zoning and building standards).
informality has grown (IPEA n.d.). Moreover, the credentials required by many
In Rio de Janeiro, for example, the rates lending agencies to approve mortgage appli-
of informal growth have been higher than cants have excluded most poor people from
the growth rates of both urban population access to loans and even to many public
and poverty. In 1961, when the city had a housing programs.
population of about 3 million, an estimated In Brazil, for example, even following
300,000 people (10 percent of the popula- the recent launch of a significant national
tion) lived in favelas. By 2009, the city had housing program, little formal housing is
a population of 6 million, and reportedly available for low-income families (those living
about 1.25 million dwellers (more than on less than three Brazilian minimum wages).
20 percent of residents) lived in favelas and Only recently have the housing programs of
other informal settlements. In São Paulo, Caixa Econômica Federal (the largest public
informal dwellings were 6.9 percent of the bank in Latin America) started to reach out
total in 1991, but their share increased to to lower-middle income groups (families living
11.4 percent by 2001 (Dowall 2007). on less than five Brazilian minimum wages).
Chile is one of the few countries in the
Sociospatial Issues region that has implemented a large-scale
The process of informal access to urban social housing policy, but it has been criticized
land and housing results in part from factors for concentrating the production of social
Public housing
provides an alterna-
tive for low-income
residents in
Santiago, Chile.
housing in distant peripheral areas, thereby practices also encourages more informal
reinforcing sociospatial segregation development. Questionable titles to public
(diPasquale and Cummings 2002). land have often been promised by politicians,
who also have influenced which public areas
Formal Market Outcomes are to be occupied. In some situations, false
Combined with the unequal spatial distri- land titles have been given to the residents
bution of urban infrastructure by the public or official agents have benefited from new
authorities, the overall process of land and developments, both financially and politi-
housing delivery through the formal market cally. The actions of public authorities thus
is characterized by prices that are high rela- can affect the growth of informality as well
tive to incomes, and these high prices carry as the action of land markets.
over to informal developments. Private de-
velopers traditionally have not catered to Unrealistic Planning
the needs of the urban poor in Latin Amer- The urban planning tradition in major
ican cities, especially in the absence of sig- Latin American cities has reinforced informal
nificant public subsidies, thus making room processes, together with the lack of system-
for informal land development opportunities. atic public investment and service provision
Even in many informal developments, prices in the areas where most of the urban poor
for land, property, and rents are high, and live. The resulting lack of serviced land then
services such as water supply are expensive. has the effect of creating more informality.
Informal development processes often A recurrent criticism of urban planning
involve highly profitable informal market highlights its poor integration of land, hous-
operations (Abramo 2009; Smolka and ing, environment, transportation, taxation,
Larangeira 2008). and budgetary policies. With few exceptions,
local administrations have failed to promote
Political Clientelism a more inclusive urban order. Both existing
The long-standing political manipulation planning laws and the approval (especially
of informal communities through clientelistic by local administrations) of elitist urban
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 15
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New housing in
this eroded area of
Tegucigalpa, Hon-
duras, is indicative
of uncontrolled
development and
lack of planning.
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 17
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chapter 3
The Regularization of Consolidated
Informal Settlements
P
Matinha is a densely olicy makers increasingly are mality, a great deal can be done at the
consolidated favela in responding to the phenomenon national and local levels to reverse the process
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. of informal development. The promotion
of informal land development by
implementing land regularization of inclusive land, urban, and housing policies
policies, and a recent survey identified such can widen legal access to serviced neighbor-
policies in 17 Latin American and Caribbean hoods. This involves redefining land ownership
countries (Angel et al. 2006). Many different rights; integrating urban law and management;
procedures have been attempted—some broadening popular participation in the de-
more comprehensive or expeditious than cision-making process; facilitating access to
others—with variable and often questionable the judicial system; and, above all, creating
results. Like informal land development, the bases of a process of land governance
land regularization includes many different to support the democratization of access
conceptual approaches and corresponding to land and housing.
institutional frameworks. It is in this broad and complex sociolegal
While global and macroeconomic factors context of land governance that land regular-
are part of the causal nexus supporting infor- ization should be discussed. While stressing
the need for preventive policies, it is crucial relocation. However, suitable alternatives in
to also recognize the need for the appropriate nearby areas must be offered by the public
treatment of existing consolidated settlements authorities and even private landowners,
involving millions of people. and negotiated with the affected residents
Because few policy makers fully under- to help them retain existing social networks.
stand the nature and dynamics of informal This principle has been expressed in inter-
development processes, their poorly designed national standards, national laws such as
regularization policies often reinforce urban the 2001 City Statute in Brazil, and judicial
informality and sociospatial segregation, can decisions in Colombia and Argentina.
be detrimental to the interests of the urban An additional challenge is to define the
poor, and may result in benefitting land level of consolidation that would justify regu-
developers and other privileged socioeco- larizing a settlement and keeping the residents
nomic groups. Gentrification, for example, in place. Factors such as the number of resi-
may be one outcome of land regularization, dents and buildings, the degree of overall
but it often results from inappropriate regu- development, the level of existing services,
latory policies. and especially the duration of occupation
However, given the scale and welfare costs are the main criteria being used. Political
of informality, as well as the land rights created factors undeniably play a role as well.
over time, not to regularize informal settle-
ments is no longer politically sustainable. W h y R e g u lari z e ?
Regularization policies must be based on a Approaches to land regularization vary
more consistent foundation that addresses greatly as they reflect the specific character-
security of tenure, legal rights for property istics of different informal developments,
owners, and the provision of urban infra- but the following arguments are often used
structure and services. to advance the transformation of existing
informal communities into consolidated
C h all e n g e s of settlements.
R e g u lari z atio n • Insufficient supplies of serviced land
Regularization policies deal with complex make it infeasible to require large-scale
socioeconomic and urban-environmental relocation.
realities and involve multiple aspects of land, • Cities have insufficient financial resources
registration, financial, urban, and environ- to implement major relocations.
mental laws. They seek to ensure that resi- • Enormous social costs would result from
dents of consolidated informal settlements uprooting communities that do not want
are not evicted or relocated, but can remain to be relocated, given the rich social and
on the land they have occupied with access capital networks they have formed over
to better living conditions. Moreover, to the years.
some extent regularization policies promote • Public authorities have a legal obligation
social justice and compensate for historical to enable the urban poor to have access
inequalities. to adequate housing.
This approach does not exclude all relo- • Relocating communities would often entail
cation, however, since not all situations can environmental costs and consequences.
or should be regularized. Environmental and • In many cases, communities have a legal
public health concerns and the need for public right to remain where they are living.
spaces are legitimate reasons to justify some
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 19
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An informal settlement
in Guayaquil, Ecuador,
exemplifies disregard
for environmentally
sensitive areas.
A
private land through adverse possession, n important process of legal reform is underway in some
while individual and/or collective leasehold Latin American countries, particularly in Brazil (mainly through
rights were granted for settlements on public the 1988 Federal Constitution and 2001 City Statute) and Colombia
land. In 2000, the social right to adequate (mainly through the 1991 Constitution and Law 388/1997). This
housing was given constitutional status. The reform is based on two structural principles: the social function
2001 City Statute regulated the constitutional of property, and the integration of law and management with the
provisions and established a broad approach governance of land and urban areas.
to land regularization, combining legalization,
The emerging, redefined legal-urban systems aim for:
upgrading, and other supporting urban
planning policies. • a just distribution of the costs and opportunities of urban
Over time, situations long ignored or development between owners, developers, the public authorities,
tolerated by governments eventually lead and society;
to the generation of rights for the residents. • an affirmation of the public authorities’ central role in determining
This shift is accompanied by an erosion of an adequate territorial order through planning and management;
the government’s discretionary power over
• a clear separation between property rights and development/
consolidated informal areas, even on public
building rights;
land. It can also result in the loss of public
• new criteria for calculating compensation under expropriation;
land ownership in cases where adverse
possession rights are applicable. • reduced duration of occupation for adverse possession to take
place; and
W h o Ca n R e g u lari z e ? • strengthened recognition of the rights of occupiers and tenants.
The locus of responsibility to formulate and
In Brazil, the social function of property is fulfilled when the current
promote regularization policies is directly
use of land is consistent with the master plan. The concept of the
linked to the question of who has the power
social function of property has also been extended to public property
to regulate urban land development. In more
and property registration. A range of collective rights has been ap-
centralized countries (e.g., Peru and Mexico),
proved to guide the processes of land use and development, such
national governments tend to be in charge
as the right to urban planning; the social right to adequate housing;
of regularization policies. In more decen-
the right to a balanced environment; the community’s right and public
tralized countries (e.g., Brazil), local govern-
authorities’ obligation to recapture the land increment generated
ments have played a leading role.
by the action of the public authorities and urban legislation; and
Several assessments of regularization
the right to the regularization of consolidated informal settlements.
policies have stressed that their efficacy (and
the integration of all territorial organization
Source: Fernandes and Maldonado Copello (2009).
and land development regulations) can be
guaranteed only when all governmental levels
participate in their formulation (Alfonsin tions. In Venezuela, for example, community
1997; 1999; Smolka and Larangeira 2008; organizations (Comités de Tierras Urbanas)
Angel et al. 2006). have taken the lead in the regularization
In addition to intergovernmental coordi- process. Academic institutions and interna-
nation, several types of partnerships have been tional development agencies also have had
formed between the public authorities, the a fundamental role.
private community, and voluntary organiza-
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 21
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The same argument of trying to help the mutual-help building process (mutirão), a
poor lies at the root of decisions not to practice imbedded in the Brazilian culture
charge property tax, even after the legaliza- whereby neighbors help build each others
tion of settlements, because the financial bur- houses. Nevertheless, few communities
den of formalization would fall too heavily have taken the initiative of formulating and
on the residents. Belo Horizonte’s pioneer- implementing regularization plans and proj-
ing 1983 regularization law is one example ects, even when a public policy framework and
with this provision. However, the failure to technical assistance are available. Communities
impose a property tax limits the possibility also rarely take the initiative to demand the
of expanding regularization policies and judicial declaration of their nominal land
jeopardizes the continued provision of ser- rights, partly because of the costs.
vices (Smolka and De Cesare 2006). The In some proactive communities, negotia-
lack of a tax also contradicts the principle tions led by public officials and/or private
that paying taxes is a condition of citizenship brokers have been more fruitful than legal
that is necessary for strengthening legal rights. proceedings. The founder of one such private
Not paying taxes contributes to the stigma company in Brazil, Terra Nova, won the
already affecting residents of informal 2008 Social Entrepreneur of the Year
settlements. Award in recognition for his successful ne-
Absent any financial contribution from gotiations with former landowners that have
residents, regularization policies are unlikely benefitted thousands of families in several
to achieve the scale necessary for sustain- municipalities. Another example is the social
able programs. In-kind payments have been urbanizer experiment in the metropolitan
used in some cases, such as the collective area of Porto Alegre (Damasio 2006).
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 23
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E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 25
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chapter 4
Experiences with Regularization:
The Cases of Peru and Brazil
A
Villa El Salvador is one pproaches to regularization efforts titling, mostly on ejido communal land. Over
of the most well-known
vary, reflecting the different country 30 years, 2.5 million titles have been distrib-
informal settlements
in Lima, Peru. Through
contexts and objectives of policy uted, but the process has lost momentum in
various public programs makers, but there are two main recent years, partly due to changes in 1992
and self-organized local paradigms. The first envisions formal legal- to the ejido legislation allowing privatization.
initiatives, some houses ization of ownership through issuance of The PROCEDE program, implemented from
have titles and services individual freehold titles as a catalyst or trig- 1992 to 2006, ultimately provided individual
whereas others do not.
ger that will promote private investment in land titles to the residents of 26,000 ejidos
housing, facilitate access to official credit and (about 90 percent of the 29,000 ejidos in
markets, and lead to poverty alleviation. the country).
While the Peruvian experience with this The second paradigm has a broader
approach is best known, Mexico’s legalization scope and consolidates legal security of tenure
program is much older. Since 1974, Mexico’s using a set of sociospatially integrated inter-
CORETT program (and later PROCEDE) ventions that link land tenure legalization with
promoted the regularization of informal upgrading of public services, urban planning,
settlements through expropriation and and related socioeconomic policies. This
H
evaluative evidence about the approach used ernando de Soto’s international bestselling books—The Other
in Peru than that in Brazil, summaries of Path (1989) and The Mystery of Capital (2000)—intertwine
experience with regularization in both several dimensions: the dynamics, innovation, creativity, and entre-
countries reveal useful lessons. preneurism of informal processes; the close links between informal
housing and informal businesses; the economic value of informally
T itli n g as a T rigg e r created assets; and the impediments caused by complex legal and
for D e v e lopm e n t : registration systems and by bureaucracy and corruption. However,
T h e P e r u v ia n Exp e ri e n c e de Soto’s key point is his proposal that formalizing property rights
The dominant approach to land regulariza- triggers economic development in low-income and transitional
tion internationally and in Latin America for countries.
the last two decades has focused on legalizing
His proposition is that poverty and economic underdevelopment
tenure of individual plots—also referred to
will be reduced by removing legal and institutional barriers to the
as titling or formalization—as a self-contained
ownership and transfer of economic assets produced informally.
program. This has been the focus of Peru’s
Providing legal tenure security in the form of land titling and regis-
regularization policy, which has been greatly
tration would enable occupants of informal settlements to access
influenced by the ideas of Peruvian econo-
official credit and finance their housing and business investment.
mist Hernando de Soto (box 3). These ideas
have dominated the debate on land regulariza- de Soto’s ideas are appealing because they are simple and his
tion, and have been translated into large-scale estimates of their benefits are very large. He projected that land
legalization policies. titling would mobilize US$9.34 trillion of “dead capital” (US$6.74
Many countries, including Peru, El trillion in informal housing alone) resulting from informal develop-
Salvador, Cambodia, and Vietnam, have ment. This would integrate the urban poor into the market and
implemented large-scale titling programs, eradicate poverty.
while others such as Albania are starting to
As a result, large-scale legalization policies have been proposed
initiate them. All of the programs have pro-
widely as the antidote against urban poverty, and de Soto’s propo-
moted changes in the national legal order,
sition has been supported by both multilateral and bilateral devel-
created a centralized institutional apparatus,
opment agencies. In 2006—with support from de Soto, former
and invested heavily in data, mapping, and
U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, and the United Nations
cadastres. As a result, millions of individual
Development Programme (UNDP)—the High Level Commission
freehold titles have been given to residents
on Legal Empowerment of the Poor was created with an original
of informal urban settlements.
mandate that emphasized property rights and land titling.
Peru is a leading practitioner of titling
programs. In 1996, then-president Alberto
Fujimori created the Commission for the
Formalization of Informal Property (CO- three stages: (1) the production of infor-
FOPRI), an organization supported by the mation on land and on existing obstacles to
Urban Building Registry (Registro Predial Urbano) formalization of settlements; (2) identifica-
and other legal instruments (especially for tion, demarcation, and registration of plots
prescriptive acquisition). The titling program and buildings; and (3) identification of enti-
has been financed with national, interna- tled occupiers. Nearly 1,600,000 freehold
tional, and World Bank funding. titles were distributed in Peru between
The formalization process has involved 1996 and 2006 (table 2).
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 27
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Table 2
Titles Granted Annually in Peru, 1996–2006
Year # Total Registered Titles # Titles in Lima % Titles in Lima to Total
1996 33,742 32,750 97
1997 129,392 125,768 97
1998 149,574 107,490 72
1999 322,053 110,986 34
2000 419,846 170,250 41
2001 115,599 29,457 25
2002 123,827 38,450 31
2003 70,401 16,696 24
2004 65,598 12,002 18
2005 71,300 8,866 12
2006 68,468 8,194 12
1996–2006 1,596,800 660,909
Source: Calderon (2007a).
financial collateral) fails to recognize land and Rakodi 2007). Research findings address
rent resources and serves the interests of the three main points of de Soto’s agenda:
propertied elites by shifting the burden of access to credit; investment in housing; and
paying for public services away from title- poverty alleviation.
holders of natural resources (Batt 2004).
A line of legal criticism notes that the 1. Access to credit. Formalization pro-
focus on individual rights fails to take into grams have not led to significant changes
account social property relations and other in access to formal credit (Deininger and Feder
forms of collective, customary, restricted, 2009). Rather, employment status seems to
and temporary rights that may benefit soci- be more important for obtaining credit than
ety. Implementation questions abound. For an ownership title. Studies have shown that
example, who actually receives the titles, wage workers with land titles have had greater
the occupiers and tenants or the owners? access to official credit than unemployed
Should social transgressors (e.g., drug dealers) people with titles, and employed workers
receive titles to public land? What distinctions without property titles have had better access
should be made between informal settlements to formal credit than unemployed people
on public versus private land, and between who have titles (Calderon 2006; Field and
property rights and housing rights (Payne Torero 2006).
and Fernandes 2001)? The answers to such Official credit is a more common re-
questions depend on a broader definition quirement to purchase building materials
of property rights. (table 3), but it usually does not require titles
(Miranda 2002). As has long happened in
Empirical Evaluations of Titling several countries (e.g., in Brazil with Caixa
Enough time has passed since the imple- Econômica Federal), official credit has been
mentation of the Peruvian and other titling offered regularly for the acquisition of build-
programs for international research to assess ing materials through several governmental
the outcomes (Payne, Durand-Lasserve, programs that do not usually require proof
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 29
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Figure 1
Peru’s Poverty Rate has Declined Faster than Latin America’s
2. Investment in housing. Titling helps,
but is not a sine qua non to promote invest-
60 ment in housing consolidation. Most Latin
Peru % poor (a) American cities demonstrate that titles are
Peru % extremely poor
50 LAC % poor (a) not needed for people to invest systematical-
Percent poor/extremely poor
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 31
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Figure 2
Total Expenditure on IDB Funded Upgrading Programs, 1986–2008
Guyana
Honduras
Barbados
Panama
Haiti
Nicaragua
Bolivia
Peru
Ecuador
El Salvador
Trinidad & Tobago
Uruguay
Colombia
Chile
Argentina
Mexico
Brazil
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
US$ millions
sponsored by the Inter-American Develop- Salvador were about $3,600 per household.
ment Bank (IDB) indicate that Brazil has Paving, sewerage, and drainage costs in
spent much more than other countries on all projects comprised 50 to 60 percent of
such programs (figure 2). In contrast, the expenditures (Abiko et al. 2007). One driver
IDB-related expenditures by Peru, with less of costs has been the increasing complexity
emphasis on urban upgrading, have been of upgrading projects over time—for example,
about 4 percent of those by Brazil. by adding components related to health,
Upgrading costs per dwelling vary a income generation, and community
great deal depending on the specific geo- development.
graphy of the neighborhood, its distance Only a few analyses have calculated
from existing infrastructure, and the extent benefit-cost results for upgrading projects.
to which households need to be relocated A report by the IDB for the Favela-Bairro
to provide infrastructure. However, exam- program used increases in property values
ination of several projects does produce to measure benefits (Rojas 2010). For exam-
meaningful averages, and the results sub- ple, Cuenin (2010, 206–207) reports that
stantiate that retrofitting services in estab- calculations for property valorization result-
lished neighborhoods is two to three times ing from improvement programs in Pando
as costly as service installation at the time Norte in interior Uruguay and the northern
of original construction. area of Montevideo produced internal rates
Upgrading costs in the Favela-Bairro pro- of return of 28 and 25 percent respective-
gram in Rio de Janeiro were around $4,000 ly—much higher than the reference rate
per household. Comparably calculated up- of 12 percent. In the Favela-Bairro program,
grading costs for the Guarapiranga project the rate of return was found to range from
in São Paulo were $5,000 per household, 13 to 71 percent with an average return of
and those for the Ribeira Azul project in 42 percent (Cuenin 2010, 207).
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 33
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E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 35
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a kind of license to invade. While approxi- Rio de Janeiro. A newspaper article reported
mately half a million title deeds were dis- that a developer had been gradually buying
tributed in Lima between 1996 and 2000, parcels in the informal market (prices have
for example, land invasions also multiplied been around R$35,000 or US$20,000), in
during those years at an unprecedented rate the expectation that the area will be legal-
(Calderon 2007b). An increased likelihood of ized. He planned to construct a hotel but
land regularization thus has had the ironic was denied a license to operate one there
effect of stimulating the process of informal (Azevedo 2010).
development (Smolka 2003; Smolka and Some regularized areas were, and remain,
Larangeira 2008). unsustainable in urban-environmental terms,
While regularization programs provide such as precariously constructed buildings.
individual security of tenure and protection Many legalized settlements still lack sanitation,
against legal eviction, they can also cause water, utility services, infrastructure, and
gentrification, especially in centrally located public spaces—in some cases 10 years after
and valuable areas where land developers their regularization. Few measures address
and promoters may pressure residents to sell the mitigation of existing environmental
their parcels (Durand-Lasserve 2006). Many problems, and only recently have systematic
traditional communities in São Paulo, for efforts been made in Peru to provide infra-
example, have been converted from informal structure and services.
settlements to middle- and upper-class Regularization policies have sometimes
developments. been used as vehicles for political patronage
Legalization policies have also led to in “titles for votes” schemes. In other cases,
growing expectations for gentrification in the political process fails to redress historical
Vidigal, an old and well-located favela in gender imbalances. Many women in infor-
Modern commercial
buildings tower over
the remnants of Favela
Coliseu near Faria Lima
Avenue in São Paulo,
Brazil.
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 37
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chapter 5
Additional Legal Issues
Related to Regularization
P
romoting progress in the complex their property if their newly titled property
field of land regularization en- is subject to urban and environmental regu-
counters a number of legal issues lations. However, land titling should matter
and collateral objectives. Given to all of those living in consolidated infor-
the importance to society of housing its mal areas because the understandings that
people, policies that relate to regularization generate the perception of tenure security
will be expected to address social objectives shared by many residents can and do change.
beyond tenure security, which itself is com- Land titling remains the main way to
plicated because there are many forms of promote full legal and durable security of
tenure other than freehold title that can tenure, although tenure security can be pro-
provide security to occupants. vided to occupants by many different types
of titles or enforceable rights:
T y p e s of T e n u r e R ig h ts • full individual or collective freehold,
The residents of consolidated settlements obtained mainly through sale, donation
often do not consider titling to be a top pri- by the public authorities, or adverse
ority because they already view their tenure possession;
as secure. Some even think that titling is • individual or collective leasehold over
harmful to their interests, as it entails poten- public land (including variations of
tial future financial burdens and may con- long-term leases such as the Concession
strain their ability to use and dispose of of Real Right to Use and Concession
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 39
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A lthough it is in society’s interest to regularize informal settle- Legal systems also vary regarding the
ments occupied by the nonpoor (sometimes called regulariza- legal recognition of ownership by adverse
tion of specific interest), these settlements cannot be treated with possession. Some countries require a judicial
the same legal and technical approach as that used to regularize declaration and others, such as Peru, use
settlements occupied by the urban poor. After all, nonpoor resi- administrative channels. Adverse possession
dents had the option of formal access to land and housing, but of private land is often based on the social
chose to live outside the law. function of property: occupiers of someone’s
private property are eventually entitled to
When nonpoor informal settlements are on public land, the direct
being recognized as the legitimate owners
transfer of the plots to the occupiers without an auction process to
following a period of their continuous and
achieve the highest possible price cannot be justified using the
pacific occupation. They, unlike the original
same laws that authorize the transfer of public land to the poor
landowner, have given a social function to
residents of informal settlements for reasons of social interest.
the property. Local laws establish the specific
Middle- and upper-class occupiers of public land may be entitled to
conditions for operationalizing this right,
preference rights at an auction, and to compensation if they are
such as duration of occupancy and maxi-
outbid, but in principle they should not be entitled to free direct
mum size of land to be adversely possessed.
transfer and privatization of the public land.
Brazil’s adverse possession policy, known
as a special urban entitlement (usucapiao espe-
cial urbano) requires five years of uncontested
determine the conditions of regulariza- occupation and is applicable up to 250m2. In
tion programs; and Colombia, for cases where the possession
• informal settlements in which the occu- was obtained irregularly without good faith
piers are not mainly the urban poor (box 4). or any fair titling, only three years are cur-
rently required with no area maximum.
One fundamental legal aspect to be taken This rule applies only to social housing cur-
into account is the original regime of land rently defined as being worth the equivalent
ownership, since the regularization of con- of about US$35,000, as defined by article
solidated settlements on public land must 51 in the urban land reform act of 1989
be implemented differently from the regu- (Ley 9 de 1989 [Ley de reforma urbana] ).
larization of settlements on private land. Although this is a civil matter between
Direct transfer of public ownership to land private parties, the public authorities can
occupiers, be it through sale or donation, support communities in having their land
usually requires specific legal authorization. rights fully declared, for example, by provid-
When transferring public property under ing them with technical, legal, and financial
regularization programs, a common confu- help. Whenever adverse possession rights
sion is often made between property rights apply, the public administrations need not
and housing rights. expropriate the occupied land to promote
The main legal role and obligation of its regularization, as the residents already
the public authorities normally is to ensure have rights that only need administrative or
access to adequate social housing to those judicial declaration.
who need it. This is by no means the same The same rationale does not usually ap-
as exclusively granting ownership titles or ply for occupations of public land. Unless
the legal system explicitly recognizes ad- located in central city areas) have prompted
verse possession of public property, regular- developers to encourage residents to sell
ization can be implemented by granting the their houses. Many residents have reportedly
occupiers tenure status other than freehold. done so and some have then occupied pub-
Leasehold forms (such as those being used lic or private land illegally, thus starting the
in Brazil) constitute real rights promoting process over again. Accordingly, in Peru, in
tenure security and can be registered, trans- the Brazilian cities of Recife and Porto Alegre,
ferred, or inherited. Leasehold and social and in Buenos Aires among other places,
rental housing are two valid alternatives that policy makers have restricted the transfer
may be more suitable to the interests of both of newly legalized properties by requiring
policy makers and residents of informal set- sales to be approved by residents’ associa-
tlements. Privatizing public land is not nec- tions, or they have banned sales for several
essary to fulfill the social right to housing; years. Such schemes have not worked out
on the contrary, maintaining public owner- well and have merely generated new types
ship of land might well be the best way to of informal transactions (Angel et al. 2006).
guarantee the permanence of communities. Learning from these experiences, some
local administrations have moved from
E n s u ri n g t h e D u rabilit y focusing on the actions of current residents
of B e n e fits for t h e P oor to seeking ways to guarantee that the land
No specific form of land titling protects res- upgraded and legalized at public expense
idents against pressures exerted by market remains in use as housing for less-favored
forces. In some cases, increases in the value social groups. Rather than imposing constraints
of legalized properties (especially when on future sales, public authorities use urban
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 41
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planning regulations and land management Interestingly, such zoning strategies have
tools to guarantee that low-income house- not been questioned in the same way that
holds continue to be in the majority in the the demarcation of land for social hous-
regularized areas, thus minimizing “eviction ing has been.
by the market” or capital gain events. A 2006 study of the ZEIS in Recife
Some Brazilian municipalities have created concluded that antigentrification zoning
Special Zones of Social Interest (ZEIS) that measures, such as limits on plot sizes, build-
include areas occupied by the consolidated ing heights, and number of plots allowed
informal settlements. In line with mecha- per individual, can significantly reduce de-
nisms of democratic management, each velopment pressures in newly regularized
special zone has to approve its own urban communities when used in conjunction with
regulations. This provides an opportunity to titling programs (Angel et al. 2006). Rather
create land use and development procedures than creating urban ghettoes, as some critics
to prevent these newly legalized areas from argued, this approach has provided legal
being acquired by property developers and support to the poor communities. The
the traditional communities from being special zones are compatible with any form
replaced by other socioeconomic groups. of land titling, and some have recognized
The demarcation of ZEIS is a zoning individual or collective freehold and lease-
strategy like those for special land uses hold rights. Such regularization of informal
(e.g., industrial districts or environmental settlements may lead to sociospatial integra-
protection zones) or to meet social needs tion and guarantee the permanence of the
(e.g., exclusive zones for residential use). communities.
Low-rise informal
settlements are pro-
tected from removal and
redevelopment through
the ZEIS program in
Recife, Brazil.
A community meeting
gives residents of an
informal settlement in
Guatemala an oppor-
tunity to share concerns
and plans.
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 43
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rights by offering a financial bonus for opers, and the public administration. Resi-
house reconstruction only to men who were dents have participated in the process by
officially considered to be heads of house- preventing further land occupation, plant-
holds, including in some cases ex-husbands. ing trees, implementing several ecological
In other cases women have reportedly asked measures, and by helping to finance the
for their names to be removed from titles, installation of local sewage treatment
for example in Mexico, because they feared systems (van Horen 2001).
retaliation from abusive husbands or some Other studies show that intrinsic environ-
form of cultural discrimination. mental risk is relatively rare, and the prob-
lem is more often lack of risk management.
E n v iro n m e n tal P rot e c tio n Experience with the PRIMED program in
Many consolidated informal settlements Medellín, for example, has shown that
have been formed in environmentally sen- whenever possible risk management strate-
sitive areas, including wetlands, water reser- gies are more adequate and less costly than
voirs, or steep slopes such as the hillsides the physical relocation of the communities.
of Rio de Janeiro, Caracas, Bogotá, and
Medellín. In several cases, conflicts have S u mmar y
emerged, with environmental values oppos- Providing secure tenure typically involves
ing public policies to regularize or legalize giving freehold title, but tenure takes many
settlements. other forms—leasehold, collective owner-
In other cases, the environmental opposi- ship, and cooperatives—some of which may
tion may be a veil covering social prejudices be more appropriate for particular situations
against the urban poor, especially those liv- in terms of enhancing the permanence of
ing in central city areas. The same concern settlements. The design of regularization
may not be articulated when the environ- programs will also depend on the character-
mentally protected areas are occupied ille- istics of the residents, the extent of their
gally by middle- and upper-income house- acquired rights, and the original public or
holds. Nor are such concerns so strongly private ownership status of the land. Many
manifested when the informal settlements countries do not recognize adverse posses-
occupy environmentally sensitive areas sion of public land or the uncompensated
on the urban periphery. transfer of public land to private owners.
Of course, consolidated settlements need Maintaining neighborhood occupancy
to be dealt with pragmatically. Finding solu- by deserving groups (most notably the poor)
tions where environmental damage is mini- can be a challenge following upgrading, and
mized or compensated to some extent has some countries, such as Brazil, have taken
required compromises. An interesting expe- special steps to maintain community integ-
rience of regularization in an environmen- rity. Moreover, property rights of women
tally protected area of Santo André, Brazil, often need special attention, as cultural
illustrates an agreement reached with the practices may contradict their legal rights.
informal settlers to promote changes in their Settlements in environmentally sensitive
behavior to protect the watershed. The par- areas also can raise difficult tradeoffs be-
ticipatory process involved more than 10 tween protecting the environment and
stakeholder groups, including residents’ maintaining the community.
associations, former landowners and devel-
R
egularization remains a work Recommendations for improving regular- Metrocable provides an
innovative solution for
in progress in Latin America. ization policy and specific programs must
mass transportation and
Different approaches have been address the following issues. sociospatial integration
tried in different countries, rang- between peripheral
ing from those narrowly focused on formal 1. Evaluation. More systematic efforts informal settlements
titling to those attempting to improve all must be made to evaluate the performance and central areas of
neighborhood services. The costs of full of regularization programs, including the Medellín, Colombia.
regularization are 50 to 80 times greater collection of both baseline data before pro-
than those of titling alone, but available gram implementation and subsequent data
evidence indicates that the benefits to the on program costs and outcomes. Concep-
occupants, measured in increased property tually, program impacts should encompass
values and improved services, exceed the welfare at the household level, services at
costs of both approaches. the neighborhood level, and the extent of
While regularization has long been resisted informality citywide. Performance evalua-
or implemented slowly, it is now becoming tions also are needed for alternative modes
a political imperative in Latin America. of addressing regularization issues.
E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 45
...................
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E d é s i o F e r n a n d e s ● R e g u l a r i z at i o n o f I n f o r m a l S e t t l e m e n t s 47
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Edésio Fernandes is a lawyer, urban planner, author, and lecturer To download a free copy of this report or
to order copies of the printed report, visit
associated with numerous international universities and nongovern-
www.lincolninst.edu and search by author or title.
mental organizations. He graduated from the Federal University of
For additional information on discounted
Minas Gerais in Brazil and received his Doctor of Law degree from prices for bookstores, multiple-copy orders,
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he formulated the National Programme to Support Sustainable Land
Regularization in Urban Areas. He was a visiting fellow of the Lincoln
Institute of Land Policy in 2008–2009. Contact: edesiofernandes@ Production Credits
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The ideas in this report have been developed within the context of P rinting
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the Lincoln Institute’s ongoing research and teaching activities in the
field of informal markets and land regularization programs. These
programs have been led for more than 15 years by Martim O. Smolka, 92%
senior fellow and director of the Institute’s Program on Latin America
Cert no. SCS-COC-001366
and the Caribbean. I have benefitted enormously from rich and stim-
ulating dialogues with him and other colleagues over the years,
with special mention being due to Pedro Abramo, Carlos Morales,
Claudio Acioly, Julio Calderón, Gustavo Riofrio, and Teolinda Bolivar. Photographs
I am indebted to Dr. Smolka and Gregory K. Ingram, president and Julio Calderón: 29
CEO of the Lincoln Institute, for some of the economic data and Asa Jonsson: back cover left
Eduardo Knapp: 36
analysis in this report. I also thank Anna Sant’Anna, senior research
Prefeitura de Diadema: front cover,
associate in the Latin America Program, and Ann LeRoyer, director
back cover right
of publications, for additional research, fact checking, and editing; Gustavo Riofrio: 26
needless to say, I am solely responsible for any shortcomings. I am Secretaria Municipal de Habitação da
grateful to all staff at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy for their Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro: 25
support during my time at Lincoln House as a visiting fellow in Martim O. Smolka: 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16,
2008 and 2009. 17, 20, 22, 23, 34, 35, 38, 41, 42, 43, 45,
46, back cover center
Alvaro Uribe: 10, 18, 31
abo u t t h e L i n c ol n I n stit u t e of L a n d P oli c y
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Regularization of Informal
Settlements In Latin America
D
wellings in informal settlements generally lack formal legal titles, and they may exhibit irregular develop-
ment patterns, lack essential public services such as sanitation, and occur on environmentally vulnerable
or public land. Whether they take place on private or public land, informal settlements are developed
progressively over many years, and some have existed for decades. A key aspect of informality is the lack of de
jure or formal title, although many urban residents feel secure with de facto property rights of ownership based
on customary practices.
Policies to regularize informal settlements have been attempted in most Latin American countries, and experience
demonstrates that regularization programs need to be designed carefully to avoid either making conditions worse
for the low-income residents the programs are intended to help or stimulating the development of new informal
settlements. Regularization programs follow two main paradigms. The first, exemplified by Peru, involves the narrow
legalization of tenure through titling and is inspired by Hernando de Soto’s hypothesis that tenure security is a
trigger for development. Brazil’s broader regularization programs combine legal titling with the upgrading of public
services, job creation, and community support structures.
Recommendations for improving regularization policy and specific programs must address the following issues:
• Evaluate the performance of regularization programs, including the collection of both baseline data before
program implementation and subsequent data on program costs and outcomes.
• Customize policies and programs, because a single approach is unlikely to work well across all situations.
• Use appropriate titling systems (freehold, leasehold, cooperatives, land trusts, or communal ownership) to
ensure the socioeconomic sustainability of the community.
• Seek the participation of both men and women to avoid building gender bias into the process and increase
its long-term effectiveness.
• Make regularization more self-sustaining financially through property taxes; charges on urban infrastructure
and service improvements to capture part of the resulting land value increment; and equitable fiscal burdens
on all segments of the society.
• Support more research and analysis to determine if the situation is improving or worsening in particular
cities and to prevent the establishment of additional informal settlements, particularly when they are
thought to be caused by regularization programs themselves.
ISBN 978-1-55844-202-3
ISBN 978-1-55844-202-3
Policy Focus Report/Code PF023