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001 Handout - Processing - 1 PDF
001 Handout - Processing - 1 PDF
• Commercial:
– ProMAX (Landmark);
– Omega (Western Geophysical, marine);
– Focus (Paradigm);
– Amoco and almost every other company
have their own…
– Vista (Seismic Image Soft)
• Universities:
– Stanford Exploration Project;
– Seismic UNIX (Colorado School of Mines);
– FreeUSP (Amoco);
3 – SIOSEIS (Scripts, marine); 4
Seismic CMP Processing Sequence
Processing 1. Demultiplex, Vibroseis Correlation, Gain Recovery.
Conversion from file formats produced by field data loggers into
Systems processing:
• SEG-Y, SEG-2.
• ProMax, Focus, Omega, SU, Vista, etc., internal formats.
2. Field Geometry.
Assignment of source-receiver coordinates, offsets, etc. in
the trace headers.
3. Edit.
Removal of bad traces (noisy channels, poorly planted
geophones, channels contaminated by power line noise,
etc.).
Printing/storage 5 6
18. Migration.
• Transforms the zero-offset time section into a depth image.
• Establishes correct extents and dips of the reflectors.
11 12
Demultiplexing (Sorting of The Data) Demultiplexing (Sorting of The Data)
The principle of multiplexing is already discussed in the section • To deal with seismic data and their processing it is helpful to know
measurement system. It is used when the capacities of the AD converter are something about the data formats which are used to store these data.
not sufficient to digitize and save all channels at the same time. This is
common for older measurement systems or for measurements with a large
time window and a lot of channels per shot. The separate values of all • Almost every program and every large oil company has developed their
channels are sorted by samples and not by channels. own format. In the course of time several standards have been
developed, to make an exchange possible between the different
It is difficult to programs. The most important standards are:
process the data – SEG-Y
in this form. It is
– SEG-D
more convenient
and illustrative – SEG-2
when the data is
sorted by traces. • The other Formats SEG-D and SEG-2 are often used for the storage of
raw data. They are suitable for multiplex data and make it possible to
save traces with different lengths. e.g. the SEG2 format saves each shot
13 14
separately.
15 16
Trace Edit Editing
17 18
19 20
Static Correction Static Correction
Static corrections are applied to seismic data to compensate for the effects of
variations in elevation, weathering thickness, weathering velocity, or
Static Correction : The whole trace is corrected with the same
reference to a datum. The objective is to determine the reflection arrival time
time shift.
which would have been observed if all measurements had been made on a
(usually) flat plane with no weathering or low velocity layer present. These
• Objectives of static corrections :
corrections are based on up-hole data, refraction first-breaks, or event
Adjust the seismic traces in such a way that the sources
smoothing.
and receivers are present at one horizontal level. To
achieve this, the travel times of the separate traces are
corrected.
23 24
Methods for Static Correction Topographic Correction
• Vertical aligning of the different elevations of sources
• Topographic Correction (elevation statics).
and receivers.
• Subdivision of time shift for source and receiver. Correction for the weathered (low velocity) layer (area
above water layer where pores are filled with air rather
• All traces with equal source are corrected for the time than water).
shift of the specific source. • When a shot is fired, also the travel time to the surface
is recorded and from this travel time, the velocity of the
• All traces with equal receiver are corrected for the time weathered layer can be estimated.
shift of the specific receiver.
27 28
Refraction Statics
Correction for the weathered layer. Methods to determine the velocity and depth of the
weathered layer using refractions.
• Using the first breaks of a certain shot (refracted • Delay-Time.
energy) a model can be constructed for the weathered • GRM (generalized reciprocal method).
layer (velocities and depth). • DRM (diminishing residual matrices).
29 30
32
Example Where ProMax Routine Made a
Static Solution FACTORS WHICH AFFECT AMPLITUDE
33
• The amplitude of a seismic signal decays with Loss of amplitude due to:
increasing travel time.
• Reflection and transmission at an interface.
• To obtain a realistic image, this decay must be
compensated for. • Geometrical spreading.
• Measurement system
35 36
Problem for Data Processing OBJECTIVES OF GAIN
STRUCTURAL PROCESSING
• Individual large amplitudes dominate the processing. (“AGC” or “TRACEWISE BALANCE”)
Best continuty
• Reflections are difficult to recognize.
Events visable at all times
(“RELATIVE AMPLTUDES”)
40
GAIN 10
GAIN FUNCTION APPLICATION GAIN FUNCTION APPLICATION
GAIN 11 GAIN 13
44
GAIN 14
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
Normalization of amplitude for a certain time sample in a • Automatic gain controls scales by increasing the amplitudes in
certain time window (not for the whole trace). segments of the trace where the amplitudes are low.
Advantage: • It does this by using a moving time window of around a second and
• All traces are more equal which is needed for further dividing the amplitude of the center point by the root mean-squared
(rms) amplitude of the window.
processing.
(Stacking: summation of different traces)
• Amplification of Amplitudes for larger travel times. • Some reflectors have stronger amplitudes than others and this may
obscure smaller, but important, reflections.
Disadvantage:
• “Automatic Gain Control” (AGC) boosts the amplitudes so that they
• Shadow effect. are all of similar size.
• Can lead to amplification of noise.
• No physical base for amplification.
45 46
Homogeneous space :
1
A( t ) = G ( t ) = v .t
r
Layered space :
1
G (t ) = [vrms (t tw ) / v (0) ] [ttw / ttw (0) ]
2
A (t ) =
[vrms (ttw )]2 ttw
47 48
Correction for Spherical Divergence Programmable Gain Control
Advantage:
• Physical base for amplitude correction.
• Relative Amplitude difference remains equal.
Disadvantages:
• Velocity function not know beforehand.
• Noise sources can still remain dominant.
49 50
Scale factors are indicated by the circled numbers at the Restored amplitudes at late times by correcting for geometrical
times of application spreading (unfortunately ambient noise also has been strengthened
53 (Yilmaz, 1987). 54
55 56
Trace Balancing
All traces are normalized using a certain amplitude:
• RMS
• Median value
• Maximum Value
Advantage:
• All traces are more equal which is needed for further
processing (Stacking: summation of different traces).
Disadvantage:
• No physical base for amplification. Common-shit gathers after trace balancing. Balancing is time-
• No equalization of losses with time. invariant scaling of amplitudes to a common rms level for all traces.
• Large value in a trace can dominate. 57 58
SPLIT-
SPLIT-SPREAD FIELD RECORD
Filtering
59
TYPES OF NOISE
62
- VULCANICS
- FRACTURED ZONE
NEAR-
NEAR-SURFACE PROBLEMS
- POOR COUPLING
- ABSORPTION
Instrument Compensation
Bandpass Filters
Deconvolution
Waveshaping
Spatial (Mixing)
FOURIER TRANSFORM
RULE OF THUMB
FOR FILTER SPECIFICATION...
FILTER SCAN WITH NORMALIZING AFTER FILTER
74
X
-K +K
F
T
REJECT or PASS
75 76
Contoh Aplikasi F-K Filter pada data VSP
Filter TEST?
77 78
Convolution
Convolution is a mathematical operation defining the change of
shape of a waveform resulting from its passage through a filter.
Deconvolution
xy ( )= xi + . yi
i
where xi: (i=0 ... n); yi: (i= 0 ... n); xy( ): (-m < < +m) with m = max. displacements.
xy ( )= xi + .xi
i
87 88
Autocorrelation Functions Contain
Auto-Correlation: Multiples
Reverberations
91 92
WAVELET CONTRIBUTORS
CONVOLUTIONAL MODEL
95
WAVELET CONTRIBUTORS
“IDEAL” DECONVOLUTION
97 98
99 100
Optimum Wiener Filters for The
Deconvolution
Deconvolution of Seismic Data
Objectives:
101 102
103
A CMP stack (a) with no deconvolution, (b) with spiking deconvolution before
stack, (c) with signature processing (minimum-phase conversion of the
measured signature) followed by spiking deconvolution, (d) with signature
processing only (conversion of the signature to a spike).
105 106
107 108
109 110
Albeit incorrectly, the term common depth point (CDP) and Common
111 Midpoint (CMP) often are used interchangeably. 112
Common Midpoint Sorting Common Midpoint Sorting
115 116
CMP Gathers Now Fold of Coverage for CMP Stacking
For most recording geometries, the fold of coverage nf
for CMP stacking is given by :
ng g : receiver group
g
nf = s : shot interval
2 s ng : The number of recording channels
117 118
STACK
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE
AMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE IMPROVEMENT
IMPROVEMENT
where
where N
N == number
number of
of unique
unique
range
range traces
traces stacked
stacked
124
Velocity Analysis Determine The Velocity
(t2-x2)-Analysis
129 130
133 134
| st |
Normalized Amplitude of stacking : nst = n
wi ,t |
i =1
st2
1
Semblance : Semblancet = • t
n wi2,t
t i
Wi,t value for i-th trace, time t Mapping of the offset axis to the velocity axis
135 136
Demonstration of The Velocity Spectra Constant Velocity Stack (CVS)
Same CVS Panel of Traces as Before Switching to Variable Same as Previous Color Panels with Velocity Range Now
Density Color for The Traces to Utilize Dynamic Range. 139 Halved to Better Pick Correct Velocities. 140
Constant Velocity Moveout (CVP) Corrections Constant Velocity Moveout (CVP) Corrections
(1) (2)
Velocity ft/s
141 142
Influence of Missing Long Offset Traces on Influence of Missing Long Offset Traces and
Velocity Spectra Statics on Velocity Spectra
143 144
Semblance-Analysis
145 146
147 148
Residual Static 2. Why are residual static needed?
CMP GATHER
1. What are residual static?
Static
“Corrections applied to seismic data to compensate
for the effects of variations in:
- elevation,
- weathering thickness,
- weathering velocity
‘(near-surface velocity anomalies)’ or
- reference to a datum.”
THE END OF
SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING
PART I
153 154