Atra Fundamentals of Electriciti PDF

E1 Fundamentals of Electricity 1
E1
FUNDAMENTALS
OF
ELECTRICITY
SELF STUDY COURSE
Student Guide
Course Code:E1SS2012
© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

2 E1 Fundamentals of Electricity


Table of Contents
For Your Safety.............................................................................................4
Welcome to the Self Study Course...............................................................5
Electrical Systems Operation........................................................................6
Overview of Electrical Controls...................................................................7
Electical Formulas and Principals.................................................................9
Series Circuit...............................................................................................11
Checking Resistance...................................................................................16
Voltage Check.............................................................................................19
Voltage Drop...............................................................................................20
Current Clamp.............................................................................................24
DMM..........................................................................................................26
Oscilloscope................................................................................................27
Short Detectors............................................................................................28
Power Probe................................................................................................29
Test Light....................................................................................................30
Breakout Box..............................................................................................31
Probing Tools..............................................................................................32
Portions of the material were supplied by Steve

Bodofsky, Senior Editor, GEARS Magazine. For more
information on understanding electricity as it pertains to
the automobile, go to www.autotechnow.com .



Welcome to the ATRA Certification Self Study
This guide was developed to help you recognize any weaknesses in your technical understanding of automatic
transmissions, so that you could focus your studies to help you pass the ATRA Certification program.
But even more than that, its ultimate goal is to help you improve your overall understanding of automatic trans-
missions, to help you do a better job where it counts: in the shop. A look at the contents page might lead you
to believe that this is a complete transmission training program. The idea was to help you recognize the issues
considered important for diagnosing and repairing today’s transmissions. If you’re comfortable with your under-
standing of those issues, you should have no problem with the ATRA Certification Test, or with the day-to-day
requirements of your work in the shop.
On the other hand, if you find yourself unfamiliar with some of the information here, you owe it to yourself to
dig deeper, to learn more about that subject, until it’s a part of your basic understanding of transmission technol-
ogy. To aid you in that quest, there are a number of specialized manualsavailable through the ATRA BookStore,
including:
• Hydraulic FunDamentals by Dennis Madden
• Road Testing for Results by Dennis Madden
• Building Blocks of Electrical Diagnosis by Steve Bodofsky
And don’t forget to look through the back issues of GEARS Magazine, available on line at www.atra.com. Vir-
tually all of the concepts discussed in this guide have been covered in depth in GEARS.
Once you have a strong understanding of these concepts, you should have no problem passing the ATRA Certifi-
cation… or with your regular work in the shop. Transmission Theory “I don’t care how the transmission works;
I just want to know how to fix it!” Too many transmission technicians share this point of view. It’s a mistake…
and a costly one at that.
Failure to understand the principles behind transmission operation puts them at the mercy of the manufacturer
or another information source. Since they don’t understand how the transmission is supposed to work, they can
never analyze a problem on their own. They only chance they have to solve a transmission problem is if some-
one else has seen it, and can tell them what to replace. Because of their lack of understanding, they’ll sell more
unnecessary work, and waste more time on problems than a technician who can understand and reason out those
problems. They’ll depend largely on technical hotlines to bail them out when they get in over their heads.
Any diagnostic procedures they perform will be hit-or-miss, rather than targeted to the condition, based on a
logical approach to the problem. And it’ll show up in their bottom line.This is why it’s so important to under-
stand not just how to fix a transmission, but how it’s supposed to work. With that knowledge, you’ll run into
fewer problems, and you’ll be better able to isolate and diagnose them when they do show up.

Electrical Systems Operation
The introduction of electrical controls to transmission operation has created an entirely new set of requirements
for today’s transmission technician. It’s no longer enough to understand how the valves or clutches work; you
need to understand advanced electrical concepts.
These concepts include:

• Current flow
• Pulse width modulation and duty cycle
• AC generation
• Hall Effect
• Ohm’s Law
… and many more.
What’s more, many of the testing procedures have changed. Gone is the simple test light and analog volt-ohm-
meter: Today’s technician needs to be versed in using a digital multimeter, and preferably a labscope to measure
the variety of signals in today’s transmission control circuits.

Overview of Electrical Controls
While each manufacturer has its differences, most of today’s electronically controlled transmissions have one
thing in common: They use a series of solenoids to control shift operation. And those solenoids are controlled
by a computer, which creates its signals based on inputs from various sensors around the vehicle.
In general, those sensors provide the same signals for transmission operation as were used in the older, hydrauli-
cally controlled transmissions: vehicle speed and engine load.
The computer then uses those signals to control the solenoids that control transmission operation. In most cases
those solenoids include:
• Shift solenoids — open or close to control a hydraulic signal to operate the shift valves.
• Pressure control solenoids — variable bleed solenoids controlled by a variable electrical current. As current
increases, pressure decreases.
• Shift modification solenoids — these vary widely based on manufacturer. Some override pressure control
during the shift to provide smoother shift feel. Others adjust shift overlap, or prevent conflicting clutch ap-
plication.
A number of manufacturers are now controlling the clutch apply circuit directly through the solenoids, instead
of using the solenoid to operate a shift valve. This system first appeared on Chrysler’s 41TE, and has become
the norm in transmission control.
Solenoids are nothing more than an electrically controlled valve. When current is flowing to the solenoid, the
solenoid energizes; when the current is off, it deenergizes.
Some solenoids are normally closed; that is, the valve is closed when the solenoid is deenergized, and opens
when current is flowing. Other solenoids are normally open; the valve is open when the solenoid is
deenergized, and closed when current is flowing.
Pressure control solenoids are always normally closed; they bleed off pressure as current applies. The more
current applied, the more pressure they bleed off. When the solenoid is deenergized, the solenoid closes, keep-
ing pressure at maximum. This is done to make sure, if the computer or circuit loses power, the transmission
operates at high pressure, so it won’t burn up.
The control signal to the pressure control solenoid is a duty cycled signal. That is, it’s a pulsed signal with a
constant frequency. What changes is the ratio of signal “ON” time to “OFF” time. A 50% duty cycle signal is
on half of the time and off half of the time. A 75% duty cycle signal is on 3/4th of the time, and off 1/4th of the
time. The number of pulses per second remains the same, regardless of conditions.

Overview of Electrical Controls (continued)
For electricity to flow, we need to provide a conductive path from negative to positive. This path is called a cir-
cuit. And while there are several different types of circuits, all of them have a few things in common:
• a power source, such as the vehicle battery
• conductors, such as wires, to provide a path for electricity to flow
• a load or device to be operated by the electricity
In addition, most circuits include a few other items:

• a control device or switch, to turn the electrical flow on and off, or operate the circuit easily and safely
• a safety device, such as a fuse or circuit breaker, to prevent electrical flow from getting too high for the
circuit
Some circuits are connected to a computer system. But a computer is really nothing more than a highly complex
series of switches. Once conditions meet a set of preprogrammed requirements, the computer closes or opens
the circuit, just like throwing a switch.

Electrical Formulas and Principles
There are a number of important principles you’ll need to be familiar with when diagnosing electrical circuits.
Of these, probably the most important are Kirchhoff’s Laws of Current and Voltage, and Ohm’s Law.
Kirchhoff’s Law of Voltage — Voltage drop in a circuit will increase proportionately with resistance. When
added together, the sum of the voltage drops in a circuit will equal the voltage drop for the entire circuit. There
will be no voltage left over.
It’s this law that provides us with the basis for the voltage drop test. And it proves that, if you see any voltage on
the ground side of a circuit, it means there’s unwanted resistance in that circuit.
Kirchhoff’s Law of Current — The total current that goes into a junction is equal to the total current that
comes out of a junction. There is no extra current, and none is lost.
This is the law that provides us with the basis for being able to measure current anywhere in a circuit, as the
current will be the same whether we measure it at the positive post of the battery, the negative post, or anywhere
in between.
Ohm’s Law — The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage, and inversely proportional
to the circuit resistance.
This is the law that gives us the direct relationship between volts, amps and ohms, and proves that, if we know
any two values in a circuit, we can easily determine the third:
Amps x Ohms = Volts

Volts ÷ Amps = Ohms
Volts ÷ Ohms = Amps

Electrical Formulas and Principles (continued)
Nearly 200 years ago, George S. Ohm performed experiments with electricity. He discovered there’s a specific
relationship between voltage, current flow (amps), and resistance (ohms) in an electrical circuit. From these
discoveries he developed a law of electrical circuits that bears his name: Ohm’s Law. The current in a circuit
is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance. According to
Ohm’s Law:
• 1 volt will push 1 amp through 1 ohm of resistance.
• Current (amps) will increase as voltage increases.
• Current will decrease as resistance (ohms) increases.
• If you know any two values in a circuit, you can determine the third.
Ohm’s Law is also a tool designed to help you remember the formulas that make up Ohm’s Law. Just place your
finger over any one of the sections, and what’s left is the formula for Ohm’s Law that defines the characteristic
you covered. In this example we’ll be using 14 volts, .7 amps and 20 ohms.
If you cover the E (voltage), you’re left with IR;

so the formula to determine voltage is amps time
ohms, or:
I x R = E (.7A x 20 Ω = 14V)
If you cover the I (current), you’re left with E

over R. So, to calculate amperage, you divide
volts by ohms, or:
E ÷ R = I (14V ÷ 20 Ω = .7A)
If you cover the R (resistance), you’re left with

E over I. So, to calculate ohms, you divide volts
by amps, or:
E ÷ I = R (14V ÷ .7A = 20 Ω)

Series Circuit
The most familiar type of series circuit would have to be a simple string of Christmas tree lights. You plug in
the string after being packed away all year, and… nothing happens. You start checking the bulbs, one at a time,
until you find the single bulb that’s keeping the rest from lighting.
The reason a single bulb can keep the rest from lighting is because the string is wired in series: Each bulb pro-
vides part of the path for electricity to reach the other bulbs. If one becomes loose or burns out, the circuit opens
and keeps current from flowing.
It’s kind of a pain, but they’re cheap to produce, and by wiring the lights in series, they create the conditions
necessary for another familiar sight: The blinking string. You put a single blinking bulb in the string, and it
causes the rest of the string to blink. Same reason: When the blinking bulb turns off, it opens the circuit, so the
whole string goes out.

Series Circuit (continued)
While series circuits aren’t particularly common in automotive applications, they do provide us with a clear
picture of what to expect when performing a voltage drop test to identify unwanted resistance, such as a dirty or
loose connection. So let’s examine the principles governing a series circuit, and see how they affect our diagno-
sis.
Principle 1: The current flowing through a series circuit is constant throughout the circuit.
Principle 2: The current must pass through each component in the circuit.
We’ll take the first two principles together, and this time, we’ll use a current clamp to measure the current at
various places through the circuit.
As you can see, no matter

where we measure the cur-
rent, it’s always the same.
Which proves that current
is indeed constant through
out the circuit, and that
it does pass through each
component.
No matter where you move the current clamp along the circuit,
current flow will remain equal, so current is equal throughout the
series circuit.

Principle 3: The amount of current that flows through the circuit depends on the total resistance of the circuit.
We know that current is always constant throughout the circuit; this is Kirchhoff’s Law of Current, which states:
The total current that goes into a junction is equal to the total current that comes out of a junction. There is no
extra current, and none is lost.
We also know that current levels are a consequence of voltage and resistance: Ohm’s Law tells us that. So, by
applying these laws to our last proof, we know that principle 3 is correct: the total current depends on the total
circuit resistance.
Principle 4: All of the voltage will be used up by pushing the current through the resistances in the circuit.
We proved this was true of a simple circuit, and a quick check shows it’s also true of a series circuit. In this case
we have 15.38 volts applied to the circuit, and zero volts after the resistances. So all of the voltage is being used
up in the circuit.
There’s 15.38V applied to the circuit
There’s no voltage left after the resistance, so the circuit resistances

are using all of the applied voltages.
Remember, this is the basis behind a simple voltage drop test: Any change in voltage levels along a circuit
indicates a resistance in the circuit. So if there’s voltage on the negative side of the circuit, it indicates unwanted
resistance in the circuit.
Or, if the voltage on the positive side of a circuit is lower than system voltage, it indicates unwanted resistance
in the circuit.
Principle 5: The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the individual resistances. The total resistance
equals the sum of the resistances: makes sense, but is it true? Let’s check:
• Resistance 1: 6.6 ohms

• Resistance 2: 7.7 ohms
• Total Resistance : 14.3 ohms
The resistance of the second bulb is 6.6 ohms.
The total circuit resistance is 14.3 ohms; exactly

the sum of the individual resistances.
The resistance of the second bulb is 7.7 ohms.

Principle 6: Each resistance in the circuit will use its share of the applied voltage, depending on its resistance.
The sum of the voltage drops across the individual resistances will equal the applied voltage.
So each resistance in the circuit will only use part of the voltage — depending on its level of resistance — until
all the voltage is used up. We already measured the voltage before resistance 1 to prove principle 4; there was
15.38 volts applied . A simple voltage check shows 8.22 volts after the first resistance.
The voltage after the first resistance is 8.22V; slightly more than
half the applied voltage. so each resistance does use its share of the
applied voltage.
Principle 7: A series circuit is sometimes referred to as a voltage divider network. Makes sense, based on the
results of the checks for principle 6: A series circuit divides the voltage between the resistances, based on the
amount of resistance in each one. In effect, the resistances “divide” the voltage between them, creating a voltage
divider network.

Checking the Resistance
One of the most common mistakes technicians make during an electrical diagnosis is misreading the resistance
measurement. Digital ohmmeters can be a little tricky to read and interpret until you learn what you’re looking
for.
Look for the Value

You connect your ohmmeter to a circuit, and it displays 3.120. Okay, so the resistance is 3.120 ohms… or is it?
Take a good look at the meter display. Somewhere around the edge of the display you’ll see the ohm’s symbol.
Is there a letter along side it? If so, that letter indicates whether you’re looking at 3.120 ohms, 3120 ohms, or
3,120,000 ohms. And that could make a real difference in your diagnosis! If there’s no letter in front of the
ohm’s symbol, you’reading ohms x 1.
The resistance is exactly as it appears on the screen: In

this case, 3.120 ohms.
If there’s a K in front of the ohm’s symbol, you’re reading

kilohms, or ohms x 1000. So the resistance measurement
on this display is 3.120 k ohms, or 3120 ohms.
If there’s an M in front of the ohm’s symbol, you’re read-

ing megohms, or ohms x 1,000,000. So the resistance
measurement on this display is actually 3.120 M ohms, or
3,120,000 ohms.

Checking the Resistance (continued)
Measuring Resistance Accurately
There are several things you need to keep in mind when measuring resistance on a circuit or component. Failure
to follow these basic procedures can have a drastic effect on the results of your measurements.
1. Isolate the Component or Circuit — Whenever you’re going to measure the resistance of a circuit or
component, you must first isolate it from any other circuits or components. That may mean unplugging it, or
in some cases you may have to cut one of the legs away from the circuit. This prevents electricity from back
flowing through another part of the circuit, measuring an entirely different circuit, in effect. Once you’ve
measured the component’s resistance, you’ll have to plug it back in, or even resolder it back into the circuit,
depending on what you had to do to isolate it.
2. Z
ero the Leads — All test leads have a certain amount of resistance. To eliminate that resistance from the
measurement, you must first zero the leads. Here’s how:
• Set the meter to read ohms.
• Connect the leads to one another.
• Press the “zero” or “delta” button.
The meter should display zero ohms. Now you’re ready to measure the component’s resistance accurately. If
your meter doesn’t have a zero or delta button, you’ll have to deduct the lead resistance yourself. After you
connect the leads, record the resistance on the meter display: That’s how much you’ll need to subtract from
your component measurement to determine the actual component resistance.
eroing the leads is particularly important when measuring a component with very low resistance, such as
Z
an EPC solenoid. It’s not important when measuring high resistance components. Zeroing the meter may
put some meters into manual range or lock it into low range. Since zeroing the meter is only important for
measuring low resistance circuits or components, that shouldn’t cause a problem.
3. Never Touch the Test Probes while Measuring Resistance — Your body has some level of electrical con-
ductance. How much depends on a number of variables, but it can be enough to affect your measurements.
To keep your hands off the probes, alway suse some type of clip adapter on the ends of the probes. Then you
can keep your hands… and your body’s resistance… out of the equation.
4. Replace Worn Leads or Low Batteries — If the reading is changing as you’re watching the display, you
maybe overdue for a new battery. Replace it before continuing your tests. And if every little wiggle or vibra-
tion affects the reading, make sure you’re leads aren’t damaged or worn out.
5. Use a Good Quality Meter —Believe it or not, there’s a reason that some companies sell meters for $400,
while others can sell a meter “just like it” for only $29.95. Make sure the meter you’re using is a quality
product,or you may find yourself working with questionable readings.

Checking the Resistance (continued)
6. V
erify Your Resistance Measurements with an Amperage Reading (when possible) — A circuit or com-
ponent can still have a problem, even though the resistance is within specs. For example, a solenoid with
a frayed wire that’s just holding on by a single strand may still measure as being within resistance specs.
But there’s no way it’ll support the current necessary to energize the solenoid. So how can you be sure the
circuit’s okay? Follow up your resistance measurement with a current draw test. If current draw isn’t within
specs, you have a problem…even if the circuit passed the resistance test.

Voltage Check
Measuring the voltage between two points in a circuit. To perform a voltage drop check:
• Connect your meter’s negative lead to the negative-most part of the circuit.
• Connect your meter’s positive lead to the positive-most part of the circuit.
• Set your meter to measure volts.
• Read the voltage measurement on the display.

Voltage Drop
One of the most important diagnostic procedures you can use for identifying electrical circuit problems is the
voltage drop test. All voltage measurements are voltage drop tests. Whenever you connect a voltmeter to a
circuit, you’re looking for the difference in voltage between the connection points; that is, the drop in voltage
between the positive lead and the negative lead.
So when you measure the battery voltage, you are in fact performing a voltage drop test. You’re measuring the
drop in voltage between the battery positive terminal and the battery negative terminal. Nothing mystical here.
The difference between a standard voltage measurement and what we think of as a voltage drop test is that, with
the voltage drop test, you’re usually looking for a drop in voltage where there shouldn’t be one.
That’s right: During most voltage drop tests, a good circuit won’t use any voltage between the points you’re
measuring. If you do find a voltage drop, it indicates a problem in the circuit, such as a loose connection or cor-
rosion, adding unwanted resistance to the circuit.
Why a Voltage Drop Test?

Why can’t we just use an ohmmeter to check for the resistance? Or check the current draw, and use Ohm’s Law
to identify a problem?
Both valid points. But an ohmmeter checks the circuit using low voltage and amperage levels. A problem that
affects a loaded circuit might not appear at all using an ohmmeter. A common example is a frayed wire, where
only one or two strands of the wire are left to conduct the current. An ohmmeter wouldn’t reveal this problem,
because it doesn’t apply enough of a load for the frayed wire to cause a resistance loss.
And while an ammeter will indicate a problem with the circuit, it won’t let you pinpoint the problem the way a
voltage drop test will. Remember, current flow is constant throughout a simple or series circuit, and on the com-
mon points in a parallel circuit. That’s why you can measure amperage nearly anywhere in the circuit. So, while
the problem will show up with an amperage test, pinpointing the root cause of the problem will require a volt-
age drop test. Let’s look at a common voltage drop test, and see what makes it so different… and so valuable.

Voltage Drop (continued)
Performing a Voltage Drop Test
Probably the most important point to remember — and the one that’s most often forgotten — about a voltage
drop test is the circuit must be loaded for the test to work. In fact, to get the best results, it should be loaded to
the maximum level.
So, if you’re checking the circuit for a transmission shift solenoid, that solenoid must be energized for the volt-
age drop test to have any meaning. In the case of a starter circuit, the starter must be cranking during the test.
For a fan, the fan motor should be set to run at maximum speed. If you don’t energize the circuit, the test results
won’t have any meaning.
Another point to consider is which way you connect your meter leads depends on which side of the circuit
you’re measuring. Always connect your positive meter lead closest to the positive circuit source.
So if you’re checking the positive side of the circuit for a voltage drop, you’ll want to connect your meter’s
positive lead to the closest point in the circuit to the positive lead. On a starter circuit, that’ll usually be the posi-
tive battery post. For other circuits, that may be at a power source from a fuse, relay or computer.
When measuring the negative side of the circuit, you’ll want to connect your voltmeter’s positive lead closest to
the load for the circuit you’re checking; the closest point to the positive source. On a starter, that’d be the starter
case itself.
On a transmission solenoid, where you connect those leads to check the ground circuit depends on how the sole-
noid receives ground. If it’s a feed controlled solenoid that’s grounded to the transmission case, the closest point
to the positive source may be the solenoid or transmission case. If it’s a ground controlled solenoid, the closest
point to the positive source would probably be the transmission case connector.
Let’s go over the steps for a basic load test, and see how to track down a circuit problem. For this example,
we’ll use a starter motor, because it’s so easy to see the terminals and connections.
Step 1: Connect your voltmeter’s positive lead to the battery positive post.

Step 2: Connect your voltmeter’s negative terminal to the point closest to the circuit load. On a starter, that’ll
be the starter power terminal.
Step 3: Load the circuit and check the voltage. On a starter circuit, that means you’ll have to crank the engine
just long enough to record a stable voltage measurement.
Step 4: Record the voltage shown on your meter while the circuit was energized. If you see zero volts on your
meter, that part of the circuit is okay, and there’s no reason to check it further. In fact, on most circuits it’s okay
to have up to 0.1 volts drop on each side of the circuit; that’s 0.1 volt on the positive side, and 0.1 on the nega-
tive side. Anything more than 0.1 volts indicates a problem.
If you see excess voltage drop:Step 5: Move the meter negative lead back to the next connection point on the
circuit. In the case of the starter circuit, that’d be the positive cable connector at the starter power terminal.
Step 6: Crank the engine, and record the voltage shown on your meter. If the voltage drops back to zero, you
found the circuit problem: It’s in the connection between the cable connector and the starter power terminal.
Remove the cable, clean the connection, and perform steps 2 and 3 again. The voltage should be zero.

If the voltage drop still appears on the meter: Step 7: Move the meter negative lead back to the next connec-
tion point in the circuit. In the starter circuit, that’d be the battery connector clamp or terminal.
Step 8: Crank the engine, and record the voltage shown on your meter. If the voltage drops back to zero now,
the problem is in the positive battery cable between the last two test points you checked. Replace the cable and
recheck the voltage drop at the starter terminal.
The whole point of the voltage drop test is to keep moving the test lead back along the circuit, until the voltage
drop disappears. The circuit problem will be somewhere between that point and the previous test point in the
circuit.
The Theory Behind a Voltage Drop Test

Why are we so concerned with a little bit of voltage drop in a circuit? To answer that, each resistance in the
circuit will use its share of the applied voltage, depending on its resistance. The sum of the voltage drops across
the individual resistances will equal the applied voltage.
So any voltage drop, anywhere in the circuit, must be caused by a resistance in that circuit. That could be a
planned resistance, such as the resistances found in a series circuit. But the object of most voltage drop tests is
to identify and isolate unplanned or unwanted resistances, such as a bad or corroded connection in the circuit.
These faulty connections create an additional resistance in the circuit. And because that resistance is using
“its share of the applied voltage, depending on its resistance,” it’s using up some of the voltage that the other,
planned resistances need.
Which means the circuit or component may not operate the way it’s supposed to. And too often, those compo-
nents end up getting replaced for no reason; there’s nothing wrong with them. They’re just not receiving enough
voltage, because something else in the circuit is stealing some of the voltage away from it.

Current Clamp
The low current probe has a very useful function; it allows you to measure current without having to open the
circuit. The low current probe is typically used with a DMM or oscilloscope. It puts out a voltage that varies in
proportion to the current being measured in the circuit.

Current Clamp (continued)
By connecting a current clamp to an oscilloscope you can check the current waveform of a solenoid and verify
it’s mechanical operation. When a solenoid is energized and the current is increasing, there is a point where the
magnetic field becomes strong enough to stroke the armature of the solenoid. When the armature strokes, it cre-
ates a disturbance in the magnetic field of the solenoid windings and causes the current to momentarily dip back
down.
The same thing happens when a solenoid is deenergized. The current decreases to a point where the magnetic
field is too weak to hold the armature in the energized position. The armature strokes back to it’s rested position
and creates a disturbance in the magnetic field, which causes a momentary increase in current.
The position of the current “hump” in the wave form will vary with temparature, fluid pressure applied to the
solenoid, and will also depend on the solenoid design. The key is consistency; the “hump”should be in close to
the same place in the waveform every time the solenoid is operated at a given temperature and pressure.

Tools of the Trade
DMM
The DMM is used to measure the basic characteristics of electricity; voltage, resistance, and current. Because
the DMM tends to average any changes it is not the best tool for finding “glitches”, or intermittent voltage
spikes, etc. DMM’s are offered with some additional features, such as:
• Frequency measurement (Hz)
• Duty Cycle (%)
• MIN/MAX- records the minimum and maximum readings. Useful for finding some intermittents.
• Relative mode- allows the meter to be zeroed at a particular reading for comparison or low valuemeasure-
ments.
• Display reading hold- freezes reading on display when activated

Tools of the Trade (continued)
Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is really just a glorified voltmeter (or ammeter). It esentially graphs the voltage or amperage,
which gives you a good visual display of how these charateristics change over time.
The oscilloscope is not often the first tool reached for because of the careful set up reaquired for testing. But it is
the“secret weapon” for diagnosing some tough electrical problems.

Short Detectors
Pinpointing the location of a hard short can be a difficult task. This tool connects in place of the fuse or any-
where else you can open the circuit to install it. It allows pulses of current in the circuit, and the detector needle
fluctuates with each pulse when it is near the shorted wire. The short is found by moving the detector along the
harness until you find the spot where the needle stops bouncing, indicating the short location.

Power Probe
The power probe has an LED which indicates whether the circuit has voltage present, or is grounded (RED for
voltage, GREEN for ground).
It also has a switch which allows you to apply power or ground to the probe tip. While the power probe is useful
for a general indication and application of voltage or ground in a circuit, it should be used with caution on sensi-
tive computer circuits.

Test Light
The test light will indicate if there is enough power available in the circuit to light the bulb in the test light. It
cannot be relied upon to indicate if the circuit has the correct voltage, or if the circuit can carry the required cur-
rent.

Breakout Box
Breakout boxes allow you to access all the terminals of a computer module and make meaurements with the
circuit intact. It allows for secure connections to circuits and it makes pin testing convenient, especially when
the control module is difficult to access for backprobing.

Probing Tools
Probing tools are another convienience factor tool. There are different types and shapes of probes for different
applications. Long slender probes or spoon shaped probes are useful for backprobing connectors, and insulation
piercing probes tap into a wire for a secure test connection.



Atra Fundamentals of Electriciti PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atra Fundamentals of Electriciti PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

E1 Fundamentals of Electricity 1

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

     

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

Portions of the material were supplied by Steve

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.     

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

These concepts include:

… and many more.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

In addition, most circuits include a few other items:

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

Amps x Ohms = Volts

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

If you cover the E (voltage), you’re left with IR;

If you cover the I (current), you’re left with E

If you cover the R (resistance), you’re left with

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

As you can see, no matter

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

There’s 15.38V applied to the circuit

There’s no voltage left after the resistance, so the circuit resistances

• Resistance 1: 6.6 ohms

The resistance of the second bulb is 6.6 ohms.

The total circuit resistance is 14.3 ohms; exactly

The resistance of the second bulb is 7.7 ohms.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

Look for the Value

The resistance is exactly as it appears on the screen: In

If there’s a K in front of the ohm’s symbol, you’re reading

If there’s an M in front of the ohm’s symbol, you’re read-

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

Why a Voltage Drop Test?

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

The Theory Behind a Voltage Drop Test

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.

You might also like

© 2012 ATRA. All Rights Reserved.