MODULE 1

Guidance

BOTSWANA February 2000

Co-ordinator: Winsome Gordon

Editors: Wilma Guez and John Allen
Cover Design: Monika Jost
Cover Photo: UNESCO/Winsome Gordon
Printer: Ag2i Communication

ED. 99/WS/10

Copyright UNESCO
Printed in France
 FOREWORD

African Ministers of Education have long been aware of the growing number of
social problems which affect the lives of young Africans, particularly girls, and
determined some time ago that their education systems had to play a much more active
and positive role in promoting the growth and development of the young people
entrusted to their care.

Before taking action they took into account the declarations and
recommendations of the Pan African Conference on the Education of Girls
(Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 1993) and the Fourth Conference on Women (Beijing,
China, 1995) and other international gatherings on matters related to women. They then
convened a series of technical meetings in English and French-speaking countries, at
both the regional and the national level, to decide in greater detail what should be done.
The consensus reached was that Guidance and Counselling should be an integral part of
the education of children and should be included in the teacher training programmes.

This co-ordinated effort resulted in the establishment in April 1997, of a Board

of Governors, made up of African Ministers of Education, who would be responsible for
policy decisions and for establishing procedures in the development of the Guidance
and Counselling Programme. In preparing the programme African countries would
collaborate so that it would benefit from the best of African expertise. It was also
agreed that ‘The Guidance Counselling and Youth Development Centre for Africa’,
designed to provide training for teacher trainers and youth and social workers from all
over the continent, would be set up in Malawi. While this programme was intended for
use with boys and girls, its content and organization are such that special attention is
given to the needs and requirements of girls.

Assistance is being given by a number of international and regional agencies

such as UNESCO, UNICEF, UNFPA, FAWE (the Forum for African Women
Educationalists), DANIDA, the Rockefeller Foundation and from countries such as
Finland and the USA.

A Training Package on Guidance and Counselling has been prepared by African

specialists from various countries in consultation with other competent persons. It
consists of eight training modules – Guidance, Counselling, Social Work, Behaviour
Modification, Gender Sensitivity, Guidance and Counselling Programme
Development, Adolescent Reproductive Health, and Workshop Administration and
Conduct Guidelines. The modules encourage the use of non-threatening approaches,
particularly with regard to sensitive issues, and are accompanied by charts,
transparencies and video films as teaching aids. Supporting materials are also drawn
from relevant programmes being implemented in the respective countries. Although
intended for use in the training of trainers, the suggested activities are also generally
suitable for use with school-age children. Each module is comprised of units and sets
out objectives and activities for small and large groups. Because of the shortage of
appropriate reference materials for Guidance and Counselling, each module includes
additional reading.

This Module on ‘Guidance’, prepared in Botwana, provides a history of

guidance both in the western world and in Africa, and describes why careful and
competent guidance is important for the development of the individual. Full details are
provided on how vocational guidance and help in making occupational and career
choices can be given. This is followed by descriptions of approaches to personal and
social guidance, which include information on laws relating to human rights and those
of the child in particular. The use of psychological tests in the guidance process is dealt
with in full. Particular attention is given to enterprise education in view of its
importance in a market economy, and the need to encourage initiative and innovation.
Finally advice is given on how to administer guidance services and set up efficient
information and library facilities on occupations and careers.

Colin N. Power
Deputy Director-General for Education
UNESCO
 Acknowledgements

This Module was prepared by Mr. Dan Bhusumane, who was the Director of the
Department of Guidance and Counselling in the Ministry of Education in Botswana. He
brought tremendous experience to the programme and has been the trainer in Guidance
in the regional programme for trainers of trainers, which is held in Malawi each year.
He has since left the Ministry of Education to take up a post in the University of
Botswana. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the programme will continue to benefit from
his expert guidance.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank him for his contribution and to
wish him all the best in his new assignment.

I must express my thanks to the Danish International Development Agency

(DANIDA), UNICEF, UNFPA and UNDP for their contributions, both in cash and in
kind, to the preparation of this module.

Winsome Gordon
Programme Co-ordinator
UNESCO
 MODULE 1
GUIDANCE

CONTENTS
Page
Foreword

Acknowledgements

Introduction 1

Unit 1. Development of Guidance 4

Topic 1. Guidance Movement in the Western World
Topic 2. Guidance Movement in Africa
Topic 3. Components of Guidance

Unit 2. Educational Guidance 19

Topic 1. Importance of Educational Guidance
Topic 2. Components of Educational Guidance

Unit 3. Vocational Guidance 45

Topic 1. Importance of Vocational Guidance
Topic 2. Functions of Vocational Guidance
Topic 3. Components of Vocational Guidance
Topic 4. Principles of Vocational Guidance
Topic 5. Occupational Information on Guidance
Topic 6. Theories of Vocational Development
Topic 7. Vocational Choice/Decision-Making
Topic 8. How to Get a Job

Unit 4. Personal and Social Guidance 81

Topic 1. Common Problems and Their Underlying Causes
Topic 2. Recreation
Topic 3. Law and the Rights of the Child
Topic 4. Human Rights and Self-Determination
Topic 5. Interpersonal Relationships
Topic 6. Parents’ Involvement in the Guidance Programme
 CONTENTS (cont.)
Page

Unit 5. Use of Tests in Guidance 130

Topic 1. Nature of Psychological Tests
Topic 2. General Uses of Psychological Tests
Topic 3. Use of Psychological Tests in Guidance
Topic 4. Psychological Testing and Appraisal of Individuals
Topic 5. A School Testing Programme
Topic 6. Types of Tests that can be used in a Testing Programme
Topic 7. Interpretation of Test Scores
Topic 8. Limitations of Psychological Testing

Unit 6. Enterprise Education 148

Topic 1. Entrepreneurship
Topic 2. Purpose of Enterprise Education
Topic 3. Unemployment
Topic 4. Self-Employment
Topic 5. Business Plan

Unit 7. Administration of Guidance Services 164

Topic 1. Setting Up a Vocational Library
Topic 2. Organizing a Vocational Guidance Library
Topic 3. Setting Up a Guidance Service
 1 MODULE

Guidance
INTRODUCTION

Occupational data in most countries, particularly in some of those in Eastern

and Southern Africa, reflect acute disparities in the participation of men and women,
particularly in the fields of science and technology, leadership and management. As
reflected in some studies elsewhere, among the factors that have continued to maintain
the low participation of women in these fields are the ‘masculine’ organizational
structures in current bureaucracies, power dynamics between men and women, societal
influences, personal motivational factors, and contradictory gender expectations that
exist in most patriarchal gender systems. (Bhusumane, 1993) Any effective guidance
programme, therefore, should take note of the effect these factors may have on the
participation of men and women in certain occupational and social roles. Considering
the different impact that socio-economic and cultural factors may have on the future and
general lives of boys and girls, there is a need to be sensitive to this reality when we
provide guidance services.

Guidance services in schools have, for a very long time, been left in the hands of
school teachers who are already over-loaded, and without training in the area of
guidance and counselling. Recent developments in African education, especially the
opportunity for free and universal education, have resulted in a new scale of problems in
schools and the nations at large. Many children go to school without knowing what
they are supposed to do, and leave school without any idea of what type of jobs or
careers they should follow. In addition, they have little understanding of themselves and
their socio-economic and political environment.

Many school leavers today end up on the streets, and quite a sizeable number keep
on moving from job to job trying to explore, within the world of work, which job meets
their interests and capabilities. A majority of these school leavers are not aware of their
potential. There is, therefore, a need to help young people and children to know
themselves, i.e., their abilities, interests, personalities, values and beliefs, and potential.
They should also be assisted to acquire the skills they need in order to cope with the
different circumstances they may encounter later on in life.

Guidance, therefore, should prepare them for adult life as well as help them
acquire appropriate attitudes and values that enable them to become productive and
active members of their communities. Most importantly, the Guidance programme
should help young people and children to develop a positive self-image and a sense of
identity, as well as establish a set of beliefs and a value system that will guide their
behaviour and actions.

The programme should engage youth and children in activities and discourses that
empower them to take control of their rights and responsibilities within the family,
schools, and other social institutions in society. Their control of their rights and
responsibilities can be made a reality through, young people and children power-sharing
with adults in decision-making in a variety of forums.

Objective of the Module

The objective of this module is to provide trainers of guidance-counsellors, social

workers and other providers of a social support system, with the working
knowledge, skills and attitudes, necessary to assist young people and children to
deal with the challenges and realities they may face in ever-changing
environments; understand themselves, their academic, social, and physical
environment; realize their potential, as well as identify the available opportunities
in a world where the chances for further training, employment and advancement,
continue to dwindle.

Further, the module provides trainers of guidance counsellors with an opportunity

to explore the educational, social, vocational and developmental concerns of young
people, within the context of their rapidly changing socio-economic and cultural
environment. Anyone who is responsible for providing guidance services today needs
to have a clear understanding of the differing needs and concerns of boys and girls, so
as to adjust the guidance services and activities to meet these different circumstances
and realities at their different stages of development and education.

Guidance counsellors, therefore, need to be equipped with skills required to

design comprehensive guidance programmes, provide counselling service, and use
assessment procedures with a gender perspective. Emphasis should be on the gender
sensitization of trainers of guidance counsellors, as well as provide them with the
knowledge and skills which they can use in training their trainees on how to address
gender stereotypes, that may influence the decisions that young people may make with
respect to careers and other roles in society. Due to a lack of training in gender
analysis, many providers of guidance services have continued to provide services,
and/or organize activities, that continue to maintain and reinforce the existing gender
stereotypes.

This module also presents basic information that trainers of guidance counsellors
can use with their trainees. Since the information presented in this module is basic, it
could be supplemented with extra readings as recommended at the end of each unit and
others recommended by the lecturer concerned. The module is sub-divided into units,
each dealing with a specific topic as indicated in the course outline.
 UNIT 1
Development of
Guidance

RATIONALE

Many people engaged in providing guidance services in schools, and other

organizations, are not aware of the historical background of guidance in the world at
large, and even in their own countries. Those engaged in guidance services should be
able to relate early developments of guidance to what is happening now and appreciate
the need for such services.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• explain how guidance services started and why;
• state the developments that have taken place since the turn of the twentieth
century;
• compare and contrast the development of guidance in your own country with
that of the western world;
• discuss the politics of gender and gender-based injustices that may be reflected
in the development and provision of guidance services in your country, and
compare them with those found in western societies during the early and later
development of guidance;
• evaluate how the democratic empowerment of young people and children
enhances their development through the political, economic, social and cultural
structures in their communities, regions and the African continent;
• analyze how, and why, ageism contributes to the generation gap and power
dynamics between adults, on the one hand, and young people and children, on
the other.
 CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Guidance movement in the western world
Topic 2. Guidance movement in Africa
Topic 3. Components of Guidance.

Topic 1.
GUIDANCE MOVEMENT IN THE WESTERN WORLD
The guidance movement was started with an emphasis on vocational information,
planning and guidance. Vocational education was believed to be that part of both
organized and unorganized methods of securing occupational confidence and
experiences by individuals for achieving occupational proficiency. Vocational planning
was regarded as a process for helping students, or others, to develop and accept an
integrated and adequate picture of themselves, and of their roles in the world of work, to
test this concept against reality, and to accept its benefits with satisfaction. The concept
emanated from the fact that:
1. both human personalities and the economic order are in the process of continuous
change and development;
2. people differ in their potential and capacity for work, but can qualify for a number
of occupations;
3. each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities, interests and other
personal qualities;
4. there are variations among individuals with respect to the nature and tempo of
development through various stages;
5. the career pattern of an individual is influenced by parental and socio-economic
factors as well as unique patterns of abilities, interests and other personality
characteristics;
6. vocational guidance is a long process extending through the school and working
life. Hence, there is a need to:
a) possess a thorough knowledge of aptitudes and interest patterns;
b) study personality traits that are important for successful adjustment and
achievement;
c) have a knowledge of unique patterns of physical and health assets and
liabilities;
d) know about temperamental trends, needs, attitudes, values, aspirations,
ambitions, general mental ability, socio-economic status, etc;
e) have adequate information regarding the world of work.

In this regard, occupational information is very useful for accomplishing the

above objectives. Occupational information is any, and all, kinds of information
regarding any position, job or occupation, that is potentially useful to anyone choosing
an occupation.
 Activity 1.1: Guidance Movement in the Western World
1. Go through Reading 1.1, Guidance Movement in the Western World: Early and
Later Development, on pages 12-16.
2. Discuss important breakthroughs and the stages of development in guidance in
the western world.

Topic 2.
THE GUIDANCE MOVEMENT IN AFRICA
Prior to western influence, most African societies had various forms of social
services that were provided for young people and children, so that they could develop
and grow into responsible and productive members of their communities or ethnic
groups. To function effectively in one’s community, one needed to be aware of the
values, beliefs and roles one had to play as a member of a particular regiment or sex.
Many young boys and girls were socialized, or taught the ways of their communities, as
well as the various skills their forebears used to earn a living, or to provide for their
families. Initiation schools, for example, taught young people things they would need
later on in their adult lives. For instance, they would learn about the history of their
ethnic group, how to relate to each other as boys or girls, and how to behave as adults,
as well as know their responsibilities as parents or members of the community.

The extended family provided other services that young people and children
needed. Uncles, aunts and other relations were sources of information that young
people needed as they grew up. For example, a boy talked to his uncle if he had
questions regarding relationships with girls. Likewise, the girl talked to an aunt or elder
sister whenever she wanted to know more about issues related to sexuality.

Skills in carving, hunting and other occupations needed later on in life were
passed on to young people by parents at different stages in the development of each
child. Some of the behaviour and skills were learnt either by observing adults, or
acquired through other means of training. Every community had its culturally-based
social services for young people and children. Among these culturally-based social
services was the extended family system, in which relatives played a significant part in
providing guidance and counselling for the young. As mentioned earlier, the initiation
schools/ceremonies introduced young people to the history of the ethnic group, its
customs and any other cultural activities that every member of the community needed to
know about, in order to live a successful life.

In his discussion of the cultural relevance of guidance and counselling in

Botswana, Maes (1995) concluded that Botswana has a history of communal support
and compassion for those in need. He argued that the helping structures, which are
introduced as a part of a Guidance and Counselling programme in schools, should be
compatible with the best cultural values, and should incorporate the best traditional
healing practices. Mapp-Robinson (1987) also recognized that:
 Guidance and Counselling for individuals have always formed part of the African
strategy for combating personality problems and practised by indigenous
counsellors. It is worth knowing to what extent Guidance programmes are
utilizing cultural practices (p. 86).

In his consultancy project at the University of Botswana, Witmer (1990) suggests

that:
...always be cognisant of cultural conditions and changes. The best of traditional
medicine and family life and the emerging human and social services of
modernization should be combined to enhance the well-being of those served
(p. 27).

While some people argue that guidance has always been part of an African
heritage, the formalization and integration of guidance services into the education
system only began in the late fifties.

Activity 1.2: Guidance Movement in Africa

1. Go through Reading 1.2, Guidance Movement in Africa, on pages 16-18.
2. Break into groups with 3 member countries in each group. Team up with
participants from your respective countries.
3. Discuss the events that led to the development of guidance services in your
countries.
4. Compare and contrast the development of guidance in your countries with that
of the western world.
5. Discuss the politics of gender and gender-based injustices that may be reflected
in the provision of guidance services in your countries, and compare them with
those found in western societies during the early and later development of
guidance approaches.
6. Identify the problems affecting guidance services in your countries and discuss
possible solutions.
7. Present the results of your discussion to the class.
Topic 3.
THE COMPONENTS OF GUIDANCE
Guidance can be defined as a process, developmental in nature, by which an
individual is assisted to understand, accept and use his/her abilities, aptitudes and
interests and attitudinal patterns in relation to his/her aspirations. Guidance as an
educational construct involves those experiences that assist each learner to understand
him/herself, accept him/herself, and live effectively in his/her society. This is in
addition to the learner’s experiences in the world of work and the people found there.

Guidance can also be looked at as a programme or services to individuals based

upon the need of each individual, an understanding of his/her immediate environment,
the influence of environmental factors on the individual and the unique features of each
school. Guidance is designed to help each individual adjust to his/her environment,
develop the ability to set realistic goals for him/herself, and improve his/her education.
As a process, guidance is not a simple matter, but involves a series of actions or
progressive steps which move towards a goal. As a service, we can isolate four major
services, those of educational, vocational, personal and social guidance.

1. Educational Guidance
Educational guidance, in so far as it can be distinguished from any other form of
guidance, is concerned with the provision of assistance to pupils in their choices in, and
adjustment to, the curriculum and school life in general. Educational guidance is,
therefore, essential in the counselling service. Guiding young people to pursue the right
type of education is necessary, while ensuring that the right balance is kept in order to
meet the human resource needs of a nation.

2. Vocational Guidance
Vocational guidance is a process for helping individuals to choose an occupation,
prepare for it, enter it and develop in it. Vocational happiness requires that a person’s
interests, aptitudes and personality, be suitable for his/her work. It plays its part by
providing individuals with an understanding of the world of work and essential human
needs, and familiarizing individuals with such terms as ‘the dignity of labour’ and
‘work value’.

3. Personal and Social Guidance

Personal and social guidance is the process of helping an individual to know how
to behave with consideration towards other people. Primarily, personal and social
guidance helps the individual to understand himself, know how to get on with others,
learn manners and etiquette, pursue leisure time activities, practise social skills, develop
family and family relationships, and understand social roles and responsibilities.

Units 2, 3 and 4 will deal with each of these four major guidance services in
detail. Unit 4, however, will combine both personal and social guidance since there is a
very close relationship between the two.
Activity 1.3: Sexism
Group Work:
1. Plan a 5-minute presentation on the following: ‘Sexism involves differentially
valuing one sex, in this case, men, over the other… Sexism has been in large
part the result of the relatively low numbers of women faculty and students at
academic and research institutions... reflects a broader societal prejudice against
women, which is embodied in the assumption that what women do, think, or say
is unimportant or uninteresting’. (Renzetti & Curran, 1989, p. 8).
2. In your presentation discuss how sexism in the early development and nature of
guidance could have influenced the kind of guidance services that are provided
today.
3. Considering that girls and boys have unique needs, problems and concerns,
a) how would you design guidance and counselling services to address these
unique needs and concerns?
b) how would you determine these needs?
Summary

The development of guidance began at the close of the nineteenth century, but it
gathered momentum at the turn of the twentieth century in Europe and the United States
of America. Among those who pioneered the movement was Parsons in 1909. The
beginnings of guidance concentrated on occupational information. Later, there was a
need to use more objective methods of assessing individuals for different jobs - hence
the use of group tests and interest inventories.

In Africa, the guidance movement is relatively new in the education system. In

many countries, guidance services are still on a trial-and-error basis. The place of such
services in African education systems is not yet well established. However, there is
now a greater awareness of the need for guidance services in schools.
Readings

Reading 1.1
THE GUIDANCE MOVEMENT IN THE WESTERN WORLD:
EARLY DEVELOPMENT AND LATER DEVELOPMENTS

Early Development
The first systematic work in guidance was by George Merrill in 1885 at the
California School of Mechanical Arts in San Francisco, California, USA. Merrill’s
approach provided for exploratory experiences in each of the trades taught by the
school, and was accompanied by counselling for job placements, and a follow-up of
graduates.

Another pioneer in the field of guidance was Frank Parsons (1909) who was
the first to coin the term ‘Vocational Guidance’ in his book Choosing a Vocation.
Many of the views expressed in the book reflected his own experiences and varied
activities. Parsons’ ideas can be translated into three aspects of modern terminology,
namely the appraisal of the individual, the furnishing of occupational information, and
the provision of counselling.

Two developments emerged from Parsons’ ideas:

1. One development expanded his first principle through an elaboration of
psychological techniques for the appraisal of the individual, often leaning heavily
upon psychometric methods by which abilities, interests and various other
characteristics of the individual were judged.
2. The second development resulted from the combination of Parsons’ second and
third principles, the provision of occupational information and counselling. But
emphasis was upon the dissemination of occupational information, and counselling
became a directive, advice-giving exercise.

There was very little room in this pattern of thinking for such ideas as meeting the
needs or values of the individual, or helping the individual to achieve self-realization
through discovering an occupation compatible with his/her self-image. There seemed to
be an implicit faith that, given accurate and ample occupational information, the
individual could somehow use the results of his/her personal analysis and, with little
advice and assistance, make a proper choice of vocation.

Other people who contributed to the guidance movement are Goodwin (1911),
Weaver (1912), and Davis (1913). Goodwin organized a city-wide guidance
programme for the City of Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, in 1911. He proposed five
conditions which he regarded as necessary for successful vocational guidance in a large
high school, and these are:
 1. the appointment of a guidance director with time for supervision;
2. a school organization which permits close contact between each pupil and at
least one teacher of the right type;
3. the exercise of an intelligent and sympathetic helpfulness on the part of the
teacher;
4. a logical analysis of the personal characteristics of each pupil; and
5. the adaptation of school work to the vocational needs of the community.

Weaver was responsible for bringing guidance services to New York City Schools
in 1912. He organized a number of local agencies to deal with guidance and placement.
Lastly, Davis (1913) began his work on guidance by organizing school-wide
programmes on personality, culture and character development, and vocational
information related to regular curriculum subjects. He was the first person to promote
the guidance movement from within a school system rather than from outside it. Hence
the stage was set for guidance services in schools.

Another dimension to the development of the present guidance movement was the
beginning of personnel work in industry. Munsterberg (1913) pioneered the
introduction of job-analysis techniques to industry. This resulted in the development of
group tests of mental ability. Short-form editions of these tests, such as the Wonderlic
Personnel Inventory, enabled business and industry to become more objective in the
selection of new employees with a maximum expenditure of time and energy. The
excess profit tax, which was placed on business and industry, as an indirect result of the
Second World War, also had a favourable effect on personnel work. Many industries
started to expand their own personnel services at this time. Thus, the following three
factors were mainly responsible for the growth of personnel work in industry:
a. the development of job-analysis techniques;
b. the construction of short-form group tests of mental ability; and
c. the excess profit tax.

Later Developments
Three major lines of thought relevant to the conceptualization of vocational
guidance came into focus:

1. An increasing recognition of the basic importance of personality dynamics in

vocational choice and adjustment, coupled with a rising interest in
psychotherapy.
2. The emergence of the developmental view of the individual.
3. A reconsideration of the meaning of work.

The first of these new lines of thought on vocational guidance on the basis of
personality dynamics and psychotherapy came, not from vocational education, but from
efforts to provide improved assistance to returning veteran soldiers after the Second
World War. There were also changes within the area of occupational information
which, apart from looking at job availability, demanded information about work
requirements, including training time, aptitudes, temperament, physical capability, as
well as work conditions.

A second major change in the conceptualization of vocational guidance came in

the shift towards a concept of vocational development, and away from the more static
notion of matching men and jobs. Super (1967) contrasts occupations and careers, and
he defines a career as ‘the sequence of occupations, jobs and positions throughout a
person’s working life’, noting that this concept of a career may be expanded at either
end by adding pre-vocational or post-retirement years. Hence he was able to call for ‘an
all-class theory of vocational guidance’, in contrast with a ‘middle-class theory’, which
took into account socio-economic status and its normal concomitants, a continuing
vocational guidance from elementary school years through later school years and
employment.

A third shift in the conceptualization of vocational guidance might be labelled a

reconsideration of the meaning of work. This shift was more in the realm of ideas than
activities or programmes. The meaning of work has two major sources - one religious
and the other social, derived from the social classes and religious systems of western
Europe. Thus on the social side, work reflected the class distinction of feudal times,
between the common man who worked and the noble whose status was based on family
and land. On the religious side, manual work was dignified when performed by
members of religious orders. Work was thus defined as a major source of identity for
the individual, especially those of the middle class or those who accepted middle class
values.

Other events that influenced the development of guidance were economic and
industrial changes, such as the shift from farm to non-farm production, a shift from the
production of goods to the production of services, technological changes, the mobility
of people (such as geographical mobility and status mobility), demographic
characteristics of the work-force, such as age, sex, and race, and employment prospects
for special populations.

To summarize the development of the vocational guidance movement in the

western world, Williamson (1966) identified seven major dimensions which contributed
to the development of guidance services and theories, and these are:
1. The objectivity of the analysis of man’s capabilities, employment and
external criterion. Before the turn of the twentieth century, there was little
objectivity in the appraisal and estimation of man’s capabilities.
2. Psychological tests were applied to identify workers in various industries,
who were either accident prone or unsatisfactory in meeting the
requirements of the employer. This second revolution in vocational
guidance originated, apparently, in France and Germany around the turn of
the twentieth century. At the same time, American psychologists
standardized work units by means of objective observation and studies of
the time and motion of workers. For the first time, there was available (in
the USA) an objective external criterion, against which to check and
correlate the emerging psychometric tests of aptitudes. The use of an
external criterion in validating aptitude tests made possible the diagnosis of
 the capabilities required for various tasks, before training or employment
was undertaken.
3. The vocational guidance movement is the employment of experimental
methods as a basic technique for determining job requirements. These
experimental methods replaced the ancient techniques of observation and
estimation. Industrial psychology thus became applied research using its
basic methods.
4. The unique invention underlying modern counselling and guidance is the
contribution of Munsterberg and other industrial psychologists in their
description of work or jobs in the same terms used to describe workers.
This was a new kind of occupational information that gradually emerged in
the occupational ability profile, and which is now used in the new type of
scholastic aptitude profiles and differential predictions for school tasks.
5. Characteristic of vocational guidance is the revolutionary reconstruction of
educational guidance.
6. A major breakthrough in the establishment of vocational guidance was the
pioneering work of E. K. Strong in the development of an objective
instrument to measure the interests of the individual.
7. The development of rational reasoning about the self in communicable
terms, so that the guidance counsellor-student could understand the
student’s capabilities relevant to the prediction of a given criterion, as a
fundamental preparation of his/her rational choice of adult career objectives.

These seven points can be viewed as the most important breakthroughs and
stages of development in guidance, seen from a historical perspective.

Reading 1.2
THE GUIDANCE MOVEMENT IN AFRICA
Literature on guidance is rather scanty in Africa. However, the beginnings of
guidance in some African countries can be dated back to the fifties in countries such as
Nigeria, which made great strides in the field. In other countries, such as Malawi,
Tanzania, Zambia and Swaziland, guidance services did not exist until the late sixties.
As with the USA beginnings in the 1900s, the emphasis was on vocational information,
awareness of the world of work, the location of employment, and the reduction of
examination anxiety.

While the focus on career guidance continues in most African countries, some
countries, such as Botswana, (which introduced Guidance and Counselling in the
education system in 1963), are now trying to develop comprehensive guidance
programmes that cater for the personal, social, vocational and educational needs of the
learner. This was due to the realization that the existing guidance programmes failed to
address the needs of the individual. Since 1985, after a policy direction seminar on
guidance and counselling in Botswana, emphasis has been on making guidance and
counselling an integral part of the education process. Guidance and Counselling,
therefore, is seen as supplementing and complementing all other educational
programmes in the school. The guidance and counselling services also aim at
addressing the needs and concerns of learners at different levels of academic
achievement, education, and development.

In most cases, guidance services were limited to the graduating classes in

secondary schools. The place of guidance and counselling in the education system has
been of great concern in many African countries. Its presence in the system can be
likened to that of psychology in the USA in the late nineteenth century, when
psychology as a discipline was regarded as a branch of philosophy. Hence, to many
educationalists in Africa, guidance and counselling can be given by any teacher,
whether a graduate or a non-graduate teacher. A teacher in a school is appointed and is
referred to as the ‘career master/mistress’ or ‘career adviser’. In most cases, he/she has
no training and has no insight into the functions of a guidance-counsellor. It is obvious,
therefore, that there is much to be done before guidance and counselling can have a
proper place in our education systems.

Guidance counsellors, in most countries in Africa, have struggled with the

problem of a lack of recognition, and the realization of guidance and counselling as an
integral part of the education and growth of every child. While some heads of schools
made time available for teachers to provide guidance and counselling services to their
students, other schools felt it was a waste of precious time allocated to examinable
subjects. Others relegated it to an extra-mural activity, and therefore provided it only if
students were free, or regarded it as an after-school activity. They saw the education of
the child as merely the provision of academic knowledge and skills in reading and
writing. Hence most students left school with very little knowledge about themselves
and how to cope with the realities and challenges they would face later on in life.
Generally, students failed to cope with a number of situations such as unemployment,
and, if employed, they either failed to keep the job, or lacked an understanding of what
was required of them.

Other problems that continue to affect the development and effective

implementation of Guidance and Counselling programmes, in the eastern and southern
African countries, include the imposition of western models which do not reflect
African culture, illiteracy, ignorance and conservatism which lead to the failure to
implement Guidance and Counselling programmes, a lack of trust and scepticism
regarding guidance and counselling, a feeling among the administration that Guidance
and Counselling personnel threaten their positions, no legislation to protect guidance
counsellors, unco-ordinated and indiscriminate deployment and re-deployment of
guidance counsellors, a lack of support from senior management in government, and
limited resources for implementation.

There is, however, one consolation, and that is the realization by many African
countries of the importance of guidance in schools and colleges. Beginning in the early
eighties, the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) has organized a number of
workshops and conferences on guidance and counselling, both at the regional and
country levels. These workshops and conferences have made many people, both in the
public and private sectors, aware of the need for guidance in schools. Many African
countries have now established guidance services in schools. Some countries are far
ahead, while others are still trying to catch up. The most important thing is that there
has been a re-awakening in countries to the problem that youth are facing and of the
need to help them.
 It is worth noting that some countries now train teachers in school counselling, so
that they can provide effective counselling and guidance. In Botswana, for example, in
addition to the general guidance and counselling courses taken by all those trained as
teachers, the University of Botswana has introduced a Post-Graduate Diploma in
Counsellor Education (PGDCE) and plans to have other counsellor education
programmes at the certificate, diploma, bachelor, and master levels. In addition, it is
now a requirement for every teacher to have studied guidance and counselling at the
pre-service level. Plans are underway to provide training for all teachers in the field of
guidance.

Evaluation

1. Identify ways in which guidance counsellors can shape programmes that are
sensitive to, and complementary to, cultural values and practices. How can
guidance counsellors ensure the cultural relevance of their guidance
activities/services?

2. Discuss ways in which the socialization of boys and girls may influence their
participation in both social and occupational roles.

3. Discuss some of the factors that might have led to gender bias in the development
and provision of guidance and counselling services.

4. Identify some of the gender bias that existed in guidance as reflected in its historical
development, especially in western societies.

5. Investigate and evaluate how the democratic empowerment of young people and
children would enhance their development, through the political, economic, social
and cultural structures in their communities and region.

6. Investigate and analyze how, and why, ageism contributes to the generation gap and
power dynamics between adults, on the one hand, and young people and children,
on the other.
References

Borow, H. (Ed.) Career Guidance for a New Age. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co. 1973.

Curan, D. J. & Renzetti, C. M. Women, Men, and Society: The Sociology of Gender.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 1989.

Makinde, O. Fundamentals of Guidance and Counselling. London: MacMillan

Publishers. 1988.

Mapp-Robinson, Z. Guidance and Counselling Programme Implementation in the

Schools of Botswana: A Report of a Consultancy. Prepared for the Ministry of
Education, Botswana. 1987.

Ministry of Education. A Report of a Seminar on Policy Direction in Guidance and

Counselling in Education (Molepolole, Botswana, April, 1985). 1985.

Maes, W. (). Training in Guidance and Counselling in Botswana. Ministry of

Education, Curriculum Development and Evaluation Department. Basic
Education Consolidation Project; A joint project by the Ministry of Education and
the United States Agency for International Development (July, 1995). 1995.

Napier, R. W. School Guidance Services: Focus on Developing Nations. Ibadan,

Nigeria: Evans Brothers, Limited. 1972.

Navin, S. Guidance and Counselling Programme Development in the Botswana

Education System: A Report of a Consultancy. Prepared for the Botswana
Ministry of Education. 1985.

Peters, H. J. & Hansen, J. C. (Eds.) Vocational Guidance and Career Development:

Selected Readings. New York: The MacMillan Co. 1966.

Witmer, J. M. Consultancy on Establishing a Guidance and Counsellor Education

Programme at the University of Botswana. Preliminary Report prepared by J.
Malvin Witmer, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus, Ohio University College of Education,
Athens, Ohio (August 28, 1990). 1990.
 UNIT 2
Educational Guidance

RATIONALE

Many young people in our schools and colleges are faced with many
educational problems. These problems include a lack of educational information,
wrong choices of educational courses, gender stereotypes in the selection of subjects,
poor study habits, difficulty in taking examinations and, above all, lacking someone to
whom they can freely confide their concerns.

It is up to the educational institutions to provide preventive, remedial and

developmental educational guidance to young people, so that they can make realistic
educational plans for their future.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• define educational guidance;
• state the importance of providing educational guidance to men and women in
schools and colleges;
• describe the components of educational guidance;
• state principles on which memory skills are based;
• contrast a formal time schedule with a personal study timetable;
• appraise the educational needs of men and women;
• prepare a cumulative record for a student.
CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. The Importance of Educational Guidance
Topic 2. The Components of Educational Guidance.

Educational guidance is a process for helping an individual to plan a suitable

educational programme and make progress in it. The individual may be assisted, for
example, in choosing subjects, courses, schools, colleges, and school adjustment. The
individual has to be helped to know his/her present position in the educational system
and see what lies ahead. Girls and women, for example, need to be guided away from
those educational myths which contribute to the reluctance of females to pursue careers
in technology, mathematics, engineering, and most male-dominated occupations.

Topic 1.
THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE

Educational guidance is important in schools and colleges in the following

ways:
1. Educational guidance helps young people to pursue the right type of education. In
this way, the individual is motivated to maximize his/her contribution to society.

2. It assists individuals to make informed decisions about their education.. Individuals

have to know the choices that have to be made, and determine whether the choice is
between subjects, curricula, schools or colleges. They have to know subject
combinations or options, what the subject involves in the classroom, available
courses and where each course leads, the available schools and colleges, admission
requirements, and educational opportunities.

3. It facilitates the smooth transition for children from home to school, from primary
to secondary school, from secondary to post-secondary educational institutions, and
to the world of work. The final transition from the educational system to the labour
force appears to be most important and challenging for students.

4. It helps students to cope with examination anxiety. The fear of failure and the
craving for the highest grades are major sources of pressure among students.

5. It helps students to develop effective study habits. The students are assisted to
improve their competence in reading, note-taking, and academic achievement.
6. It provides students with meaningful educational experiences. The students are
able to relate the curriculum to occupational groups.
 Activity 2.1: The Importance of Educational Guidance
For Class Discussion:

1. Share cases you have encountered, where the presence of educational guidance
in your school was of help.
2. What kind of problems have developed due to the absence of adequate
educational guidance?
3. In what ways can educational guidance be developed to address the needs of
boys and girls in your school?

The guidance counsellor needs to give special attention to females as they often
find themselves in conflictual situations if they do not follow gender
stereotypes in selecting the subjects they study.

Topic 2.
the components of educational guidance

The components of educational guidance include study skills, time-tabling, note-

taking, sitting for examinations, and academic counselling.

1. Study Skills
A number of students fail their examinations, or fail to deal with educational activities,
because they lack effective study skills and habits. They spend a considerable amount
of time playing, and only a small fraction of their time on productive or school
activities. This makes the provision of effective study skills

Activity 2.2: Study Skills

1. Go through Reading 2.1, Study Skills, on pages 31-37. It provides useful
suggestions on the following:
a) How to Start a Study Session
b) How to Develop Interest in a Subject
c) How to Concentrate on Your Study Material
d) Remembering or Memory Skills
e) The SQ3R Study Techniques
2. Share experiences of the different study problems encountered by girls and women
and boys and men in your school.

3. What would you do to help them with their study problems? Identify ways in
which females can deal with studies in the home and with the chores they are
expected to do.

Activity 2.3: How to Develop Interest in a Subject

Sharai is the eldest in a family of three girls and a boy. She is brilliant and well-
behaved. She is in Form 3 at a local secondary school after being first in Form 2 of
the same school. She has the support of her parents, who are proud of her, although
she is losing interest in mathematics and science. Her friend, Rudo, notices the
gradual decline in her performance.

‘Everybody is wondering what has gone wrong with you, Sharai. You used to
assist most of us here, including the boys, with our homework. I just wonder what has
gone wrong with you’, complained Rudo. Sharai smiled and turned her face away and
retorted, ‘Not really, I am still working hard but that young mathematics teacher is
boring. She does not impress me. I just don’t like her. Although she does not make
irritating remarks like Mr Makoni, our science master, I hate them both!’

The two friends were silent for a while, then Rudo remarked, ‘These are
important subjects if you still want to be a doctor as you used to tell me. ’

‘But I got a distinction in Home Economics’, argued Sharai, ‘and I did not do so
badly in the other subjects. In any case, Home Economics is very important for us
girls as future housewives. I will be a good mother and my father will get lobola
(bride-price) which he will use to educate my baby brother Takudzwa. Our Home
Economics teacher, Mrs. Mukapa, always reminds us of that. I think she is right. I
enjoy her lessons’. ‘Yes’, admitted Rudo, ‘that might be true, but you need to
consider the realities of today’s world of science and technology. You can hardly
survive without those two subjects. You need to work hard as before, and be like
Netsai, who is the only female pilot in the country. She is rich and has been able to
build a beautiful home for her parents’.

1. As a guidance counsellor, how would you involve:

a) Sharai’s parents to generate motivation to study the subjects in which she has
lost interest?
b) the science and mathematics teachers to assist Sharai develop an interest in
their subjects?
2. Identify cultural values which tend to interfere with the education of girls and
women in Africa. Discuss how best such cultural interference can be dealt with.

Note: Now go back to Reading 2.1 on pages 28-34 and continue reading #3, How to
Concentrate on Your Study Material.
Activity 2.4: Applying Memory Skills
1. Make a mind map of unit 3 of this module and an acronym of Erickson’s stages of
development.
2. Discuss how the principles of association and imagery can combat forgetfulness.
3. Using the information on the functioning of the parts of the brain, write a paper on
how, by using the correct study method, the whole brain could be used during study.

Note: You may now go back to Reading 2.1 on pages 28-34 and continue reading
from #5, The SQ3R Study Technique.

2. Time-Tabling
There is a need for you to develop a formal time schedule and a personal
study time-table, so that you can regulate your movements. Moreover, you can
avoid the tendency to procrastinate in your work until the last moment and only
work under pressure. Time-tabling will also help you to treat study times as
serious commitments and to respect times for home chores and recreation. This is
particularly important for girls who are required to do household chores every
day.

Activity 2.5: How to Do Time-Tables

1. Go through Reading 2.2, How to Do Time-Tables, on pages 35-36. It has
useful suggestions on:
a) Preparing a Formal Time Schedule
b) Making a Personal Study Time-Table

Group Work
2. Prepare a formal time schedule and a personal study time-table.
3. Present your schedules in class and explain why your group developed those
time-tables.
3. Note-Taking
Many students have difficulty in taking notes during the class or presentations.
This is due to the fact that they lack note-taking skills. Some teachers always try
to prepare notes and distribute them to the class, while others use study time to
write notes for students on the chalkboard. While this might help students when
they prepare their examinations, it deprives students of an opportunity to acquire
note-taking skills. It also denies them a chance to learn how to select what is
important from a lesson or lecture. Some students, as a result, miss lessons
because they know that they can get notes from the teacher during study time.

As indicated by Lindhard (1985), taking notes properly is an important part of

learning. This is because it helps a student to remember information presented in class
or read from the textbook. Notes help to summarize large chunks of information to
remind ourselves, when preparing for examinations. Taking notes during class, or when
reading, can help you concentrate on the subject at hand. We should be selective when
taking notes – write down only those things that are essential. At the end of the lesson
or reading, you must prepare more detailed notes while everything is still fresh in your
mind.

Activity 2.6: Note-Taking

1. Go through Reading 2.3, Suggestions on Note-Taking, on page 37.
2. Discuss how note-taking can be considered as a study skill.
3. Carry out a note-taking exercise in small groups - one student makes a
presentation and the others take notes. Discuss the results.

4. Sitting for Examinations

While examinations have been misused and abused, especially when they were
used for accepting or eliminating students, they can be a useful tool for evaluating the
effectiveness of educational programmes or measuring student progress.

It is important for a student to know how to prepare for, and take, examinations.
Notwithstanding the numerous limitations of examinations in assessing other skills that
the student might have acquired during their education, they can help students to learn
from what was taught in the course of the year.

It is important for every student to learn how to deal with the anxiety and stress
generated by examinations. Proper guidance is necessary to help students acquire skills and
techniques required to pass examinations.
 Activity 2.7: Sitting for Examinations
1. Go through Reading 2.4, Sitting for Examinations, on pages 38-40. It includes
important suggestions on what to do:
a) Before the day of the examination
b) On the day of the examination
c) After the examination
2. Why is it necessary to be calm during, and after, the examination?

5. Academic Counselling
Students should be assisted at various levels in their educational development by
providing academic counselling. All sorts of students: the gifted and talented, the low-
achievers, the handicapped and delinquents, should be assisted to plan their educational
progress. This calls for an appraisal of the educational needs of a particular student, and
the preparation of a cumulative record, which is a device for recording and filling all the
relevant data on that student. With this information each student can be helped to plan a
satisfying educational programme.

Activity 2.8: Academic Counselling

1. Go through Reading 2.5, Academic Counselling, on page 41 and Reading 2.6,
How to Prepare a Cumulative Record for a Student, on page 42. It provides
useful suggestions on:
a) How to make an appraisal of the educational needs of a student
b) How to prepare a cumulative record for a student.

Group Work:
2. Design a case study involving a student needing academic counselling.
3. Make an appraisal of the educational needs of the student.
4. Prepare a cumulative record for the student.
5. Discuss how you would use the information from the appraisal and the
cumulative record when providing academic counselling.
6. Using the same information, carry out a role-playing exercise in which you are
helping a student to plan a satisfactory education programme. Give special
attention to the socio-economic and cultural environment of the student.

The above aspects of educational guidance are meant to assist students to realize
their academic potential.
Summary

A lack of educational information makes it difficult for students to make realistic

choices of subjects, courses and educational institutions.

However, educational guidance can help students to develop study skills, be

motivated and concentrate on the study materials, combat forgetfulness and use the
SQ3R study technique, namely Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review.

Students should be able to manage their activities by making a formal time-

schedule and personal study time-table. The skills of note-taking and sitting for
examinations should be developed to avoid student anxiety and stress. Special attention
should be given to the needs of girls, particularly since they are often bound by cultural
considerations.

Finally, the information you get from your appraisal of the educational needs of a
student and from the cumulative record which you have prepared will help in providing
academic counselling for your students.

Key Terms

Academic counselling - assisting a student to define and resolve his/her educational

problems, so that he/she becomes self-sufficient in exploring,
choosing, and pursuing, an educational programme.
Readings

Reading 2.1
STUDY SKILLS

1. How to Start a Study Session

Before settling down to serious study, you should obtain a copy of your syllabus
at the beginning of your course and be guided by it. This should enable you to gauge
the scope of the material you are expected to know, and the skills you are supposed to
acquire. It should also enable you to realize the need to re-organize and draw up your
own personal study time-table and collect supplementary reading materials.

You should also find a suitable place where noise and distractions, such as
passers-by, are reduced to a mimimum. If you intend to study in a room, check whether
there is adequate light and air, as these will affect your health and study. Remember
that even your body posture when you are studying affects your health.

It is important to note that motivation is a major factor in the process of learning.

If it is absent, if you are indifferent, or have no wish to study, little information will be
retained in your memory. Therefore, you should be motivated to study or create an
interest in the subjects you are studying.

2. How to Develop An Interest in A Subject

You can generate motivation in a subject by:

a. Devoting more and special time to the subject you wish to study. However,
care should be taken not to devote all your time and energy to one subject at
the expense of the others.

b. Try to understand the elements or basics of the subject. An understanding of

the formulas, definitions, and rules of the subject, should give you confidence
in applying them whenever necessary.

c. Set yourself simple tasks or problems that you are likely to meet before
working on difficult ones. This success should motivate you to deal with
the difficult problems.

d. Start by taking textbooks, notes, or other reading materials, and studying

them. Remember that no problem is solved by wishful thinking; action on
your part is needed. Try to avoid procrastination.
 e. Most subjects are best learnt by constant practice. Therefore, you should
work out the examples again, and check whether you have understood their
principles. Then do an exercise that involves those principles.

f. Bear in mind the rewards that accompany successful study, such as having a
career, passing examinations, the satisfaction of parents and teachers who
take pride in your success, and the personal satisfaction when you have
made the best of your talents. These rewards should motivate you to study
harder, so that you can achieve your goals.

Note: Pause for a while, go back to the text and do Activity 2.3 on page 23, How
to Develop Interest in a Subject.

3. How to Concentrate on your Study Material

In order to cope with distractions , take the following measures:

a. Make sure that you focus your attention on one object at a time.
b. If you have something on your mind, such as a message you have to send to
someone, you should send it and get it off your mind before you start
studying. Similarly, if you have social problems, try to solve them so that
you have no worries.
c. Set yourself definite goals and compete with yourself by setting deadlines for
reaching them.
d. Study in a place or room where noise and distractions are reduced to a
minimum. Check that the room is well ventilated.

4. Remembering or Memory skills

You can combat forgetfulness by applying the principle of:

a. Motivated interest
Be interested in a subject so that it becomes interesting to you.

b. Selectivity
Decide which facts to learn and which to ignore.

c. Intention to remember
Remember the material you wish to study.

d. Meaning organization
When reading or taking notes, first gather your ideas. Then decide how to
organize them.

e. Recitation
 After reading a paragraph in your textbook, test yourself on what you have
read by repeating the key ideas aloud. These ideas then have a chance to stay
in your memory.

f. Distribution practice
With relatively short study sessions, followed by short rest periods, you can
prevent physical and emotional fatigue. Motivation is usually high when you
work for short periods of time.

g. Imagery
The visualization or mental pictures can help you to remember. Creating a
picture in your mind, or sketching the idea you are trying to remember, can
help you to recall the idea when needed. You may wish to elaborate the
picture so it leaves an impression on your mind.

h. Association
Tying new information to old can help. You may link it to something you
know, or remember.

i. Mnemonic devices
Mnemonic devices are powerful tools for enhancing memory. Usually an
individual finds it difficult to encode huge amounts of information in his/her
memory. A way has to be found to retain this information.

A learner may, for instance, use ACRONYMS, i.e when the first letter of the
most important facts are coded in a single word. For example, ROYGBIV =
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet, or a sentence.

You may also code important facts in a sentence. For example, in order to
remember the order of the reactivity of certain elements a student may use the
sentence - Possibly Scientists Can Make A Zoo In The Low Countryside.

Potassium Possibly
Sodium Scientists
Calcium Can
Manganese Make
Aluminium A
Zinc Zoo
Iron In
Tin The
Lead Low
Copper Countryside
 To remember the order of the planets around the sun a student may use the
sentence - Men Very Easily Make Jugs Serve Useful Nightly Purposes.

Mercury Men
Venus Very
Earth Easily
Mars Make
Jupiter Jugs
Saturn Serve
Uranus Useful
Neptune Nightly
Pluto Purposes

Mind Maps are used to order the facts that you need to remember. The brain
consists of two halves called hemispheres. These two hemispheres have different
functions. The left hemisphere is responsible for symbols and language, while the
right one deals with colour, shapes/spatial organization, pictures, sound, and
images. Every half can be sub-divided into four (4) spheres:
• Temporal lobe - responsible for hearing;
• Parietal lobe - integrates the functions of the other lobes like a telephone
exchange;
• Occipital lobe - for visual images; and
• Frontal lobe - for planning and organization.

Note: Let us pause again and do Activity 2.4, Applying Memory Skills, on page 24 of
the text.

5. The SQ3R Study Technique

The initials in the SQ3R study technique stand for Survey, Question, Read, Recite
and Review.

a) Survey
First, you should make a survey of the main ideas in order to have a general
impression of what the chapter or book is about.

Therefore, when surveying the material, you should:

• Read quickly through the book.
• Read the aims and purpose of the book.
• Read the title, headings and sub-headings.
• Read the author's preface.
 • Read the table of contents and possibly the index.
• Read the first sentence of the text.
• Read the last sentence of the text.
• Read the introduction and conclusion.
• Look for key words.
• Look for key sentences.

You should try to get a bird's eye view of the chapter or book. This is known as
skimming.

b) Question
The second step is to question yourself about the ideas you have read about. On
each topic, form a question on what you have read which requires an answer. Ask
yourself questions on what you do not fully understand. These questions will
provoke you to think about the ideas you have just read. They can also help you to
pin-point the ideas which you have not understood properly.

c) Read
The third step is the act of reading. You should read the study material with
concentration, in order to obtain answers to the questions raised during the second
step.

This step demands that you:

• Read the text or relevant section.
• Look for unknown words or unknown key words in the dictionary.
• Write out in your own words the main points of the topic you have read, or
tell yourself what you have read.
• As you read, discuss with yourself whatever you are studying.

In the course of your reading, you will memorize certain things. Read carefully
the same material several times, and make summaries and notes of the work
studied. An ability to read fast, and comprehend and retain information, is an
asset when you are pressed for time.

In analytical reading, when you find material that is completely new to you, as
when studying a foreign language, concepts and formulas, you have to analyze
words, structures and contexts. For example, what is the meaning of the word,
'monocotyledon'?

Your eye speed and movement are important. When reading a page from left to
right, your right eye should see the word ahead of the left eye. In other words, the
left eye will lag behind and see the word you are reading, while the right eye is
able to see the second, third, or fourth word ahead of the one you are reading.
d) Recitation
The fourth step consists of repeating the information obtained in your own words.
You may do this after each paragraph or chapter.

Recitation demands that you should:

• Answer your own question as far as possible.
• After reading each major section or chapter, lay the book aside and try to
recall what you have read. You may shut the book and write down what you
remember.
• Memorize such things as a multiplication table, formulas, and the alphabet.
However, you should understand them if they are to be remembered easily.
Establish the relationship between one letter or number and the next one.

e) Review
The fifth and final step demands that you thoroughly revise the information
obtained in the previous steps. You can do this by looking over your notes and
recalling the main points. You can check your knowledge by putting your notes
away and then trying to recall the facts.

You need to:

• read the text a second time.
• summarize the text.
• evaluate the text.
• outline the ideas.
• attempt to answer past examination questions.
• discuss the piece of work with others or apply the knowledge in some
practical exercises.

The revision of your work should be done regularly, so that you do not easily
forget what you have learnt. It helps to refresh your memory.

Reading 2.2
HOW TO MAKE TIME TABLES

1. A Formal Time Schedule

a) Prepare your time schedule, in a chart which shows all the hours of each day
of the week. Then fill in the times that are already committed: sleep, meals,
home chores, classes, appointments, etc.
b) Next, fill in the times when you study in various classes, and label them.
c) Finally, label the remaining hours as free or times for recreation.
 The time schedule helps you to know that you are making a real effort to do well
in your classes. It will also help you to avoid falling into the trap of playing when you
are supposed to be working.

2. Making a Personal Study Time-Table

You should prepare a personal study time-table to supplement your class time-
table. The class time-table is the one followed by the whole class; this is usually
prepared by the school. However, your personal time-table should be prepared by you
and suit your particular needs.

The following points should be considered when you prepare your personal study time-
table:
a. Relate your personal time-table to the class time-table. If the class time-table
indicates that the following day you will learn certain subjects in class, you
should schedule your personal study time-table to study at least one of the
subjects the day before.
By studying in advance the material you will later learn in class, helps you to
be alert and participate fully in class discussion, because you will have some
idea of what the topic is about.
b. Schedule your study early in the morning when your brain is fresh, and then
soon after dinner, in order to prevent you from becoming sleepy before all
your work is done.
c. A study period of about 40 minutes per subject is suitable for studying
privately. You should not plan to study one subject for a long period at a
stretch. Rather, you should fit in 40 minute periods on different subjects at
intervals.
d. Alternate a reading subject with a practical problem-solving one.

e. Schedule your difficult subject more frequently than any other. Do not
neglect it in favour of an easier subject or one you find more interesting.
f. Allow enough time for recreation. When you feel you are not concentrating
on study, you can change the subject or go for a short break, or do work that
involves writing rather than reading.
g. Go over the daily work before you go to sleep, and at least once a week after
that day. This revision will refresh your memory.
h. Prepare the time-table so that you have enough time to sleep. If you are
young, you are advised to sleep for at least 8 hours.
It is harmful to study all night and part of the early morning only to doze in
class the following day. This has adverse effects on your health and the
retention of material in the memory.
i. You can stop studying even a few minutes before an examination. This is
because you never know whether the material which you studied a few
minutes before the examination is that which will be set in the examination.
Reading 2.3
SUGGESTIONS ON NOTE-TAKING

The following suggestions are helpful when you take notes:

a. Be prepared. Read your assignment before going to class.
b. Listen carefully to the teacher. Be physically and mentally alert.
c. Keep an open and curious mind. While you may not agree with some of the points
your teacher makes, you should not reject an idea before you have explored it.
d. Take notes in outline form, to help you to distinguish between major and minor
points.
e. Date and title your notes carefully.
f. Record, or write down, examples to illustrate points, because they may help you to
remember them.
g. If your teacher uses study aids such as hand-outs, maps, or an overhead projector,
take note because they indicate that the material is important.
h. Listen for emphasis because repetition, writing on the chalkboard, or extended
comments, usually mean that the point is important.
i. Leave room on your paper for an expansion of your notes after the class.
j. Take time after class to add comments or thoughts on your notes, to make them as
clear as possible.
k. Watching and listening to your teacher as much as possible will help you to
concentrate on what he/she is saying. Note and underline what the teacher
emphasizes, and revise things which you do not understand.

Reading 2.4
SITTING FOR EXAMINATIONS

The following hints are valuable before, during, and after, sitting examinations.

1. Before the day of the examination

a. Continue to study until the day you sit the examination.

b. Read and attempt to answer past examination papers, so that you can assess
the difficulty of the papers.

c. It is wise to observe the time and regulations governing the examinations.

Examine the time-table, and the time-schedule of the examinations, to
ascertain the exact date and day of the week when you will write a particular
paper. Review the regulations governing what you are permitted to bring to
 the examination hall. Get ready on the night before the examination all the
materials you need, including pens, pencils, mathematical tables and set-
squares, extra pens, a watch, and any other useful instruments.

d. Go to bed early so that you have a normal night's sleep before the
examination.

2. The day of the examination

a. Remember to bring pens, pencils, a watch, and other materials, with you to
the examination hall.

b. Be as calm as possible during examinations.

c. Read the examiner's instructions very carefully noting:

- compulsory or optional sections or questions.
- distribution of marks for the question.
- the number of questions that must be answered.
- how you should write your examination number on the answer sheet or
booklet.

d. Try to obtain the highest marks for any particular paper. Aim high because
the few extra marks you get may be those which earn you a pass, credit, or
distinction. The extra marks may alter your whole career and life.

e. Answer easy questions first; then move on to the difficult ones.

f. Set out your answers as neatly and clearly as possible in order to create a
good impression.

g. Number the answers very clearly as on the question paper.

h. Pay particular attention to punctuation, spelling, and tenses, in your answers,

because errors in these areas create a bad impression and can be misleading.

i. If you are writing an essay, it must have an opening, a middle and an end.
You should also be very careful to recognize from a given topic whether you
are expected to write a narrative, factual, descriptive, imaginative,
argumentative or reflective essay, so that you can plan it accordingly.

j. In an essay type of examination, you must have an introductory paragraph,

followed by linking paragraphs and leading to a concluding paragraph.
Present the answer logically and fluently. Remember that a knowledge of
essay-writing is important, not only in the general English language paper
where an essay is demanded, but also in many other examination papers.

k. Leave some lines, or a space, between any two answers to show that you are
answering another question.
 l. Understand the correct meanings of action or key words that are frequently
used in examination papers, e.g., compare, contrast, criticize, define,
demonstrate, describe, discuss, elaborate, evaluate, explain, factorize,
illustrate, interpret, justify, outline, prove, relate, review, show, state,
summariz,e or trace.

m. Try to avoid guessing, particularly when answering objective questions,

because you are likely to pay dearly for it if the examiner uses the correction
formula as a punitive measure to discourage candidates from guessing
answers unnecessarily.

n. If you finish writing the examination before the allotted time, go over the
paper and check the questions, by noting the key words and verbs, and find
out whether you have actually answered the questions as expected.

o. In the computer age you are likely to be issued with computer cards for the
examinations. Study these carefully before completing them.

p. When you have finished writing the examination paper, arrange your answers
in the correct numerical order.

3. After writing the examination

a. If your friends talk about what they did in the examination, you should not be
disheartened by any hasty impressions they convey. You should prepare for
the next examination paper, or relax.

b. If a result indicates that you have passed the examination, congratulatory

messages will be sent to you. However, a test comes when you are not one of
the lucky ones. How would you respond to such a situation?

Note: Let us pause again, and do Activity 2.7, Sitting for Examinations, on page 26
in the text.

Reading 2.5
ACADEMIC COUNSELLING

Many students, at different levels of education and achievement, have difficulty

planning their educational programmes and/or progress. This is due, in part, to a lack of
effective academic counselling in schools. Academic counselling facilitates students’
programme planning and leads to a satisfying and productive academic life.

To achieve this, the counsellor uses data collected from needs assessments and
students’ cumulative records. The counsellor should make an appraisal of the
educational needs of the student. Based upon the information in the appraisal and the
cumulative record, the counsellor can then provide counselling with a view to helping
the student understand himself/herself. Self-understanding is crucial in planning one’s
programme and future. Self-understanding includes the realization and appreciation of
one’s own academic strengths and limitations, as well as giving an insight into one’s
personality and how these contribute to success and a satisfying academic life.

Students’ realization of their academic potential facilitates students’ decision-

making, i.e., it enables them to make realistic choices of subjects, courses, and
educational institutions. Academic counselling, therefore, assists students to define and
resolve their educational problems, so that they become self-reliant in exploring,
choosing, and pursuing an educational programme.

Reading 2.6
HOW TO PREPARE A CUMULATIVE RECORD
FOR A STUDENT

A cumulative record can be described as a detailed record of information about a

student. This information reveals the most significant characteristics and shows
development and growth patterns. The cumulative record should give a comprehensive
picture. The data included in the record can be collected from teachers, counsellors,
administrative and health personnel, and other sources. However, data collected during
counselling sessions should not be part of the cumulative record. This is because they
are obtained in confidence. Since this information may be potentially harmful, it should
be recorded separately and kept in the counsellor’s office.

The following can be included in the student’s cumulative folder:

- personal data and family background;
- health information;
- date of school entry;
- school grades;
- information from previous school(s) attended;
- continuous assessment results;
- school activities and anecdotal records;
- personality data; and
- autobiographies.

It is important to update cumulative records. New entries should be dated and

initialled. Only information that can help students understand themselves, and plan
their future, should be included in the folder. No person should have access to this
information unless authorized to do so.
Evaluation

1. Name 3 educational choices a boy and a girl are likely to make.

2. Discuss whether the school promotes competition or co-operation among boys and
girls.

3. Discuss some of the activities of girls and boys at home that might affect their
effective study at home. How can you assist them to use their time effectively at
home?

4. How do the activities of girls and boys influence their performance and
participation in certain subjects as well as in certain social and occupational roles?
In what ways can the negative effects of these activities be reduced to improve their
performance and their participation in social and occupational roles?

5. How does a girl negotiate with parents to have time for study at home?

6. Should family members be given responsibilities to ensure that a child, especially a

girl, is provided with space and time to study? Justify your answer.

7. Discuss the possible influences of the division of labour in a family, the sharing of
responsibilities, the allocation of roles in a classroom or school, classroom
interaction, and the hidden curriculum on the perceptions of boys and girls
regarding their social and occupational roles.

References

Fry, R. How to Study (3rd. Ed.). Hawthorne, NJ.: Career Press. 1994.

Kachelenga, D.E. Career Guidance, (Manuscript) unpublished.

Peters, H.J. & Hansen, J.C. Vocational Guidance and Career Development. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 1977.

Weiten, W. Psychology: Themes and Variations. California: Brooks/Cole Publishing

Company. 1989.
 UNIT 3
Vocational Guidance

RATIONALE

Many young people experience problems in their vocational development.

These include a lack of knowledge of their own aptitudes and interests, a lack of
realism, indecision, inflexibility and, an unwillingness to change, a lack of occupational
information, problem-solving skills, and gender stereotypes.

Thus, vocational guidance is vital in assisting young people who have the usual
problems experienced in vocational development.

In the provision of vocational guidance, guidance counsellors should be aware of

the following:

1. There are various realities which men and women face in their participation in
social and occupational activities. For example, women may face barriers against
entering certain occupations. Attempts should, therefore, be made to identify these
barriers and show how they can be removed.

2. Apart from eliminating the barriers to the participation and advancement of women
in certain social and occupational activities, there is also a need to focus on the
psychological and emotional impact of assuming new roles, especially those once
considered to be only for men.

3. Gender representation in certain occupations can be linked to societal influences

such as socialization and sex-role stereotyping. The family and the school are the
two main agents of role orientation. How then should guidance counsellors help to
reduce the impact of these influences on the participation of boys and girls in
certain occupations or career choices?

4. Negative stereotyped attitudes towards girls’ abilities in certain subjects (e.g.,

mathematics, science and technology), may have a debilitating effect on girls’ attitudes
towards these subjects, or the careers which require a knowledge of these subjects.
Guidance counsellors should play a leading role in assisting girls to overcome the effects
of these attitudes on their occupational choices.
5. It is clear from various studies on gender, that the behaviour and expectations of
others, and socio-cultural and other environmental concerns and practices, have an
influence on the attitudes and occupational aspirations of young people. What
should guidance counsellors do to reduce the negative influences these factors have
on the attitudes and occupational aspirations of young people?

6. Stereotyped cultural expectations have a significant influence on children’s

perceptions of themselves, their surroundings, and their general social outlook.

7. To address gender inequality, the social, cultural, economic and political structures
that are in place, should be examined (Bhusumane, 1993). There is a need for these
structures to change, and adjust to new demands.

8. Some studies have revealed that working women found themselves struggling to
cope with the different problems of family and career. What are some of the ways
in which women have dealt with the workload created by having a career and a
family?

9. There is a need to equip girls with the ability to deal with the psychological strains
and personality conflicts encountered by women as a result of conflicting gender
expectations.

10. Other studies indicate that there is bias in the selection of people for certain
occupations.

It is clear from the above that there are certain factors that may influence the
participation of girls and boys in various social and occupational activities. This
means that guidance counsellors should be aware of them, if they are to address
effectively the needs and concerns of boys and girls or their clients. They should
appreciate the impact of gender on the choices these young people make regarding
their future.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• define vocational guidance;
• describe the importance of vocational guidance in schools and colleges;
• describe four components of vocational guidance and state their functions;
• discuss four principles on which vocational guidance is based;
• mention three general principles related to vocational choice;
• contrast Super and Holland’s theories of vocational development;
• write good application letters for jobs;
• handle job interviews; and
• list ways of getting and progressing in a job.

CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Importance of Vocational Guidance
Topic 2. Functions of Vocational Guidance
Topic 3. Components of Vocational Guidance
Topic 4. Principles of Vocational Guidance
Topic 5. Occupational Information
Topic 6. Theories of Vocational Development
Topic 7. Vocational Choice/Decision-Making
Topic 8. How to Get a Job

Vocational guidance is the process of helping an individual to choose an

occupation, prepare for it, enter it, and progress in it.

Vocational guidance was originally thought to be provided only prior to training

and employment. However, it is a lifelong process for many individuals at various
stages of their lives. At such stages individuals reconsider and re-diagnose their
capabilities and match them against the opportunities available. In this way, vocational
guidance is aimed at helping students to make not only specific choices but also good
decisions. It recognizes that flexibility, and a willingness to change, may be as critical
for a student as the ability to commit oneself to a particular goal.
Topic 1.
THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE
The provision of vocational guidance in our educational institutions has been
necessitated by great changes in our society and the world at large, and has become
more complex than ever before. Automation and recession, for example, have forced
many people into early retirement and retrenchment, resulting in unemployment. The
rate of technological change, and the isolation of young people from possibilities for
employment, have created problems in occupational choices. Many students are not
able to obtain an informal exposure to a variety of occupations, nor can they easily
obtain relevant data about them. Students have a limited knowledge of occupations and
of the narrow range of alternatives available to them. This ignorance leads to unrealistic
career aspirations. There is, therefore, a need to assist students to have more realistic
career expectations.

Students do not know the routine features that characterize work. In industry, for
instance, the mental health hazards of alienating work include an increase in drug use,
alcoholism, absenteeism, on-the-job accidents, depression, withdrawal, and forms of
mental disturbance. The students should be assisted to be aware of such hazards as well
as of actual working conditions.

Our society places values on certain jobs. Some jobs are believed to be
exclusively for males, while others are regarded as for ‘females’. For example,
midwifery is traditionally thought to be for females only, while architecture is thought
to be a ‘man’s’ job. Hence, there is a need to address gender issues in order to eliminate
stereotypes from society.

The students should be aware of the options for wage-earning and gainful
employment. For example, they should prepare a business plan and make concerted
efforts to find self-employment.

Moreover, there is a craving in our society for the accumulation of knowledge.

Although specialization can be a blessing to society, the same society may feel that
individuals are over-trained, and under-used. Students need to be aware of such
problems and how to adjust to them.

Activity 3.1: The Importance of Vocational Guidance

For Class Discussion:
1. Share cases you have encountered illustrating the benefits of vocational
guidance.
2. Do you have adequate vocational guidance in your school? In your country?
3. In what ways can vocational guidance be developed in your country?
Topic 2
THE FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE
Among the functions of vocational guidance are the following:
1. Aid in placing talent where it is needed. The student is assisted to make the best
possible vocational choice.
2. Strengthen the educational system by providing motivation and meaning to
education. This means ensuring that the students’ education, curricula and extra-
curricular activities are useful, and will eventually result in something worth while.
The students are encouraged to make maximum use of all educational
opportunities, since these will be beneficial to them during their lives.
3. Add a feeling of security to the nation, the schools, and the student, so that all face
the future with confidence. The student is helped to develop an ability to control
his/her future.
4. Provide information about occupational opportunities. Students become aware of
the world of work, and the range of available opportunities that exist.
5. Encourage students in decision-making. Decisions on what type of life a student
would like to lead depend on his/her interests, values, abilities, skills, and
motivation to learn.
6. Assist students to know themselves and their environment. Each student is helped
to understand him/herself in terms of interests, potential skills, and abilities, in
relation to the world of work.
7. Help students to deal with a variety of problems. Since the society in which
students live is constantly changing, they have to adjust to change. For example,
more emphasis is now given to self-employment and job generation than in earlier
years.
8. Help students to understand the problems of unemployment and its causes.
9. Assist students to understand the process of making choices, and of the possible
consequences of their decisions.
11. Enable students to acquire a knowledge of the practical procedures needed for
getting a job and progressing in it.

Activity 3.2: The Functions of Vocational Guidance

Group Work:
1. Provide concrete examples (real-life situations) of each of the ten functions of
vocational guidance. Give special attention to the differences between boys and
girls.
2. Share your examples with the class.
Topic 3.
THE COMPONENTS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE
The main components of vocational guidance include the following:

1. Analysis of the individual

Self-appraisal of the student is a necessity. The student should have extensive
knowledge about him/herself and match this information with such things as home
background, school progress, work experience, personality, health, values, interests,
aptitudes and achievement.

The counsellor should assist the student to collect, analyze and use a variety of
objective and subjective, psychological and social data about him/herself, so that
he/she gains a better understanding of him/herself. The counsellor can administer
interest and aptitude tests and provide occupational information.

2. Occupational information
Occupational information is the publication and dissemination of facts on the nature
and prospects for employment in different occupations. The data derived from self-
appraisal enable the student to search for an occupation.

For the student to have an intelligent match between him/herself and jobs, he/she
needs knowledge of the occupational, industrial, and labour structure of the
country, classifications of occupations, occupational requirements, entrance
procedures, occupational distribution, training opportunities, and employment
prospects, and occupational hazards.

Self-employment is critical in an age when there are fewer jobs than the number of
job seekers. Boys and girls need to be guided in assessing the resources around
them, and exploring ways of making new products, and finding new sources of
livelihood. In this regard, linkages between the guidance counsellor and science
and technology should prove productive.

3. Consultation
The counsellor should give technical assistance to teachers, administrators and
parents, and help them to be more effective. Personnel from a variety of
occupations (e.g., medical, industrial), could be invited to speak to students.

4. Vocational counselling
The major objective of vocational counselling is to assist the student to integrate the
information about him/herself and the occupational world, and to develop a plan for
career development. This involves a face-to-face encounter between a counsellor
and a client. The student is assisted before any occupational selection is made, and
measures are taken to meet occupational requirements. The student must possess
an understanding and acceptance of her/his personality, interests, aptitudes, and
background.
 Activity 3.3: Career Development Plan
1. Prepare a career development plan with short (1 year), medium (5 to 10 years),
and long term goals. This could be done in the form of a project. The student
could collect information on various aspects of a chosen career.

5. Placement
This is a co-operative enterprise which involves the services of the school,
community and the student. The term ‘placement’ refers to helping the student
obtain part-time or full-time employment. The term also includes giving the
student work experience, and placing him/her in an appropriate vocational training
institution. It involves record-keeping, vocational counselling, employment
contacts, supervision, and follow-up.

6. Community Occupational Surveys and Follow-up Studies

The counsellor must conduct Community Occupational Surveys and Follow-up
Studies of school-leavers, and procure data on local training and employment
conditions, labour turn-over, and job opportunities. Such surveys should be
conducted because the majority of workers find employment in their immediate
environment or community. Follow-up studies on graduates should be made.

7. Evaluation
The counsellor should determine the impact of the vocational guidance programme
on students, schools, and society, and find out how any deficiencies in the
programme can be removed.

Topic 4.
THE PRINCIPLES OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

The provision of an effective vocational guidance service is based on the

following principles:
1. Vocational guidance is concerned primarily with the personal development of the
individual.
2. Human beings have a capacity for self-development, which is best encouraged
through active involvement in the exercise.
3. The primary way in which guidance is conducted lies through individual behaviour.
4. Guidance is oriented towards co-operation, rather than compulsion, between the
client and the counsellor. In other words, it is an activity based on mutual consent
and trust.
5. Guidance is based on recognizing the dignity and worth of individuals as well as
their right to choose.
6. Guidance is a continuous educational process.
7. Guidance demands that the counsellor should not be emotionally involved.

Exceptions to the rule

The counsellor can apply the above principles as he/she works with his/her
clients.However, Miller (1982) gives exceptions to the rule. He is more specific in
distinguishing between different guidance activities. These are defined as follows:

1. Taking action or sponsorship

In some cases, it is appropriate to take direct action to help someone, rather than
leave it to the individual to act.

2. Advice-giving
It will be appropriate occasionally to make suggestions to the client.

3. Structured learning experiences

At times, clients may need an opportunity to learn through some form of
instruction, such as role-playing.

4. Giving information
The provision of reliable information, without any evaluation or judgement on the
part of the helper, is an important part of guidance.

5. Counselling
This enables the client to explore thoughts and feelings in a safe setting.

Topic 5.
OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION IN GUIDANCE

The dissemination of occupational information in guidance is carried out in the

following ways:

1. General group guidance

The counsellor collects information and makes it available to groups of students.
The students also collect information on various occupations for themselves.

2. Teaching of occupations
The counsellor meets a class and teaches them about different occupations.

3. Career day/week activities

Lectures on different careers, career demonstrations, debates, and film shows, are
provided by the school.

4. Trips and excursions to industrial establishments

Students go out of school/college to workplaces, to see things for themselves.
5. Career clubs
The clubs can show films relating to careers, organize career quizzes, competitions,
career conferences, dramas, and invite lecturers/employers to provide information
on various careers.

6. Vacation jobs and work-study

The school can assist students to obtain vacation jobs during the long vacation or
provide work-study programmes.

7. Bulletin boards
The school can display vocational, educational, and social information, on bulletin
boards.

8. School subjects
Teachers can relate their teaching of subjects to careers for which they are useful or
applicable.

Kinds of Occupational Information Which Students Should Know

1. Employment prospects
Are the employment prospects for this occupation expanding or diminishing?

2. Nature of Work
What are the pleasant or unpleasant things workers have to do? What tools,
equipment, or materials, are used? What are the hours of work? Are there any
shifts?

3. Work Environment
Is it hot, cold, humid, dry, wet, dirty, noisy, etc.?

4. Qualifications
What are the academic and/or physical qualifications?

5. Aptitudes
What are the I.Q. and other special aptitudes needed?

6. Interests
What are the interests of people who succeed in this particular occupation?

7. Legal and professional

Is a licence or certificate required?

8. Preparation
What kind of education and training is needed?

9. Entrance
Is it by examination, by application and interview, or by capital investment?

10. Likes or dislikes

What are the likes and dislikes of the job?
11. Advancement
What proportion of workers advance? And to what positions?

12. Earnings
What are the earnings per month and year? How are wages paid?

Activity 3.4: Gender Discrimination in Occupations

Group Work:
1. Explore gender discrimination in selected occupations. What are the elements of
discrimination and how can they be overcome?
2. Prepare a one-page questionnaire which could be used by learners when
interviewing people who do the job. Simulate an interview in which students
participate.

Activity 3.5: Occupational Information

1. Prepare an example of an occupational information file for a student.
2. Present and explain the file in class using an overhead projector or a flipchart.

Topic 6.
THEORIES OF VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Activity 3.6
1. Go through Reading 3.1, Theories of Vocational Development, on pages 64-67.
2. Compare Ginzberg’s theory with Super’s theory.
3. Discuss the importance of Erickson’s theory for the vocational development of
an individual.
4. How would you eliminate or reduce the effects of gender bias in some of these
theories?

Activity 3.7: Holland’s Theory

1. Construct a hexagon of Holland’s six occupational fields and then include all
school subjects and jobs within each field.
NOTE: This could later be used as teaching material.
Implications of the Theories of Vocational Development

1. Ginzberg, Axelrad and Therma Theory

In Ginzberg's theory, the central idea is that vocational choice is a process which
extends from late childhood to the end of adolescence. Nevertheless, it has been
extended to be lifelong. The theory gives some guidelines as to how an individual
develops, and may explore, crystallize, specify, and achieve, goals at different
stages of his/her life. Thus, the counsellor notes the stages of development and
helps the individual to achieve his/her goals.

2. Super’s Self-Image Theory

In Super's theory, defining a vocational preference means making an occupational
choice consistent with one's image of oneself. Therefore, the counsellor is no
longer an expert in the accurate assessment of vocational choice. The counsellor is
rather the person who helps the individual to discover who he/she is, and what
he/she can become.

3. Holland’s Theory
In Holland's theory, individuals and occupations are categorized according to the
same scale of attributes. Vocational choice consists of choosing an environment
which corresponds to one of the defined personality patterns emerging from the
scale. Therefore, the counsellor's role is to help the individual make the best use of
his/her skills, express his/her values, and take on roles which are gratifying.

4. Erickson’s Theory
The central notion of Erickson's theory is that of identity, seen as the integration of
emotions experienced during childhood. Each stage of development leaves its mark
on an individual. For example, during adolescence, identity is stabilized through
the formation of a set of ideals. Thus identity formation often implies resolving
crises which had an impact on various stages of childhood.

Hence the counsellor's role is less that of an expert who can best identify the
occupation which best suits an individual (in particular an adolescent), but rather
that of a specialist, who is there to aid people of all ages to achieve their personal
goals. Thus, the counsellor helps people to become competent in their career
development and concentrates less on their deficiencies.
 Activity 3.8: Theories of Vocational Development
Group Work:
1. Form four groups. Group 1 will handle Ginzberg’s theory; Group 2, Super’s
theory; Group 3, Holland’s theory; and Group 4, Erickson’s theory.
2. Create a scenario where you are a guidance counsellor providing guidance based
on the concepts of the theory assigned to your group.
3. Explore the importance of the theory you are handling in vocational guidance.

Topic 7
VOCATIONAL CHOICE/DECISION-MAKING
A student makes a vocational choice if he/she expresses the intention to enter a
particular occupation. A vocational choice results from a combination of factors. These
include the student’s opportunities to explore activities in the early school years, success
in these activities, encouragement by others to continue, and later opportunities to fulfil
the job demands for entry into the world of work.

General Principles of Vocational Choice

The following are the general principles on which vocational choice is based:

1. There are limits on your career options

Entry into a particular occupation is not just a matter of choosing what you want to
do, but you also have to persuade schools, colleges, and employers, to choose you
for such a work. Therefore, your career options will be limited to some extent by
your personality, abilities, financial resources, fluctuations in the economy, and the
job market.

2. You have the potential for success in a variety of occupations

People have considerable potential. There are thousands of different occupations to
choose from. Therefore, do not expect to find one job that fits you perfectly and
provides you with complete satisfaction, since you may spend your entire life
searching for it.

3. Vocational choice is a developmental process extending throughout life

It involves not a single decision but a series of decisions throughout life. A retired
officer, for example, may consider the next vocational decision.
4. Some vocational decisions are not easily reversed
Once you invest time, money, and effort, in pursuing a particular career, it may not
be easy to change direction. This highlights why it is important for you to devote
systematic thought and planning to making a vocational choice.

5. Vocational choice is an expression of your personality

Holland (1973) asserts that we search for a work environment that fits our
personality. He has identified the following personality types which he calls
personal orientations: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and
conventional. Thus, in the final analysis, vocational choice is the matching of your
personal characteristics with an occupation. Hence the first step in systematic
career planning is self-examination of your abilities and personality.

Decision-Making in Guidance

Tiedeman and O'Hara (1963) developed a Vocational Decision-Making (VDM)

Model, which they named a ‘paradigm of differentiation and integration’ in attempting
rational solutions to the problems of vocation. The problem-solving process is divided
into two phases, called Anticipation and Implementation - Adjustment, which
distinguish between behaviour prior to, and after, making a decision.

In the anticipatory period, the problem-solving process is stimulated by

experiencing a vocational problem and recognizing that a decision must be made.
Thus, the student should have a planning orientation. He must be aware of the need to
make a decision before he/she consciously makes it. He should also be aware of the
factors which should be considered when making decisions. He/she should also have
a knowledge of the sources of information and of the resources which may be helpful.

The anticipatory phase is sub-divided into four (4) stages called Exploration,
Crystallization, Specification (or Choice) and Clarification. Thus there are five (5)
major steps counsellors should consider in this VDM Model, namely:

1. Exploration
This accounts for trial-and-error approaches whereby a number of different
alternatives or possible goals are considered. A student, for example, may be
engaged in exploratory behaviour, such as taking part in activities, reading, working
during vacations, or after school. These activities often have vocational
implications and help to crystallize vocational preferences.

2. Crystallization
Crystallization describes attempts to clarify the order and pattern of goals. Goals
are compared on the basis of competing demands, costs and returns, advantages and
disadvantages. Thought about, the problem becomes more stable (less random),
durable and reliable. Crystallization results from exploration.
3. Clarification
This stage, brought on by doubt experienced during the waiting period between
choice and action, involves attempts to perfect the self-image. In thinking and
talking about the information which the student has acquired, the consequences of
decision become clearer. In this way decisions are then confirmed or rejected.

4. Specification or choice
Choice involves commitment to one goal and, in turn, impels a person to act. The
confirmatory experiences lead the student to a definite choice, which can be a
preference or a choice which can be changed easily.

5. Implementation
The implementation of a decision turns a preference into a choice. Some
implementation acts are tentative but others are definitive.

Topic 8.
HOW TO GET A JOB

Activity 3.9: Getting a Job

1. Go through Reading 3.2, How to Get a Job, on pages 68-78. It contains
valuable suggestions on:
a) Right job-seeking behaviour;
b) How to write an application for a job;
c) How to write a curriculum vitae (CV);
d) How to write a covering letter; and
e) How to handle job interviews.

2. Look for an advertisement in a newspaper and respond to it. Write your own
a) letter of application or covering letter
b) curriculum vitae (CV)

3. Examine application forms, advertisements, and occupational information, to

determine any gender bias in them. Bring samples to be shown and discussed in
class the following day.

Activity 3.10: Job Interview

A young person has applied for a job as a laboratory assistant in a soap
manufacturing company and has been invited for an interview. Carry out a
simulated interview for the applicant.
 What to do:
1. Form groups of five.
a) One member of the group should be the chairperson of the panel and another
will act as a member of the panel.
b) One member will be the applicant/interviewee.
c) Two members will act as evaluators of the interview. One of the evaluators
will give a report during the plenary class presentation.
2. Ask each member to prepare questions for the interview in advance.
3. Give 5 minutes for the interview and another 5 minutes for the discussion.
4. Discuss the interview, pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of both the
interviewers and the interviewee.
5. Each group will report its findings to the class.

General Points to Note for the Evaluation:

1. General disposition of both the interviewer and the interviewee.
2. Clarity and specificity of the questions and responses.
3. Clarity and audibility of the voice (both the interviewer and interviewee).
4. Suggest any improvements, if any, to improve the interviewee’s behaviour and
responses.
5. Check if there is any gender bias in the interview.

Some Steps on How to Create Your Job

1. Identify a product which you would be able to market.
Identify a need for a product or service which is not on the market, and which you
would be able to produce.
Improve a trade skill which you have, and which can help you to be productive.
You may have other ideas about how to create a product or a service to be
marketed.

2. In the case of a product, identify the sources of raw materials, quantities available,
timing for materials, and costs.

3. Explore the market - who will buy the product or services, how much will they be
willing to pay, who are your competitors, what is the size of the market?

4. Sources of financing - You will need to finance your idea and make plans for
production or maybe services. There are many sources to be explored, for
example, regular banks, co-operatives, micro-credit programmes, special
programmes for financing small businesses, group financing.

5. Planning the implementation is critical for success. You should discuss your
plans with experienced people.

6. You will need proper management training for the running of your business.

Activity 3.11: Self-Employment Project

 1. In small groups of six, plan a self-employment project following the stages of
development very carefully.
2. Start a junior business group. You can seek the advice and assistance of the
nearest Kiwanis and Rotary clubs.
3. Prepare booklets on small project possibilities.

Summary

Vocational choices should not be made on limited self-knowledge and an

inadequate knowledge of occupations. In a constantly changing world, students should
be helped to seek and use current occupational information, clarify their own values,
feelings and attitudes, and relate them to educational and vocational demands.
Counsellors should apply the principles of vocational choice and vocational guidance
whenever they want to assist the students to make informed vocational decisions.

Key Terms

Career A sequence of major positions occupied by a person throughout

life.

Job A group of similar positions in a single plant, business

establishment, educational institution or other organization.

Occupation A group of similar jobs found in several establishments.

Position A group of tasks performed by a person.

Self-appraisal Analyzing oneself.

Vocation An urge or commitment to work in a particular occupation.

Self-employment When the individual takes responsibility for her/his employment

and income-generation.
Readings

Reading 3.1
THEORIES OF VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The following four major development theories of vocational choice will be

briefly presented to illustrate their significance.

1. Ginzberg, Axelrad and Therma Theory

Ginzberg and his associates (1951) divided the total span of the vocational choice
process into three stages: the fantasy stage, which ends approximately at the age of 11;
a tentative stage, between the ages of 11 and 18; and the realistic stage, from 18 into the
early twenties.

In the fantasy stage, the individual is concerned with day dreams and the desire to
grow. The child emulates adult role models in a variety of occupations without regard
for his/her own talents and interests. During the tentative stage, the child tries to come
to grips with the task of selecting an occupation, and establishing it as a goal for future
attainment. Finally, the adolescent enters the realistic stage of development, where
he/she explores a variety of occupational alternatives, reaches a compromise between
his/her needs and reality, and lastly, resolves the problem of vocational choice.

According to Ginzberg and his associates (1951), maturation of the critical ego
processes underlies and accompanies this stage - specific progression. The ego
processes considered critical in vocational development are: reality testing, ability to
delay gratification, development of an appropriate time perspective, and the ability to
make compromises. These processes mature over time and affect the adequacy of the
vocational developmental process.

However, Ginzberg (1971) has modified some aspects of his theory. Originally,
he had proposed that decisions are irreversible and represent a compromise for the
individual between his/her needs and aspirations and what is realistically available.
Ginzberg now recognizes that vocational development occurs throughout life, and that
decisions made are not irreversible. People can change direction, and their decisions
represent their attempts to look for the best possible match between themselves and the
world of work, a process he/she now labels as optimisation rather than compromise.
2. Super's Self-Image Theory
Whereas Ginzberg focuses on ego development, Super (1957) highlights the
importance of the development of a person's self-image. As a result of childhood
experiences, people develop a view of themselves which they can test out in a variety of
role-playing experiences, as they progress through childhood and adolescence. As the
self-image becomes more highly differentiated, a specific aspect of that self-image, the
vocational one, becomes critical in adolescent choice processes. In making
occupational choices, people attempt to implement their self-image, that is, to choose
occupations which they perceive as compatible with the self.

Propositions in Super's Theory:

a. People differ in their abilities, interests and personalities.

b. They are qualified, by virtue of their characteristics, for a number of

occupations.

c. Vocational preferences and competencies, the situations in which people live

and work, and hence their self-images, change with time and experience,
making choice and adjustment a continuous process.

d. This process may be summed up in a series of stages, characterized as those

of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline. These
stages may in turn be subdivided into:
- the fantasy, tentative, and realistic phases of the establishment stage,
- the trial and stable phases of the establishment stage.

e. The nature of the career pattern is determined by the individual's parental

socio-economic level, mental ability, personality characteristics, and the
opportunities to which he/she is exposed.

f. Development through life can be guided partly by facilitating the maturation

of abilities and interests, and partly by helping with reality tests and the
development of the self-image.

g. Work and life satisfaction depends upon the extent to which the individual
finds outlets for his/her interests, personality traits, and values.
3. Holland's Theory
Holland (1966) suggested six (6) basic personality types and occupational
environments: realistic, intellectual, social, conventional, enterprising, and artistic. He
contends that people search for environments and vocations that will permit them to
exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, take on agreeable
problems and roles, and avoid disagreeable ones. According to this theory, a person's
behaviour can be explained by the interaction of his/her personality pattern and his/her
environment.

Holland postulates that two mechanisms are involved in the process of

occupational choice. First, people choose occupational fields that they perceive to be
similar to their predominant type. Second, the choice of level within the field is based
on the combined influence of actual intelligence and a person's own self-evaluation of
his/her ability.

Although Holland's theory has generated substantial support, it provides little

explanation for the development of types, and does not account for ways in which
change might occur over a period of time. As such, it is a relatively static theory.

4. Erickson's Theory
Erickson's (1968) theory outlines a sequence of psycho-social development. While
each phase is described in terms of the extremes of successful and unsuccessful
solutions that can be arrived at within it, generally the outcome is a balance between the
two.

Erickson's fundamental principle is the epigenetic principle, which states that

anything that grows has a ground plan out of which parts arise, each part having a time
of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning whole. Thus,
personality develops according to the steps pre-determined in the individual's readiness.
Each item of personality is systematically related to all the others, and all depend on
development in the proper sequence. Unless the individual succeeds in solving
problems, or performing tasks at a particular stage, subsequent psychological
development may suffer.

Erickson identifies eight (8) stages of development (see fig. 3.1). At each stage
the individual must face new problems or psycho-social crises, that may result in greater
maturity or arrested development. A crisis is a turning point or crucial moment, when
development must move to one of the polarities. For instance, at the stage of
adolescence individuals must cope with the physiological changes that accompany
puberty, the necessity of making choices about the opposite sex, and preparing for
vocational plans. If adolescents deal with these demands, they will view themselves as
unique and integrated individuals. If all does not go well, the adolescent identity crisis
can result in confusion. He/she may feel he/she does not have what is needed to start
with real life, and may view him/herself as confused about his/her role and less than a
whole person.
 Body and
Stage Age psycho-social Personality accomplishment
developmental
stages
Basic trust versus Trust in other people e.g.,
0-1 Oral-sensory
mistrust parents
Autonomy versus Mastery of physical functions
1-2 Muscular-anal
shame, doubt and people around self
Initiative versus Energy for doing things; sexual
3-5 Locomotor genital
guilt feelings toward parents
Industry versus
6-12 Latency Learns skills
Inferiority
Resolutions of conflicts from
Identity versus Puberty and
13-19 past; expansion of social and
role confusion adolescence
sexual interests
Intimacy versus A permanent, usually marital
20-30 Young adulthood
isolation relationship is formed
Generativity Concern with growing family
31-55 Adulthood
versus stagnation and work productivity
Integrity versus 56 Develops broad perspective of
Maturity
despair onwards past life
Fig.3.1. Erickson's psycho-social stages of development

Reading 3.2
HOW TO GET A JOB

Right Job-Seeking Behaviour

The following job-seeking behaviour will help you find, and secure, a job:
a. Obtain information on job openings in the public services and other business
organizations.
b. Ask your friends for information about job openings.
c. Read the classified advertisements in the local newspapers, magazines,
journals, and other periodicals.
d. Visit employers to find out what job opportunities they have.
e. Write a business plan and try to create self-employment.
f. Write job-seeking applications.
g. Fill job application forms.
 h. Attend a job interview.
i. Prepare for the interview.
j. Travel to, and arrive on time at, the premises for the job interview.
k Know how to deal with job interview questions.
l. Respond appropriately to job interview questions.
m. Know what to do after the interview.
n. Know how to adjust to the demands of the job.

How to Write an Application Letter for a Job

a. Decide whether the letter should be typed or not. If it is typed, remember to sign
it. However, such a letter does not reveal your handwriting to the employer. If
you decide to use a pen, take the trouble to write neatly and legibly, because your
handwriting will tell the employer what type of person you are.
b. Use a clean sheet of paper.
c. Follow the rules for writing formal letters, capitalizing letters or words, spelling,
tense, punctuation, paragraphing, logic, or grammar.

d. Present the relevant parts of an application letter: your address, date, the
employer's address, salutation, a heading indicating what the letter is all about, a
body of the letter in a series of paragraphs with an opening paragraph, linking
paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph (see fig. 3.2).
e. The way you introduce your application depends on whether you are answering an
advertisement, were introduced by someone, or whether you are writing an
unsolicited application.
f. Enclose certificated photocopies of the following documents: certificates,
CV/personal resume, testimonials, references, and any other document requested
in the advertisement.
g. Apply for jobs for which you have qualifications. (Note that you may be required
to fill in application forms.)
h. Names, titles, telephone numbers, and addresses of referees, should be mentioned
in your letter of application. Remember to inform someone if you intend to use
him/her as a referee.
i. Treat the employer with deference.
 Kambedza Village
T/A Dzoole
P.O. Nambuma
DOWA
(Date)
The Manager
Kwathu Company Limited
P.O. Box 88
Zomba

Dear Sir/Madam,

Application for the Post of Clerk

The opening paragraph of a letter of application for a job must be in the form of an
introduction. It should interest the employer in what is to follow. Mention in a tactful
manner the post you are applying for.

The second paragraph must arouse the employer's interest in your qualifications and make
him/her believe that you are suitable for the post. To convince, you must support your
claims with evidence of your past achievements. Develop one theme in this paragraph,
especially on your educational and professional qualifications. Describe where, and when,
you obtained your qualifications.

The third paragraph may expand the opening paragraph by developing another theme. You
will further support your claims by giving your prospective employer an account of your
experience or personal details, such as your date of birth, district, country of origin, and
marital status.

The fourth paragraph may list your hobbies, names of referees, or indicate when you would
be available for the post.

The concluding paragraph should round off the letter by indicating the type of action you are
requesting the employer to take, viz. to grant you an interview, or give you the job. This
paragraph should be short. It should make a good, final impression on the employer.

Yours faithfully,

(Signature)
Lumo Samani Kambwe

Fig. 3.2: Relevant part of an application letter.

Resume and Curriculum Vitae (CV)

While the word resume and CV have been used interchangeably, they do not refer
toone and the same document. They have both similarities and significant differences.
Theyare summaries of both academic achievement and work experience. The resume
putsmore emphasis on the applicant’s work experience and related job skills, while the
CVfocuses on research and teaching experience, publications, conference presentations,
and related activities. A resume is used when applying for a job in industry, while a CV
is appropriate when applying for a research or teaching position at a tertiary
educationinstitution such as a University or College of Education.

There are at least three resume formats: chronological resume, functional resume,
and combination resume. The chronological resume presents a logical pattern of events,
highlighting the employment record starting with the most recent experience. It also
shows one’s growth and type of work done. One of the disadvantages of this format is
that an inadequate work history may be exposed, for example, a short stay in a job, or
long periods in one job without any promotion. Another problem is that employers tend
to make judgements about you, without reading through the descriptions you give about
the jobs you did.

On the other hand, the functional resume helps employers to evaluate an

applicant’s skills and abilities, regardless of date and how these were acquired. It
highlights the most valuable skills. It is more difficult and time-consuming to prepare
than a chronological resume.

The combination resume combines the features of both the chronological and the
functional one. It is also time-consuming to prepare; however, it presents a more
complete picture. Unfortunately, it tends to be longer than the other two.

How to Write a Curriculum Vitae (CV)

A CV is a short and organized summary of vocationally important life
experiences. Below are some of the details that could be included in a CV:

1. Biographical information
• Surname and names
• Date of birth
• Sex
• Nationality
• Identity number
• Postal address
• Street address
• Telephone numbers (home and work)
2. Academic and training background
• Highest qualification obtained
• Institution
• Year of completion
• Subjects and symbols
• Dissertation (brief synopsis optional; may be included in the covering letter or
as an attached document)
• Areas of specialization
• Areas of competence

3. Professional experience
• Teaching experience
• Research experience
• Publications – articles, books/chapters of books, work in progress
• Presentations and lectures – titles, audience, place, date

4. Work experience
Put all the different jobs in chronological order, the last position held should be
written first. Pay attention to:
• Job title
• Job description
• The company
• Dates

5. Achievements
• Academic, sports and cultural achievements
• Scholarships, prizes, awards, grants

6. Interests and hobbies

• Mention those interests and activities which will enhance your application.

7. Certificates and testimonials included

• Include certificated photocopies of these documents.

8. Professional affiliations and memberships

9. References (notify them prior to applying – names, addresses, telephone numbers

or references, available on request)
How to Put a Resume Together

1. Personal data (at the top of the page)

• full name
• address
• telephone number

2. Career objective

3. Professional skills
• highlight what you know and are capable of doing
• include only those skills which are relevant to the job

4. Educational/Training experience
• University/college or any form of training
• Workshops, seminars or special training, related to the job you are applying
for
- Name institution
- Training programme
- Achievement (degree or certificates, awards)
- Year of commencement and completion
- Not necessary to include high school or secondary education level if you
have higher education, except where it is related to the job for which you
are applying.

5. Work experience (all relevant employment highlights, including volunteer and

part-time work)
• Accomplishments/achievements
• Responsibilities
• Strengths

6. References (only if you think that they will be of any benefit to you)
• Remember to remind them that they may be called by employers.

Covering Letter

A CV should always be accompanied by a covering letter. The purpose of the

covering letter is to introduce yourself and to indicate how you heard about the
organization, advertised position, or opening. Make your covering letter brief – and
highlight the training or skills you would bring to the organization. The covering letter
should:
• be brief, preferably one page.
• indicate where you saw the advertisement.
• use simple language.
 • not be a photocopy.
• relate your skills to the employer.
• stress what you think you can offer the organization.
• indicate when you might be available to meet the employer.
• be edited to eliminate spelling, punctuation, or typing errors.
• be addressed to a particular individual, preferably the one indicated in the
advertisement.

Outline of a Covering Letter

Your name
Your address
Date

Name of person and title

Name of organization
Address

Dear Sir/Madam, or Mr/Mrs/Ms and then name of person,

Opening paragraph (identify who referred you to them or how you heard about
the vacancy).

Middle paragraph(s) (should show the relevance of the following to the

organization or the job):
• education
• work experience
• abilities, interests, skills
• training

Closing paragraph (say how or when you can be contacted. You may want to
give your telephone number and times when you can be contacted).

Yours sincerely,

Signature
Your name printed.

Enclosure: (Should be added if you are sending along an application or CV).

How to Handle Job Interviews

The following hints would be helpful as you prepare for, and progress, in the
interview:

Preparation for the interview

1. Study the advertisement, note the title of the post, its educational and professional
requirements.

2. Study your application thoroughly, so that whatever you say in the interview does
not contradict what is in the application.

3. Think of a convincing and honest answer why you want the job, because nearly
all interviewers have a habit of asking this question.

4. Ask people doing the job what they like least about the job, so that you can
demonstrate to the employer that you are determined to get the job despite the
difficulties.

5. Be able to describe how, and why, you came to apply to the employer. This
information will show that you have carefully planned your career.

6. Revise your school subjects or special area of study, and try to keep abreast of
current affairs by reading newspapers, listening to the radio, and watching
television.

7. Be punctual for the interview.

8. Decide what you are going to wear, as a smart appearance will be demanded of
you.

9. Groom yourself for the interview because your face, chin and hair will have some
impact on the interviewers.

10. When going to the interview, remember to bring with you an invitation letter,
original school certificates, and pens.

11. Plan how you intend to project yourself to the interview board in order to make a
good impression. For example, try to create a good first impression through your
oral communication, human relations, or by exhibiting creativity, leadership,
independence, judgment, honesty, and flexibility.
The day of the interview

1. Groom yourself for the occasion as your appearance will be assessed.

2. Demonstrate punctuality and respect.

3. Upon arrival at the correct location, contact the secretary, or clerk, and announce
your presence.

4. When the interview-board is ready, the clerk will tell you that it is your turn.
He/she will escort you into the interview-room.

5. After you have entered the room, stand next to the chair where you are mostly
likely to be asked to sit.

6. When the clerk introduces each member of the board to you, you should respond
accordingly. However, if there is no clerk to escort you, you may greet the board
and introduce yourself, or the Chairperson of the Board will break the ice. If the
board consists of one or two members, you can be the first one to greet them.

7. You should sit only when asked to do so.

8. You must look and sound as though you are interested and keen about the job and
the interview itself.

9. Show a sense of humour but guard against forced humour. Smile.

10. Speak in a clear, audible, and as confident a voice as possible.

11. Listen carefully to each question before attempting to answer it.

12. Think fast before you reply and try to foresee the consequences of your answer
lest you be asked ‘Why? How? When?’

13. Try to avoid a heated confrontation with your prospective employers. Remain
cool, defend your point of view in an agreeable way and be willing to
acknowledge that there is some sense in opposing views without actually
accepting them.

14. Whatever questions are asked - closed, open, hypothetical, multiple, leading, or
unexpected questions - you should try to understand the argument or question
before answering. Sift the information to find out where to begin, what to put in,
and what to leave out.

15. When asked to produce your certificates, take them out before presenting them to
the board.

16. If the Chairperson enquires if you have any questions, you may politely ask them
to clear up any doubts regarding the conditions of service. However, it is not
 advisable to take out a list of written questions and read them. Nor is it wise to
ask questions to which answers were already given in the vacancy advertisement.

17. The interviewer will indicate when the interview is over, and he/she may tell you
that you will be informed of the results of the interview by post. This is the time
when you will collect your certificates and leave the room, with a word of thanks
to the board.

18. Leave the interview premises in an orderly manner, and bear in mind that anyone
can communicate to the employers any careless remarks you might make about
them.

Evaluation

1. How can you facilitate the vocational development of your female and male
students?

2. Discuss how socially generated attitudes and behaviour, or general concepts of

masculinity and femininity, significantly influence the kind of guidance and
counselling services that are offered to young people and children, men and
women.

3. While data were collected mainly from men, the conclusions were generalized to
include women. Discuss the impact this has had on the guidance services offered to
women.

4. Identify 5 ways in which students can create self-employment.

References

Bedal, C. L. (ed.). Canadian Readings about School Counselling. Toronto: The

Governing Council of the University of Toronto. 1978.

Bhusumane, D. B.. Teacher and Administrator Attitudes and Perceptions of Barriers and
Strategies Toward the Advancement of Women in Educational
Administration. Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis, Edmonton, AB:
University of Alberta. 1993.

Crites, J. O. Vocational Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1969.

Ginzberg, E. Career Guidance. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1971.

Holland, J. L. Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Careers. Englewood Cliffs,

N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 1973.

Holland, J. L. The Psychology of Vocational Choice: A Theory of Personality Types

and Environmental Models. New York: Ginn. 1966.

Jersild, A. T., Brook, J. S. & Brook, D. W. The Psychology of Adolescence. New

York: MacMillan Publishing Company. 1978.

Kachelenga, D. E. Career Guidance. (Manuscript), Unpublished.

Makinde, O. Fundamentals of Guidance and Counselling. London: MacMillan

Publishers, Ltd. 1984.

Miller, J. C. Tutoring: The Guidance and Counselling Role of the Tutor in Vocational
Preparation. Hertford, United Kingdom: NICEC. 1982.

Super, D. E. The Psychology of Careers. New York: Harper and Row. 1957.
 UNIT 4
Personal and Social
Guidance

RATIONALE

Young people grow up in a complex and fast changing society, where they
often do not understand what is happening, or what to do about it. The demands of
living in such a world create problems for young people, because they have few
mechanisms and strategies for adapting to them. Often they are not in control of their
world. Young people experience many problems in their families, at school, and in
communities. The problems that may affect these young people are: anxiety, stress,
sexuality, alcohol and drug abuse, juvenile delinquency, suicide, decision-making and
problem-solving, setting goals, and interpersonal relationships (including gender
issues).

These personal and social concerns make personal and social guidance a
necessity, not only in educational and vocational institutions but also in society as a
whole. Gender issues are dealt with extensively in the module on Gender Sensitivity.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• mention factors of stress in school children and young people;
• explain why alcohol and tobacco are the largest drug problems;
• state the best precaution against teenage pregnancy;
• name the three largest groups of people who get AIDS;
• provide strategies for combating AIDS among young people and children;
• define juvenile delinquency;
• mention four common events that can push an adolescent into suicide, or
attempts at suicide;

• list six types of decision;

• apply the process approach in decision-making and problem-solving.
CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Common Problems and their Underlying Causes
Topic 2. Recreation
Topic 3. Law and the Rights of the Child
Topic 4. Human Rights and Self-Determination
Topic 5. Interpersonal Relationships
Topic 6. Parents’ Involvement in the Guidance Programme.

Topic 1.
COMMON PROBLEMS AND THEIR UNDERLYING CAUSES
Personal and social guidance is the process of helping an individual to know how
to behave with consideration for other people, in order to improve the quality of life. In
the course of their development, individuals encounter a lot of problems. These
problems include emotional conflicts, anxieties, frustrations, fears, poor self-image,
indecision, alcohol and drug abuse, unwanted pregnancies, the AIDS epidemic,
delinquency, suicide, inability to set a goal in life, poor interpersonal relationships,
dependence on other people and, in general, an inability to change unsuitable
behaviour.

This topic explains some of the common problems and their underlying causes,
and gives suggestions on how to alleviate them.

1. Stress/Anxiety

Anxiety exists when individuals are at odds with themselves. The underlying
conflict springs from a clash between incompatible impulses, desires, or values. Such a
conflict prevails when a person is angry but is afraid of giving offence. It also exists
when a person is eager to be popular, but has scruples against doing what may be
necessary to become popular.

The conflict and frustration in the individual produce anxiety and tension. Since
the emotional states are uncomfortable and distressful ones for the individual, attempts
to allay them are made by putting up defences. These defence mechanisms help the
individual to deal with distress and inner conflict.

According to Horney (1950), individuals may survive in a threatening

environment by moving against others, and becoming competitive: seeking to surpass
others in schoolwork, business, sports, or any area of life. Individuals may also move
away from others, withdraw, remain aloof and detached. Individuals may also wish to
move along with others in a policy of compliance, conformity, and self-effacement.

According to the Freudian Theory of defences against anxiety, feelings of anxiety

warn the ego or self of impending danger, usually in the form of a repressed impulse.
The self then uses specific defence mechanisms to ward off forbidden and dangerous
impulses. Anna Freud (1958) elaborated the following defence mechanisms:
repression, projection, denial, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation,
undoing, intellectualization, regression, sublimation, and turning against the self.
These defence mechanisms are devices or techniques which the self develops
unconsciously, in order to enable the individual to deal with psychic pain and
frustration. Failure to employ these mechanisms may lead to a total disintegration of
the personality of the individual. Let us now look at the defences.

Activity 4.1: Defence Mechanisms

1. Go through Reading 4.1, Defence Mechanisms, on pages 112-114 to have a
better knowledge of these defences.

For Class Discussion:

2. In small groups, share experiences of defence mechanisms which you have
encountered in yourself and in other people. Record some of these experiences
and discuss the ways in which they may or may not relate to the theory.

Anxiety-Producing Stresses in Adolescence

Many adolescents are seriously confronted for the first time with facts about
themselves and their backgrounds that may produce serious conflicts. For example,
they face problems of independence versus dependence, conformity versus non-
conformity, self-assertion versus self-negation, early versus later maturing, development
of the genitals, and financial troubles. All these produce stress.

Factors of Stress in School Children

a. Family problems
Parental disapproval, feeling unloved and abandoned, parents' fighting, parents'
divorce or separation, competing with sibling(s), not spending much time with
parents, lack of parental support, having different goals from those of parents,
dealing with, and conflict with, step-parents.

b. Not feeling in control

Others telling them what to do, not being allowed to think for themselves and
make decisions, feeling that no one is listening to them, lack of resources.

c. Feeling different
Feelings of inferiority, not having the same materials as others, lack of awareness
of self (strengths and weaknesses), not accepting self.
d. School related problems
Teachers not liking or understanding them, fear of failure, not getting homework
done, failing to meet the expectations of parents with regard to academic
achievement, not having friends, not seeing the relevance of attending school,
adjusting to different teachers and students.

e. Discipline
Afraid of being punished, unfair punishment, parents and teachers being too
critical.

f. Peer Pressure
Wanting to be accepted by friends, participating in things they do not feel
comfortable with (drugs, smoking, drinking, etc), not having the resources to be
part of their group, not being accepted, being afraid of doing and saying the
wrong thing.

g. General Concerns
Doing something wrong, feeling insecure, feeling that something is frightening,
adjusting to developmental changes, not having enough autonomy, not
understanding things in their lives, not accepting themselves, being different,
having different expectations from those of parents and teachers.

h. Drug and alcohol abuse

Use of cigarettes, drugs and alcohol.

i. Future
Career decisions, accepting responsibilities, relationships as they affect future
decisions, dealing with the many uncertainties of life, not understanding
themselves enough to make decisions about the future.

j. Boredom
Inadequate entertainment, sports and cultural activities. There is a need for
young people to break the stereotype that boredom can only be broken externally.
Further, there is a need to provide psychological empowerment to help young
people deal with boredom.

Activity 4.2: Managing Stress

1. Go through Reading 4.2, Managing Stress, on page 114-115.
2. How do you manage your own stress? Compare the suggestions provided in
the Reading.
3. Discuss ways in which young people manage stress.

Note:It is important that you should be able to manage your own stress, so that you
can be a good role model for your students/clients.
Transition: Aside from anxiety/stress, another common problem encountered by
students is poor self-image.

2. Poor Self-image
Self-image is our sense of self. Its basis is our knowledge of what we have been
and have done. Its function is to guide us in deciding what to be, and do, in the future.
Self-image, therefore, helps us to understand ourselves and control, or regulate, our
behavior.

The real self is the person's own concept of what he/she is like, but the ideal self is
a person's concept of what he/she wants to be like.

Middle childhood is an important time for the development of self-esteem, a

positive self-image, or self-evaluation. Children compare their real and ideal selves,
and judge themselves by how well they measure up to social standards and
expectations, and how well they perform. It is when they are among other children that
youngsters develop a self-image and build self-esteem. They form opinions of
themselves by seeing themselves as others see them. This is their basis for comparison.
This self-esteem is important for success and happiness.

Factors That Contribute to Self-Esteem

People base their self-image on the sense of:
a. significance: the extent to which they feel loved by those who are important to
them.
b. competence: ability to perform a task they consider important.
c. virtue: attainment of moral and ethical standards.
d. power: the extent to which they influence their own and other people's lives.

How Counsellors Can Enhance the Self-Image in Children

a. Counsellors should facilitate groups to enhance self-esteem because many

factors of stress are related to a negative evaluation of the self.
b. Counsellors should give guidance classes to increase the students' awareness
of themselves. This should help to alleviate the factors that are related to a
lack of self-understanding and non-acceptance of the self.
c. Children should be taught how to manage stress in groups and in individual
sessions.
d. Counsellors should be able to manage their own stress, so that they can be
good role models.

Transition: A third common problem encountered by students is difficulty in asserting

themselves.
3. Difficulty in Asserting Themselves

Activity 4.3: Becoming More Assertive

1. Go through Reading 4.3, Assertiveness Training, on pages 115-116.
2. In small groups, discuss how you can assist girls to become more assertive
especially in traditionally male-dominated academic, social, and occupational
roles.
3. Prepare a small booklet on the ways in which girls can become more assertive
and use it in appropriate counselling sessions.

4. Drug and Alcohol Abuse

A substance is considered abused if it is deliberately used to induce physiological

or psychological effects, or both, for purposes other than therapeutic ones; and when its
use contributes to health risks, the disruption of psychological functioning, adverse
social consequences or a combination of them. Thus, although drugs may be
prescribed for specific therapeutic purposes, they may also be abused by obtaining and
taking them without prescription, for the purpose of experiencing side effects.

Substance Abuse

It is likely in the near future that the term ‘substance abuse’ rather than ‘drug
abuse’, will be used, because not all abused chemicals are drugs. Abused substances
other than drugs include glue, cleaning fluids, gasoline, and other chemicals that can
cause adverse psychological effects.

Why Young People Use Drugs

Young people use drugs for the following reasons:

a. For social reasons, i.e., to conform to peer pressure.
b. Drugs make them feel good.
c. When they are feeling anxious, depressed or alienated, young people use drugs due
to a lack of self-esteem, and the presence of peer pressure, family problems, and
emotional problems.
d. They do not feel good unless they are a little high, for instance, on marijuana.
Patterns of Progressive Drug Abuses
A drug abuser rarely becomes a habitual user immediately. He/she undergoes the
following stages:

a. Experimentation
He/she starts with experimentation, perhaps under peer pressure. During this stage,
there are few effects and the consequences are negative.

b. Occasional social and recreation use

This time, the abuser exhibits the following characteristics: decrease in academic
performance, loss of interest in hobbies, seeks out drug-using friends, and changes
clothing habits.

c. Certain circumstances or situations

He/she then becomes a habitual user when he/she wants, for example, to relax after
a stressful event, to stay awake to perform a demanding task, or to sleep.
Situational use may intensify and become part of daily routine.

d. Obsessive or dependent
Eventually, the drug can become the individual's main concern. Thus, the
individual becomes addicted, or dependent on the drug. He/she has severe
discomfort if the drug is not available. He/she has disorganized thoughts, erratic
behaviour, and may become psychotic or suicidal.

Activity 4.4: Peer Pressure

1. Watch and discuss the following videos (these videos may be purchased by the
trainees to use with their students/clients):
a) #More Time: Sweet is ...In Love and in Trouble. Produced in 1993 by Southern African
Film Festival Awards. A Media for Development Trust Production. Media
Development Trust, 135 Union Ave., P.O. Box 6755, Harare, Zimbabwe. Tel. No.
(263-4) 9333-6415, Fax No. (263-4) 729-066.
More Time: Sweet is…In Love and in Trouble presents the story of a teenager Thandi
who is ready for anything, and ripe for falling in love. Thandi is a girl flirting with
womanhood and the township beckons. But, she still has to find out the dangers when
David, the schoolboy Mister Magic, coolly sweeps her off her feet. As her life spins
out of control and beyond her parents’ reach, Thandi has to learn that playing with love
may mean playing with her life.
This is a story of what happens to a girl when she realizes that falling in love is not
simple. The danger of love is not just about unwanted pregnancies. In a time of AIDS,
it is about life itself. And that means changing the way teenagers like Thandi think,
and feel, about sex and sexuality.
b) #Stand Up for Yourself! Peer Pressure and Drugs. Churchill Films. McIntyre Media
Limited, 30 Kelfield Street, Rexdale, Ontario M9W 5A2. (416) 245-7800.

2. Students should organize a pressure group against substance abuse. Send letters
immediately.

3. Simulate a situation in which:

 a) a family has discovered that one son or daughter is on drugs and decides to help him, or
her, get over the problem;
b) a chief of the village finds out that youths in the village are using drugs and decides to
address the problem.

Note:
In most cases due to peer pressure, young people find themselves involved in drugs. This
video, Stand Up for Yourself! Peer Pressure and Drugs, presents effective techniques for
saying no to alcohol, street drugs, cigarettes, and any peer pressure. It provides students with
the encouragement, motivation and practical skills they need to handle peer pressure
effectively. The techniques presented have been thoroughly tested and proved highly
effective. These include:
- a simple ‘no thanks’ and how to use it
- the ‘broken record’
- reversing the pressure
- walking away.
5. Alcohol and tobacco problems
Alcohol and tobacco are the largest drug problems for children for the following
reasons:
a. they are readily available.
b. they are advertised for sale.
c. children usually receive their first exposure to, and first experiment with,
these substances at home.

There is evidence that cigarette smoking alone is estimated to take the lives of
more people than all other drugs combined. Hence, it is a good idea to concentrate on
preventing children and young people from starting smoking and drinking.

Note: We need not over-target the high risk, but numerically small groups, of illicit
drug users. Also note that alcohol is not a stimulant but a central nervous
system depressant. It usually impairs sexual performance, especially in males.

Transition: The onset of puberty at about the age of eleven marks essential changes in
the individual concerned. He/she is changed physically, morally, psychologically, and
socially. The individual is termed an adolescent.

Adolescence is generally viewed as a time of greater storm and stress than other
periods of life. For instance, there is a strong sexual urge for the individual to engage
in pre-marital intercourse. With increasing sexual activity has come an increased
incidence of teenage pregnancies, AIDS and other Sexually Transmitted Diseases
(STDs), also referred to as Venereal Diseases(VD).

Let us now talk about another common problem encountered by young people as
a result of their sexuality.
6. Teenage pregnancy
Note: This topic is dealt with extensively in the module on Adolescent Reproductive
Health.

Sexual experimentation and ignorance baffle many teenagers, and sometimes lead
them to things which they do not expect and find difficult to handle. One of the
consequences of sexual experimentation and ignorance is teenage pregnancy.

A teenager who is pregnant usually has one of four choices: marry the father of
the child, raise the child alone, give the baby up for adoption, or have an abortion. The
question is what happens to the father of the child. In a number of cases, the father of
the child is not another teenager, but an adult or civil servant, or some responsible
senior official or important person in government. What impact does this have on the
social fabric? Regardless of her choice, the teenage-mother will probably manage
alone.

The role of a guidance counsellor is to aid the teenage mother to make a choice.
Better still, the guidance counsellor should already be there even before the teenager
becomes pregnant. He/she needs to be there to prevent it by teaching/guiding
adolescents, so that the following principles are followed:

a. The best precaution for teenage pregnancy is abstinence, until it is possible to

establish a mutually faithful monogamous relationship.

b. There is a need for self-respect and self-control in sexual matters.

c. Youngsters should avoid smoking, taking alcohol, and dangerous drugs, as these
might stimulate them to indulge in irresponsible sexual behaviour.

d. Youngsters should avoid conduct likely to provoke sexual responses in the

opposite sex. Family Life Education should be advocated.

e. Youngsters should recognize the sanctity and purpose of the family, hence they
should develop desirable attitudes to family life .

f. Youngsters should be encouraged to view life positively.

g. Youngsters should avoid any behaviour that may damage their procreational
abilities, especially the problems of Sexually Transmitted Diseases.

h. Youngsters should have a respect for human life. In the matter of abortion,
teenagers should know the rights of the fœtus, and those of the pregnant teenager,
and consider the consequences to the teenager herself, and to others.
 Activity 4.5: Teenage Pregnancy
1. View and discuss the video entitled Consequences. This is a useful resource for
dealing with a topic such as teenage pregnancy. It shows the consequences of
teenage pregnancy. (Note: The video may be purchased by the trainees to use
with their students/clients.) Distributed by DSR, Inc., 9650 Santiago Road,
Suite 10, Columbia, MD 21045 USA. Tel. No. (301) 964-0037. Additional
copies available from: Media Coordinator, Baptist International Media
Services, P.O. Box 872, Edenvale 1610, South Africa.
Psychodrama is one technique that can be used by guidance counsellors to help
boys and girls come to terms with their emotions. This technique was first used
by the psychologist Moreno in the 1920s. It was found particularly successful
in the treatment of patients suffering from mental illness. By this method, an
individual is made to act out, or dramatize on stage, certain painful experiences
he/she has undergone. This process of acting out a problem will reduce the
individual’s burden because he will have shared his/her experiences with the
audience. The feeling of loneliness, anxiety, and psychic pain the individual
might have had, is relatively reduced. Further, acting reconciles the individual
to his/her painful emotions. He/she learns to come to terms with it, and this
acceptance tends to enhance his/her ego and self-esteem. He/she may no longer
look at himself/herself as frustrated and devalued.
2. In groups, students should plan and present sketches on teenage pregnancy.
How can you use the psychodrama method of therapy to help boys and girls
avoid problems like teenage pregnancy and any other problem that may
interfere with their studies?

7. Sexually Transmitted Diseases

These are diseases which are spread through sexual contact. These include
syphilis, gonorrhea and AIDS.
a. Syphilis
Syphilis is caused by the bacterium treponema pallidium. Syphilis goes through
two stages, and usually manifests itself in three weeks. First, there is a painless
pimple, blister, or sore where the germs entered the body. Then, there is a rash,
hair loss, and swollen glands.
Its complications are brain damage, heart disease, paralysis, insanity, and death.
Babies born to untreated women may be blind, deaf, or crippled by the disease.

b. Gonorrhea
This is caused by the bacterium neisseria gonorrhoeae. Males have a pus-like
discharge but most infected women show no symptoms. Its complications include
back pains, urination problems, arthritis, and sterility. Babies of infected mothers
may be born blind.
c. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
AIDS damages the body's immunity against infection, leaving its victim without
any defence against a host of serious diseases. The disease is caused by the Human
Immuno-Deficiency Virus (HIV).

The symptoms include tiredness, fever, loss of appetite, diarrhoea, night sweats,
and swollen glands. These symptoms occur from about six months after infection
to five years or longer. This is called the incubation period.

The three largest groups of people who get AIDS are:

i. sexually active people.
ii. intravenous drug users.
iii. blood-transfusion recipients.
**As of now, there is no known vaccine nor cure.

How to Prevent AIDS

AIDS can be prevented by:
a. Abstinence: this means avoiding sexual intercourse altogether. If young
people delay becoming sexually active until marriage, the risk of getting AIDS
is reduced.
b. Faithfulness: people who are married should be faithful to their life partners.
c. Mutually monogamous relationships: if an uninfected couple have intercourse
only with each other, they cannot become infected through sexual
transmission.
d. Screening of donated blood, sperm, organs, or any body tissue, to ensure they
are free of HIV.

e. Avoiding direct contact with another person's blood.

e. Avoiding sharing instruments which cut and pierce the skin.

Activity 4.6: AIDS

1. View and discuss the documentary film entitled Born in Africa. You may
utilize this film when you provide guidance services.
#Born in Africa. A.K.A. Production for Frontline & WGBH in association
with Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 1990 WGBH Educational
Foundation & K.A. Production, Inc. Film Resource Unit, P.O. Box 11065,
Johannesburg 2000. Tel. No. (011) 838-4280, Fax No. (011) 838-4451.

2. Collect and analyze statistics of HIV cases, or AIDS patients, in your country.
Classify the data according to gender, age groups, young people and children.
8. Juvenile Delinquency

Juvenile delinquency is a legal term that indicates violation of the law by one
who is not legally an adult, but a juvenile.

When someone who is not legally an adult commits an act that could result in
arrest by the police, he/she is said to have committed a delinquent act. The extent of
juvenile delinquency is difficult to determine, because many such acts do not result in
arrests. Moreover, some laws are so vague or loosely worded that delinquency is not
clearly defined. Furthermore, some acts are illegal if committed by a juvenile, but legal
if committed by an adult. Other delinquent acts are clearly criminal; they are
considered morally wrong and punishable by law, regardless of the age of the person
who commits them.

Acts that are illegal only when committed by a minor are called status offences.
These include truancy, running away from home, buying or possessing alcoholic
beverages, and sexual promiscuity.

On the other hand, juveniles may commit index crimes, crimes that are illegal
regardless of a person's age. These include robbery, rape, murder, vandalism, shop-
lifting, theft, armed robbery, and assault.

Factors that increase the probability that a youngster will exhibit delinquent
behaviour include the following:
a. problems at school.
b. low verbal intelligence.
c. alcoholism and arrest record of parents.
d. reliance on welfare, or poor management of family income.
e. crowded, disorderly, or broken home.
f. erratic supervision and lax or inconsistent parental discipline.
g. indifference, or hostility of parents and siblings, towards the child.
h. drug or alcohol abuse.

Thus, parents who provide little emotional warmth, little supervision or control of
the child's activities, exercise erratic and punitive discipline, and who provide a model
of lawless behaviour in the home, are most likely to have delinquent children.

All in all, the causes of juvenile delinquency have their social roots in problem
homes, the socio-economic status of parents, television and the mass-media, peer group
influence, and the school. Therefore, curbing juvenile delinquency is a joint venture
involving parents, teachers, religious leaders, the community, and counsellors.

In modelling, contingency contracting, shaping and reinforcing students'

behaviour in order to curb juvenile delinquency, teachers, administrators and
counsellors, should realize that relevance is the key issue to be considered. Interesting
school programmes and flexible curricula should be developed to cater for varying
talents, interests, abilities, and goals in life. School programmes should help young
people to know their rights and responsibilities. Students who might have become
delinquent for want of a school programme, which is relevant to their particular
interests and needs, should find a vent for their special talents.

9. Suicide
Suicide is increasingly common in our society. This takes many forms including
hanging, or deliberately taking an overdose.

Causes
Some common events that push the adolescent into suicide, or suicide attempts,
include:
a. getting into trouble with the authorities, such as the police or school; not
knowing and fearing the consequences;
b. disappointment and rejection, such as a dispute with a boyfriend or
girlfriend; failure in school; failure to get a job, or rejection by a college;
c. anxiety over impending change;
d. timing shortly before, or after, the anniversary of the death of a friend or
relative;
e. knowing someone who committed, or attempted suicide;
f. poor performance in examinations.

Adolescent suicidal behaviour has the following characteristics:

a) The decision to attempt suicide is often an impulsive act carried out by a
person in crisis.
b) There are often warning signs.
c) Peers may be the first to know about a suicidal teenager.

Suicide Warning Signs

The warning signs include the following:

a. Feelings
• Hopelessness
• Fear of losing control, going crazy, harming self and others
• Helpless, worthless
• Overwhelming guilt, shame, self-hatred
• Pervasive sadness
• Persistent anxiety or anger
b. Action or event
• Drug or alcohol abuse
• Themes of death or destruction in talk or written materials
• Nightmares
• Loss of family member or close friend
• Loss of job, money, status, self-esteem
• Parents' divorce or separation
• Pregnancy, abortion, or legal arrest
• Agitation, restlessness
• Loss of reliable faith
• Aggression, recklessness

c. Change
• in personality: more withdrawn, tired, apathetic, indecisive, or more
boisterous, talkative, out-going
• in behaviour: unable to concentrate on school, work, routine tasks
• in sleep pattern: over-sleeping, insomnia, sometimes waking early
• in eating habits: loss of appetite and weight, or over-eating
• loss of interest in friends, hobbies, personal grooming, sex, or other
activities previously enjoyed
• sudden improvement after a period of being depressed or withdrawn

d. Threats
• Statements like, ‘How long does it take to bleed to death?’
• Threats like, ‘I won’t be around much longer’
• Plans, for instance, putting affairs in order, giving away favourite
things, studying drug effects, obtaining a weapon
• Gestures or attempts, for example, over-doses, wrist-cutting.

Preventing Suicide
A school-based programme which addresses adolescent suicide should
include the following:
a. Talk to the person about his/her suicidal thoughts, so that he/she can bring
feelings out into the open.

b. Provide mental buffers for suicidal young people. This includes giving clear,
immediate options, or alternatives, including positive and continuously
available support which is always available to them.

c. Increase the effectiveness of those who come into contact with suicidal
young people. This means that students, members of staff, and parents, must
know the warning signs and how to respond, make professional support
immediately available.

d. Provide positive support for those who attempt suicide, as well as the next of
kin, and other members of the community, of those who commit suicide.
 e. Do as much as possible to relieve the pressures that seem so intolerable to
those who attempt suicide, whether that means calling a former boyfriend or
girlfriend, lending money, or interceding with an employer.

In a personal and social guidance programme, the immediate goal is to establish a

school-based expertise, backed by local providers who can respond to adolescent
suicidal behaviour. The objectives of such a programme are to enable:
a. persons who may come into contact with potentially suicidal adolescents, to
identify them more readily, know how to respond to them, and how to refer them
rapidly for additional help;

b. troubled adolescents become aware of, and have immediate access to, help so that
they may be more inclined to seek it as an alternative to suicidal behaviour.

Transition: The following are the last two common problems experienced by young
people: difficulty in making decisions and solving problems, and inability to set a
goal in life.

10. Difficulty in Making Decisions and Solving Problems

To counteract this problem, it is important that students learn skills in decision-

making and problem solving. It is also important for them to have a knowledge of
power relations.

Activity 4.7: Decision-Making

1. Go through Reading 4.4, Decision-Making, Power Relations and Problem-
Solving, on pages 117-119.
2. Discuss the various decision-making problems you have encountered in your
students.
3. In groups, identify a problem and then go through the steps of decision-making.
The advantages and disadvantages of each alternative solution should be listed,
and then the best decision taken.
11. Inability to Set a Goal in Life

A client comes for counselling to avoid future maladjustment, gain relief or

success and avoid pressure, punishment, or failure. For example, a student may seek
help to be able to study more effectively, or to overcome certain fears and anxieties.

The goal is to effect a change in behaviour that will enable the student to live a
more productive, satisfying, life within the limitations of society. Alternatively, the
goal is the attainment of positive mental health.

However, the setting of goals does not always work, because the student may be
confused, or may face too many problems. This explains why goal-setting skills are
important.

Many students lack goal-setting skills. This is partly because the school
curriculum does not provide them with enough opportunities and experience to
facilitate their acquisition. Secondly, the world is ever-changing and more complex
than before. There is also a great deal of uncertainty about the future. Many students
are not sure whether what they would like to focus on in the future would still be valid
by the time they finish school.

They may also lack sufficient information on how to deal with realities. It is
sometimes a lack of information on how to deal with problems that may cause anxiety
and stress in students. Limited guidance, and a lack of empowerment, may also
contribute to student failure to adjust to an ever-changing society and the life of today.

Activity 4.8: Goal-Setting

1. Go through Reading 4.5, Goal-Setting Skills, on pages 119-120.
2. Role play on how you, as a behavioural counsellor, can assist a student to set a
goal.
3. Using examples, discuss how you would assist a student who has selected a
goal, but has to determine whether the goal is ethical, attainable or measurable.
4. In small groups, prepare and dramatize a story on goal setting.

Activity 4.9: Projection

Projection techniques are useful measures of personality. These are anonymous
and enable a person to bring out certain experiences from the unconscious to the
conscious. This is an individual activity and, if well used, will reveal information that
he/she would normally be unwilling to reveal. For example, a disturbed child may be
asked to draw pictures of his/her parents. If the child draws pictures depicting parents
fighting, then it can be concluded that all is not well in the child’s home; that there is
violence and the parents may be undesirable models for the child. Examples of
projective techniques are:
 - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT-Z) especially adapted for the Zulu nation in
South Africa.
- The Picture Motivation Test - use stick-men during certain activities to
determine what motivates the learner.
- Draw a person/house/tree/person/an experience.
- These techniques can be used to determine a child’s problems after which
guidance can be given.

1. Ask boys and girls to draw someone and ask questions about the picture.

Transition: Apart from helping students with the common problems they usually
encounter, counsellors should also consider the recreation of the students. It is time for
counsellors to start helping students plan their recreation as well as work. Counsellors
should recognize the importance of recreation.

Topic 2.
RECREATION

Recreation has assumed an important place in modern life, as a result of the ever-
increasing amount of leisure time available. Since young people can use leisure time
either constructively or destructively, it is important to help them to make wise use of
leisure time. They should be aware of the vital place that recreation can play in a full
enjoyment of life. This is particularly important as the world focuses on discouraging
early marriage. The implication is that young people will have more time on their
hands. Special attention should be given to the 12-21 years age group.

What is Leisure?
Gist and Fava (1961) state that leisure is the time when an individual is free from
work or other duties, and which may be utilized for purposes of relaxation, diversion,
social achievement, or personal development.

However, Parker (1971) defines leisure as the extent to which an activity is

constrained or freely chosen. The recognition of individual freedom and choice in the
pursuit of leisure activities, as well as the complete break between work and leisure
(included in Parker’s 1971 conceptualization), is important for counsellors, who are
concerned with assisting people with their leisure and vocational development.

Thus, leisure for some individuals may represent an attempt to flee the pressures
of work. Others may consciously choose to participate in leisure activities which are
similar to work. In fact, some individuals have chosen to turn their previous leisure
pursuits into work or vocational activities. Examples of people who have turned their
hobbies into a career abound. This emphasizes the fact that counsellors can, and
should, help students plan their leisure.
 Need for Recreation
Many situations create emotional stress which results in worry, anxiety, fear,
frustration, and boredom. Such problems can be relieved by recreation.

Recreation is necessary for the following reasons:

a. Exercise under the proper conditions can help to improve emotional stability
and mental fitness. For example, participation in an interesting sport takes
the mind off other things and prevents self absorption. It also helps to release
emotions through socially approved channels, by providing for self-
expression.

b. Proper exercise helps to build up the muscles and vital organs of the body, so
that they are capable of bearing additional stress and strain.

c
. Social values are passed on as people learn how to get along with others and
live with them, through a participation in leisure activities. Through these
activities, people acquire habits and attitudes of loyalty, self-control,
initiative, competition, and co-operation. Individuals learn to give credit
where it is due, regardless of winning or losing. Participation in games
teaches an individual to work with others, and to control emotions to the
benefit of a team. The individual may also develop lasting friendships.

d. Success in developing skills and participating in a physical activity are

excellent ways of developing confidence, and obtaining satisfaction that
comes from successful accomplishment.

Activity 4.10: Recreation

1. Prepare a booklet on African games which carefully describes how they are
played.
2. Organize competitive games in small groups – and be sure to include those
which are in the book.
 Topic 3.
LAW AND THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD

Rights of a Child
The universal rights of the child reflected in the Human Rights Charter are:
• Right to a name
• Right to parents (mother and father)
• Right to a nationality
• Right to food
• Right to shelter
• Right to clothing
• Right to education
• Right to protection
• Right to property
• Right to be heard

National Laws and Protection of Children

Protection of the lives and rights of individuals is a fundamental principle of any
civilized society. In African communities, as in other parts of the world, the lives of
individuals are controlled by national laws and customs. Generally, these laws are
supposed to protect members of society. Sadly, a number of these laws are biased,
especially against women and minorities. In some cases the law fails to protect
children, women, and minorities, under the pretext that ‘it is our culture to do things
in a particular way.’

Activity 4.11: Rights of the Child

1. Identify the national laws that were passed to protect children.
2. Examine the limitations they have shown in protecting children.
3. Suggest ways in which these laws could be improved to protect children more
effectively.
 Law Against Rape and Defilement
Rape is an unlawful sexual act with someone above 16 years of age and without
consent. The age limit differs from one country to another. While some countries put
the age limit at 16 others put it at 18. Defilement, on the other hand, is an unlawful
sexual act with a person below the age of 16 (or 18 in some countries). At this age, the
boy or girl is considered a child and the issue of consent does not arise. Rape and
defilement are criminal cases and harsh punishments are attached to them. Culprits
must be reported to the police.

Rape and defilement have drastic effects on the physical, social, and mental
health of the victim. Effects on physical health include swelling or bruises in the
genital area, STD/AIDS, or pregnancy. On the other hand, stigmatization, or dropping
out of school, may affect their social health. Some victims are traumatized.

There are situations which lead girls, in particular, to be raped or defiled.

Guidance counsellors should give guidance to young people so that they can take
precautions and avoid becoming rape or defilement victims, and know the procedures
for bringing a culprit to book.

Activity 4.12: Rape and Defilement

1. Break into four groups. Go through Reading 4.6, Cases: Rape and Defilement,
on pages 121-122. Group 1 will handle Case #4.1; Group 2, Case #4.2; Group
3, Case #4.3; and Group 4, Case #4.4.
2. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

Other Laws
Different societies have different laws governing marriage, inheritance and
property rights, protection of the rights of individuals, and laws against child neglect,
child abuse, and child labour. Every society has legal structures and procedures for
dealing with the enforcement of the laws protecting the rights of individuals, and
especially children.

Activity 4.13: Other Laws

1. Describe and discuss the laws of marriage, inheritance and property rights, and
civic rights within your own society, and give attention to the ways in which
they affect girls and women.
2. Examine the laws of marriage, inheritance and property rights, and civic rights
in order to determine any bias, discrimination, stereotypes, and limitations in
addressing the needs, concerns, and problems of men and women.
 3. Identify and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the legal structures and
procedures in your country/society to protect children from neglect, abuse, child
labour, and excessive punishment.

NOTE: Later on, take students to visit a court and a police station to observe
proceedings. You may also invite lawyers and police officers to give a talk, for
example on the different laws and procedures for reporting cases.

Topic 4.
HUMAN RIGHTS AND SELF-DETERMINATION
The General Assembly of the United Nations in December 1948 adopted a
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN Doc. A/811). In its proclamation, the
General Assembly defined the universal declaration of human rights as a common
standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations. It also called upon all
member States to promote universal respect for, and the observance of, human rights
and fundamental freedoms, as well as reaffirming their faith in the equal rights of men
and women.

Activity 4.14: Human Rights and Self-Determination

1. Go through Reading 4.7, Human Rights and Self-Determination on pages 123-
127. In groups, study the Human Rights Declaration as adopted by the General
Assembly in 1948.
2. Discuss instances where these rights have been violated in your community/
organizations or countries. Suggest ways in which Guidance and Counselling
could be a useful tool to address or facilitate the process of ensuring that these
violations do not continue.
3. Discuss the difference between Human Rights and Civil Rights. Compare and
contrast civil rights in your different countries. Show how these rights affect
men and women/boys and girls.

Topic 5.
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Young people grow up in an environment where they interact with others. They
interact among themselves or with elders at school, church, home, marketplace, water-
points, and other places. In order to function effectively in these different settings,
young people need to acquire social skills. The acquisition of such skills facilitates
good interaction with different groups within their communities. Social skills that
promote good interaction with different groups of individuals include the following:
 Obedience Tolerance
Honesty Patience
Kindness Humility
Loving Forgiveness
Respect for others Cleanliness
Respect for property Hard work
Friendliness Good communication skills
Dependability No gossiping

The guidance counsellor should encourage girls and boys to develop good
interpersonal relationships.

Types of Relationships
There are different types of interpersonal relationships that an individual develops
in life. These relationships are:

• parent and son/daughter relationship

• teacher and girl(s)/boy(s) relationship
• boy to girl relationship
• girl to girl relationship
• boy to boy relationship
• husband to wife relationship
• young to elders relationship
• grandchildren to grandparents relationship

a) Boy - Girl Relationship

In this relationship, boys should be encouraged to interact with as many girls as
possible, and similarly girls should interact with as many boys as possible. In this
relationship, girls and boys help each other in academic development and the
acquisition of social skills. This relationship should be kept at a friendship level
and not go beyond it:

boys and girls should know that girls should not be exploited as sex objects.
early sex has lifelong negative effects, especially on a girl.
girls have a right to make choices and their decisions should be respected.
brothers should not exploit their sisters as labourers, i.e., to do work such as
washing their clothes, cooking for them, etc.
boys should not abuse girls.

The relationship between boys and girls may influence the kind of relationships
they will have later on, especially when they are married. This may also
influence their choice of marriage partners. Although there is no rule of thumb
on how to choose a partner, certain factors may influence the choice. However,
there are some basic factors that may assist in the choice of a partner. Some of
these are:
 attractiveness
health
hard-working
good character
age
religion
ethnicity
interests
values

Marriage is a lifelong relationship. This means, therefore, that a partner must be

carefully chosen.

b) Family Relationships
The family is the basic unit of any society. This is because it is in the family that
basic needs are satisfied. Furthermore, the family is the place where character-
building and values are transmitted and acquired. Strong family units make good
societies. Here, the relationships are:
parents - daughters/sons
brothers - sisters
wife - husband

In the family, each member has roles to play and obligations to fulfil. Parents
have obligations to provide their daughters and sons with food, clothing, shelter,
education, and love. They should also provide guidance to their children so that
they will grow up into responsible and resourceful citizens. Boys and girls
should share the house work, be obedient and respectful to their parents, and
acquire skills. Wives and husbands have the following obligations:
sexual obligations
faithfulness
respect for each other.

The Importance of Effective Communication in Relationships

Within every relationship, communication is important for maintaining the
relationship. It is a means of sharing ideas through all forms of media, and involves the
sending and receiving of messages. Boys and girls must know which words and
mannerisms to use when communicating with peers or with elders. The use of abusive
language should be discouraged. A number of problems arise in social relationships
due to a lack of proper communication.

Young people should be encouraged to open up communication channels to air

problems, needs and concerns, with their parents, relatives, peers, and teachers. Once a
child feels comfortable that he/she can communicate with his/her parents or teacher,
then the counselling process is enhanced. Parents and teachers should be prepared to
listen to the child and assist it. The child-parent or child-teacher relationship can be
greatly improved if there is good communication between them.
 Activity 4.15: Effective Communication
1. Organize a round table discussion on healthy boy and girl relationships and
how they can be maintained.
2. Identify some of the barriers to effective communication in a relationship
between the following:
a) boys and girls
b) husband and wife
c) student and teacher
d) parent and child
e) senior and junior
3. List and discuss ways in which you could help boys and girls to develop
effective communication skills.

Topic 6.
PARENTS’ INVOLVEMENT IN THE GUIDANCE PROGRAMME
For the effective provision of guidance services, guidance counsellors should aim
at facilitating and/or developing regular and effective communication between parents
and teachers. It is through such regular and effective communication that the guidance
programme can achieve its goal of serving the interests of boys and girls. Various
media can be used to effect communication between teachers and parents. Among them
are newsletters, parent-teacher meetings, letters, parents’ meetings, prize-giving/open
day ceremonies, parents’ days, etc.

There is a need to develop a sense of partnership between parents and teachers.

This can only be done through regular contacts between them. The guidance counsellor
should, therefore, facilitate the process of creating a welcoming, friendly, purposeful
atmosphere, which promotes contacts between parents and teachers. Parents should co-
operate with teachers, especially the guidance counsellors, in helping the child develop
his/her potential, as well as overcome his/her problems.

Parents should provide guidance counsellors with background information (about

the child), which is necessary to facilitate growth and assist teachers to help children
make academic and career decisions based on accurate information. This is to avoid
raising false hopes. This information could include the child’s health, developmental
concerns, family background, and other data that can be useful in assisting the child.
This information should be filed and kept confidentially in the guidance counsellor’s
office.

In addition to providing background information on the child, parents need to help

analyze their children’s strengths and limitations. Parents should also work with
teachers in developing the right attitudes in children. Guidance counsellors should
engage parents as resource persons during career fairs, career talks, guidance seminars
for boys and girls, and other activities such as open days and prize-giving ceremonies.
Parents could also participate in cultural activities such as traditional dancing and other
related performances. Parents’ participation in these activities at school will make them
feel they are part of the school. In addition, parents will feel welcome and appreciate
that their knowledge and expertise is recognized by the school.

Activity 4.16: Parents’ Involvement in Guidance and Counselling

1. In small groups, identify and discuss ways in which guidance

counsellors can facilitate a dialogue between parents and their children on
matters of sexuality, sex relationships, and sexually transmitted diseases,
particularly AIDS.

Summary

School children experience problems that threaten their lives and those of others.
These include anxiety, stress, conflict, frustration, fear, poor self-image, alcohol and
drug abuse, juvenile delinquency, the AIDS epidemic, teenage pregnancy, sexually
transmitted diseases, suicide attempts, inability to set goals, make decisions, solve
problems and assert themselves.

To prevent chaos and the destruction of our society, counsellors should provide
personal and social guidance to children. Counsellors should learn the causes,
symptoms, and signs of these problems, and know how to prevent, or deal with them.
The school programme should help the children to assert themselves and to plan their
leisure time. Governmental and non-governmental organizations and the home should
assist schools in this regard.
Key Terms

Addiction: Compulsive use of a drug and obtaining and using the drug, so
that it becomes a central concern and establishes a pattern of
behaviour.

Dependence: The need to continue taking a drug to avoid physical or

emotional discomfort or both.

Stress: Condition that occurs when an organism must adjust, or adapt

to, external circumstances.

Stress Management: The application of behavioural strategies to reduce stress and

improve the ability to cope.
Readings

Reading 4.1
DEFENCE MECHANISMS

1. Repression
This is often referred to as motivated forgetting. After going through a painful
experience such as losing a loved one, an individual may forget it by keeping it in
his/her unconscious. It would be too painful for the individual to remember.
Studies have shown that girls are more adversely affected by such experiences than
boys.

2. Projection
In projection, the person attributes his/her weaknesses to a living or non-living
object. For example, after failing her examinations, an adolescent girl may blame
the poor lighting system in the school, or the male teacher.

3. Denial
In this defence mechanism, an individual denies an experience or situation which
threatens his/her ego. He/she denies that he/she is being threatened and pretends
that all is well.

4. Displacement
An individual experiencing this defence mechanism attributes his/her problem to
individuals who are less powerful than himself/herself. After being beaten for
spoiling a family meal, an adolescent girl may beat up her innocent little sister, as
if the poor little sister were the cause of it. Or a husband who has been beaten in a
bar may go home and beat his innocent wife.

5. Rationalization
This is often called the sour grapes mechanism. It is based on the fable of the
hungry fox who, failing to reach the ripe grapes, said that the grapes were sour
anyway. Rationalization may manifest itself in a girl who, after being jilted by the
boy she loves, says that she was joking all along, and that the boy is after all poor
and too talkative.

6. Reaction Formation
In this defence mechanism, an individual engages in behaviour which is contrary
to his/her well known habits. A hardened thief may be a great crusader against
theft, and a promiscuous person may preach against immorality.
7. Undoing
In undoing, the person does things which are quite unexpected. An unfaithful
husband may, after returning from a journey, shower his wife with unexpected
gifts. A girl, on coming home late from school, may become excessively absorbed
in home chores to the surprise of her parents.

8. Intellectualization
This is a softening of the realities of life. A child who has lost his/her parents may
comfort himself/herself by saying that since the parents had suffered too much, it
was proper for them to rest. After all, they had lived for a relatively long time.

9. Regression
This is the retreat by a child to infantile behaviour in order to seek attention. A
child who stopped bed-wetting a long time ago may unconsciously resort to this
behaviour when the mother gives birth to a new child. The older child may feel
threatened by the new arrival, and resort to the behaviour of the new baby in order
to seek attention.

10. Sublimation
In this defence mechanism, the individual channels his/her psychic energy into
behaviour that is important to society. A lady who has not married may become
an extremely good nurse in a busy hospital.

11. Fantasy
This is often called day-dreaming. It is the attainment of goals through
imagination. A young girl may picture herself as the successful wife of a very
rich man, or as living a good, decent life, devoid of any problems. It is one who
lives in a Utopian society.

12. Identification
Here the individual associates him/herself with an illustrious person or institution.
A mother whose daughter has graduated from university may consider that she
and her daughter are very intelligent.

13. Compensation
In this defence mechanism, weaknesses are translated into success in other fields.
For example, a girl who does not do well academically may shine in sport.

14. Introjection
An individual with this defence mechanism normally incorporates into his/her
cognitive system feelings and experiences which he/she was opposed to. It works
on the principle of ‘If you cannot beat them, join them.’
Reading 4.2
MANAGING STRESS

There are two main ways of managing stress, namely:

1. Modification or removal of the source of stress

The simplest way of dealing with stress is to modify or remove its source, for
example, by leaving a stressful job.

2. Application of coping skills

Most of these skills focus on three areas: bodily effects, ineffective behaviour, and
upsetting thoughts.

a) Bodily effects
Because stress prepares the body for action, its effects can be dissipated by
using the body, i.e.,
• exercise such as dancing, walking, swimming, engaging in sports.
• meditation for calming the body and promoting relaxation, listening to,
or playing, music, following hobbies.

b) Ineffective behaviour
Since stress can be:
• self-generated, try to do things at a slower pace;
• created by disorganization, be organized and set priorities;
• if one element is disproportionate with others in a satisfying life (e.g.
work, school, friends, recreation, church, community, hobbies,
interests), try to strike a balance between ‘good stress’ and relaxation;
• if you have set unrealistic and perfectionist goals for yourself, set more
gradual and achievable ones. Recognize and accept your limitations.
Since no one can ever be perfect, this attitude leaves many people
feeling inadequate no matter how well they have performed;
• intensified, positive relationships with others facilitate good health and
morale as their support serves as a buffer against the impact of stressful
events. Talking about problems and revealing tension to your
neighbours can be helpful.

c) Upsetting thoughts
Physical symptoms and a tendency to make poor decisions are increased by
negative thoughts. Therefore, statements can be used to block out, or
counteract, negative thoughts in stressful situations. Furthermore, the
knowledge that you can manage a demanding situation is in itself a major
antidote to stress.
Reading 4.3
ASSERTIVENESS TRAINING

Assertiveness training is used with excessively shy or withdrawn individuals. It

is often used in groups.

The major tenet of assertiveness training is that a person should be free to express
thoughts and feelings without undue anxiety. The technique consists of counter-
conditioning anxiety and reinforcing assertiveness.

A client is taught that everyone has the right, (not obligation), of self-expression.
The client then learns the differences among aggressive, passive and assertive actions.

A client tells the counsellor at the beginning what the objectives are, for example,
to be able to speak out in a job interview. The counsellor then gives the client both
positive and negative feedback about present behaviour.

The next steps involve the modelling of the desired behaviour, and the client's
role-playing of the behaviour observed. The counsellor then reinforces the behaviour
and helps to shape the client's actions. Finally, the client is given assignments to be
completed between sessions. It is important that assertive behaviour should be shaped
gradually in order to keep the client reassured.

Reading 4.4
DECISION-MAKING, POWER RELATIONS AND
PROBLEM-SOLVING

You make decisions almost all your life. A decision may concern you or other
people.

Kinds of decision

There are six main kinds of decision. These are:

1. Daily Decisions
These are necessary, but not important decisions, that you make in the course of
daily living.

2. Habitual decisions
These are made repeatedly with little or no thought.

3. Social decisions
These are important decisions based on your values.
4. Policy decisions
These are major decisions which can have a long-range effect on your future plans
or life-style.

5. Economic decisions
These demand that you choose among two, three, or more courses of action.

6. Technical decisions
These demand the collection of information so that you can determine the best way
to accomplish a task.

If you want to make suitable decisions, you must identify your values. The
following words describe values which people often have. Use the list to help you
find your three most important values.

What are Your Values?

Ambition Helping others
Appearance Honesty
Approval Independence
Being alone Kindness
Being careful Love
Being like others Meeting new people
Being on time Money
Being proud of myself Neatness
Being with others Not quitting
Change Obedience
Creativity Patriotism
Dependability Power
Developing skills Prestige
Education Religion
Fame Security
Family Spending money wisely
Friendship Thoughtfulness
Fun Travel
Happiness Working hard
Health

The Process-Approach into Decision-Making, Empowerment

and Problem-Solving

The process-approach consists of making a decision and managing it.

a. Making a decision
In making a decision, there are four steps you have to consider, namely:
Step 1: Define the decision
Step 2: Review your values and resources
 Step 3: Identify all possible choices of action
Step 4: Select the action most likely to work BEST

b. Managing the decision

Step 5: Carry out a plan of action
Step 6: Evaluate the results.

In decision-making, you make a decision because you wish to do something.

However, in problem-solving situations, you feel forced to make a decision

because of circumstances beyond your control. In a problem-solving situation,
you may do nothing.

Reading 4.5
GOAL-SETTING SKILLS

Setting a Goal

A goal can be set depending on whether you are a behavioural counsellor or an

insightist.

a. Behavioural Counsellor
A behavioural counsellor determines the goals from what the client requests
initially, because he/she believes that the request and his/her professional training
empower him/her to assume command of counselling, and to apply his/her
expertise at his/her discretion. He/she also believes that all problems stem from
inadequate learning, and that the unlearning of problems can best be achieved by
de-conditioning or re-conditioning. Thus, if a client exhibits unsuitable behaviour,
the goal is to change that behaviour.

Therefore, when a student presents several concerns that motivated him/her to see
you (the behavioural counsellor), you should ask him/her to rank the problems
according to their relative importance, or pick out one with which to begin. Once
the goal has been selected, you need to assist the client to determine if the goal is:
i. ethical: to identify the behaviour goal by name.
ii. attainable: describe the conditions under which the behaviour will be expected
to occur.
iii. measurable: to specify what is acceptable performance.

If the answers to all three criteria are affirmative, you have to start working on
ways for the student to reach the goal. Once the goal is attained, both of you will
evaluate the relative success of counselling.
b. Insightist
On the other hand, the counsellor who advocates insight counselling (insightist)
believes that problems should be dealt with by helping the client to achieve self-
understanding. He/she believes that the client is primarily responsible for his/her
progress and direction, and that the goals of counselling should evolve
subsequently.

Whether you are a behavioural counsellor or an insightist, you need to assist

students to set goals. They have to be helped to gain such skills as:

i. Personal-Social skills
Achieve self-awareness, self-confidence, positive self-image, independence,
socially responsible behaviour, problem-solving skills, and communication
with others.

ii. Occupational skills

Seek, secure, and maintain employment; know and explore occupational
possibilities; select and plan occupational choice; exhibit appropriate work
habits.

iii. Educational skills

How to study more effectively; how to pass examinations; how to be motivated
to learn; how to concentrate more effectively when learning; how to set a
realistic goal.

Note: If you are a behavioural counsellor, you must develop self-imposed safeguards against
accepting a request from a student you are uninterested in, or unqualified to deal with.
You should also politely refuse a request if it goes against your own professional code
of ethics.

Reading 4.6
CASES: RAPE AND DEFILEMENT

Case # 4.1.
Eighteen year-old Nandi was taking a short-cut through a wooded field on her
way home from netball practice. It was getting late and she needed to be home in
time to prepare supper. Thinking of things that had happened at school, she did not
notice a man following her. When she did and started to run, he easily caught up
with her. At knife point, the man threatened and raped Nandi. He then disappeared
into the woods.

Using this case study the following matters could be discussed:

1. Which measures could Nandi have taken to prevent such an occurrence?
2. What should she do now?
3. What reactions could her family expect and how could they support Nandi?
Case # 4.2.
Maidei was 15 years old when she went to live with her mother and step-
father, Mr Dhaison in Kariba. Her step-father raped her when her mother had gone
to sell second-hand clothes at the mines at the end of the month. Dhaison had
summoned the young girl to his bedroom late at night to bring him some water to
drink. He then unashamedly raped and threatened her not to utter a word about the
incident to anybody, including her mother.

Maidei had no option but to reveal what had happened to her mother because
she experienced pains the following day. Unfortunately, her mother was no help.
She even warned her not to talk to anybody about what had happened, for fear of
being divorced and losing the sole bread-winner of the family.

The issue only came to light when Maidei confided in her aunt who, in turn,
reported the case to the police. Dhaison was eventually convicted and sentenced to
7 years imprisonment of which 2 were suspended.
1. Discuss how children who silently suffer such abuse can be identified and
assisted.
2. How can women like Maidei’s mother be assisted in criminal cases which affect
their loved ones?
3. Do you think the arrest and imprisonment of Dhaison was enough to correct his
behaviour? Discuss how best he could be assisted.

Case # 4.3.
Mrs Musoke noticed her 10 year old daughter Marcia had become quiet, depressed and
had refused to eat. When the mother failed to get her daughter to say what was the matter,
she took her to a church counsellor. At first, the counsellor also failed as the girl maintained
her silence. After a long struggle to establish the cause of this behaviour, the counsellor
decided to give Marcia a pen and paper to write on. Then Marcia wrote, ‘Daddy has been
defiling me.’
Later Marcia started to have a vaginal discharge. After a medical examination, the
doctor had to carry out an operation to remove Marcia’s uterus because she had a terrible
infection.
1. Give examples of girls being molested by their fathers in your community.
2. What are the effects of rape and defilement on the victim and the family?
3. How are rape cases handled by the police and the magistrates in your country?
4. How can you help young people deal with cases of defilement, especially by parents?
5. With the assistance of a legal officer, prepare a booklet which will guide girls on how to
handle a problem of rape from the day of the rape to the court scene.
 Case # 4.4.
Ms. Muchomo, the guidance counsellor in a senior secondary school in a small remote village
became aware that a fellow teacher was sexually involved with a girl in the school. As a
guidance counsellor, she felt she needed to deal with the situation, either by talking to the
teacher, or the girl, about the issue.
Unfortunately, she could not come up with substantial evidence to back up the allegations. If
she talked to the teacher, he might deny it and then accuse her of false accusations. If she
decided to talk to the girl, she might tell the teacher, and this might create friction between her
and the teacher involved. Or, she might even be accused by the girl of being jealous.
The dilemma she was now in was that if the relationship continued, there might be a riot in
the school by other students, especially boys, as there was already a rumour that they wanted
to go on strike. Worse still, the girl might become pregnant and drop out of school, or worst
of all, the teacher might lose the respect of the students.
1. How can you best handle such a case?
2. How would you handle it if the person involved were the head of the school or
institution?
3. Supposing a member of the administration was sexually harassing girls in your
school or institution, what activities would you organize to help students, especially
girls, to deal with it?

Reading 4.7
HUMAN RIGHTS AND SELF-DETERMINATION
Article 1.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2.
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

Article 3.
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

Article 4.
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude. Slavery and the slave trade shall be
prohibited in all their forms.

Article 5.
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.

Article 6.
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7.
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in
violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

Article 8.
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for
acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

Article 9.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

Article 10.
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and
impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal
charge against him.

Article 11.
1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent
until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the
guarantees necessary for his defence.
2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or
omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international
law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed
than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.

Article 12.
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right
to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

Article 13.
1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the
borders of each state.
2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return
to his country.

Article 14.
1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in any other country asylum from
persecution.
2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising
from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the
United Nations.

Article 15.
1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.
2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to
change his nationality.
Article 16.
1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or
religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal
rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending
spouses.
3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the state.

Article 17.
1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Article 18.
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right
includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in
teaching, practice, worship and observance.

Article 19.
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression. This right includes
freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

Article 20.
1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Article 21.
1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or
through freely chosen representatives.
2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of the government. This
will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by
universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free
voting procedures.
Article 22.
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to
realization (through national effort and international co-operation, and in accordance
with the organization and resources of each state) of the economic, social and cultural
rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.

Article 23.
1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and
favourable conditions of work, and to protection against unemployment.
2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for
himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented if
necessary, by other means of social protection.
4) Everyone has the right to form and join trade unions for the protection of his
interests.

Article 24.
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working
hours and periodic holidays with pay.

Article 25.
1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and
well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and
medical care and necessary social services. Everyone also has the right to security
in the event of unemployment, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances
beyond his control.
2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All
children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.

Article 26.
1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.
Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher
education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality
and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It
shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or
religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the
maintenance of peace.
3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given
to their children.
Article 27.
1) Everyone has the right to freely participate in the cultural life of the
community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancements and its
benefits.
2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests
resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the
author.

Article 28.
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms
set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.

Article 29.
1) Everyone has duties to the community in which the free and full development
of his personality is possible.
2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to
such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due
recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just
requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic
society.
3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the
purposes and principles of the United Nations.

Article 30.
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any state, group or
person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any acts aimed at the
destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
Evaluation

1. Discuss some of the things guidance counsellors should do to assist girls who:
a) are pregnant and due to leave school;
b) drop out of school due to pregnancy;
c) drop out of school for other reasons.

2. What are some of the activities that guidance counsellors can organize to help
empower girls, so that they can deal with some of the problems and situations
created by patriarchal gender relations?

3. Examine some of the power structures and relations that exist in your societies
and indicate how they create gender imbalances or inequities.

References

Coon, D. Essentials of Psychology. New York, West Publishing Company. 1988.

Coy, D. R., Cole, C. G., Huey, W. C., & Sears, S. J. Toward the Transformation of
Secondary School Counselling, ERIC Counselling and Personnel
Clearing House, University of Michigan. 1991.
Freud, A. Adolescence: The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. 1958.

Gist, N. P., & Fava, S. F. Urban Society. New York: Crowell. 1961.
Horney, K., Neurosis and Human Growth, Auxiliary Council to the Association for the
Advancement of Psychoanalysis. New York: Norton.
Jersild, A.T., Brook, J.S. & Brook, D.W. The Psychology of Adolescence. Macmillan
Publishing Company. 1978.
Kauffman, J. M. Characteristics of Behaviour Disorders of Children and Youth,
London: Merill Publishing Company. 1989.
Parker, S. The Future of Work and Leisure. London: MacGibbon & Lee. 1971.
Weinrach, S.G. Career Counselling, New York: MacGraw-Hill Book Company. 1979.

For the Videos:

Prudence Vriri, Capricorn Video Unit, Box CY 366 Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe
Tel. (263-4) 757-637
Fax. (263-4) 756-255
E-mail: Sacod@mango.zw

(Video library: gender/politics, wild life, rural life, AIDS, environment)

 UNIT 5
Use of Tests in Guidance

RATIONALE
Guidance involves the appraisal of an individual in order to understand his/her
characteristics, aspirations and general abilities. To work as a guidance counsellor and
be able to interpret information accurately, he/she must have a knowledge of
psychological tests, their uses and interpretation. It is not necessary to be a celebrated
statistician, but one should be able to select the right type of test to use for a particular
purpose. It is this basic knowledge that will help the test user not to misuse tests and
information.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
• define a test;
• list the general functions of tests and explain why tests are used in guidance;
• differentiate between various types of tests;
• explain why appraisal is important in guidance, and know the basic steps in the
appraisal process;
• develop a testing programme for a school.

CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Nature of Psychological Tests
Topic 2. General Uses of Psychological Tests
Topic 3. Use of Psychological Tests in Guidance
Topic 4. Psychological Testing and Appraisal of Individuals
Topic 5. A School Testing Programme
Topic 6. Types of Tests That Can be Used in a Testing Programme
Topic 7. Interpretation of Test Scores
Topic 8. Limitations of Psychological Testing
Topic 1.
NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
What is a test? It is a set of tasks or questions intended to elicit particular types of
behaviour when presented under standardized conditions. It is expected to yield scores
that have desirable psychometric properties. This means that testing is the act of asking
an individual a particular set of questions in order to obtain a score. The score thus
obtained is the end-product of testing, and yields information needed when making a
decision.

A commonly used definition of a test by Cronbach (1970), is that it is a systematic

procedure for observing and describing one or more characteristics of a person, with the
aid of either a numerical scale or a category system. Using Cronbach’s definition, it is
clear that certain tests may yield measurements and a behaviour can be described
quantitatively. Other procedures may simply categorize a person’s behaviour as ‘ego-
centred’ or ‘drive-centred’.

Testing is different from assessment in that assessment involves comprehending,

organizing, communicating and creating impressions. In other words, it helps in the
perception of a person in impression formation or in attribution. In this way, using
scores from a test, a counsellor can form an image or model of the client with whom
he/she deals. The image thus formed is a set of hypotheses about a particular person,
and his/her potential.

A psychological test is essentially an objective and standardized measure of

behaviour. The nature of psychological tests has been described by Anastasi (1976) as
follows:

1. Psychological tests are made, as in any other science in so far as observations

are concerned, on a small but carefully chosen sample of an individual’s
behaviour.

2. A diagnostic or predictive value of a psychological test depends on the degree

to which it serves as an indicator of a relatively broad and significant area of
behaviour. The psychological test can provide quantitative data concerning
how well a student will be able to do at a later time, or in other situations. In
other words, an individual’s future performance, for example in a job, can be
forecast or predicted from his/her present test performance.

3. A psychological test measures the individual’s capacity or potential for

learning. For instance, a psychological test can be devised to predict how
well an individual can learn addition in arithmetic before he/she has even
begun the study of the subject.

4. A psychological test is a standardized measure, and this refers to uniformity

of procedures in administering and scoring of the test. Uniformity of
procedures exists with regard to time limits, instructions, and detailed
directions for administering each test. Standardization also implies that
norms (an established normal or average performance on the test) are
available.
 5. A psychological test is an objective sample of some aspects of behaviour.
The term objective refers to the requirement that its administration, scoring,
and interpretation are independent of the individual examiner’s subjective
judgment. Tests are also objective in the sense that their reliability, validity
and level of difficulty are usually experimentally and empirically determined
before they are used.

6. It has already been pointed out that a psychological test must be valid and
reliable. The term validity refers to the degree to which a test actually serves
the purposes for which it is intended, and reliability refers to the consistency
with which a test yields similar scores from the same group of individuals in
two or more tests.

Topic2.
GENERAL USES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
The following are some of the general uses of psychological tests given by
Cronbach (1970), Anastasi (1970), Shertzer and Stone (1966), and Nitko (1983):

1. Prediction
A test is given to obtain a measure of ability, achievement and/or other
characteristics that provide a solid basis on which predictions can be made as to
what individuals will do at a later time. Prediction, based on quantitative data, is
more likely to be reliable and accurate, and provide a balance against wishful
thinking, than prediction based on clinical observation or subjective judgement.

2. Selection
Tests are used by institutions and organizations for hiring some individuals and
rejecting others. The decision to hire an applicant is a selective decision. When
tests are used for selection, it is imperative to show that the scores on these tests
bear a relationship to success in the programme or job (the predictive function),
for which the institution or organization has selected persons. If investigation does
not show that the tests can distinguish between those likely to succeed, and those
unlikely to do so, then such tests should be improved or eliminated.

In the selection process, some people who are selected may not be successful in
the programme, and some who were rejected would have been successful if
selected. There is some degree of error, but this error must be minimized by using
tests that are reliable and valid.

3. Classification
Classification is an arrangement according to a systematic division into categories
or groups. Classification involves deciding which treatment to use or to which
group a person should be assigned. For example, after administering an
intelligence test, individuals can be categorized as geniuses or gifted, or retarded.
4. Counselling and Guidance
Tests are frequently used to assist students in exploring and choosing careers, and
directing them to prepare for the careers they select. A single test is not used for
making guidance and counselling decisions. Frequently, a series of tests is
administered, including an interest inventory, various aptitude tests, personality
questionnaire, and achievement tests.

This information, along with additional background information, is discussed with

the student during a series of counselling sessions. This facilitates a student’s
decision-making as he/she considers different careers.

Exploring career options is likely to be an on-going and changing series of

decisions occurring, perhaps, over long periods in a person’s life.

5. Evaluation
Tests are used to assess and evaluate programmes, methods, treatments, etc. For
example, a guidance counsellor can use a questionnaire to evaluate an on-going
guidance programme in a secondary school.

Evaluation can be either formative or summative. Formative evaluation is made

when a programme has just been introduced or when it is in its formative stage.

The purpose of formative evaluation is to try to identify a programme’s strengths

and weaknesses, so that corrective measures can be taken to improve, adjust or
review the objectives if weaknesses become apparent in the programme.

Summative evaluation, on the other hand, is made at the conclusion of the

programme. The purpose of summative evaluation is to find out whether the
programme is going to work or not, whether the objectives have been achieved or
not, and whether it should continue or not. Summative evaluation assists
programme designers to decide whether to implement or abandon a programme.

6. Placement
Tests can be used to place individuals in different groups for instructional
purposes or for particular tasks. For example, in a school students may be placed
in different mathematics classes, on the basis of their scores in mathematical
aptitude tests, and industry tests can be used to place individuals in jobs requiring
different skills.

Unlike selection decisions, where acceptance and rejection are possible, in a

placement decision no one is neglected, or is no longer the concern of the
institution or organization. In placement, every individual remains the concern of
the institution or organization. Persons are assigned to different levels of the same
general type of instruction, or work, and no one is rejected. All remain within the
institution for a certain level of treatment.
Topic 3.
USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS IN GUIDANCE
Tests are normally used in guidance to collect information about individuals, and
use that information to appraise the individual. The guidance counsellor will use test
and non-test data appraisal. A guidance counsellor should, therefore, have a good
understanding of the general field of measurement.

Before we proceed to discuss in detail how tests are used in guidance, it is

necessary for us to appreciate the need for testing. Essentially, the need for testing in
guidance is two-fold.

01. Firstly, testing is supposed to be a more systematic, objective, precise and valid
set of evaluations than is provided by the experience of an individual. Given test
data, we can verify, reject or modify, previously held convictions about an
individual.

2. Secondly, testing provides new information about the quality of an individual’s

future performance in new situations, or information that is difficult for the
individual to extract from prior experience. The overriding assumption in using
psychological tests in guidance is that options appear for the individual, and the
student must make his/her own decisions and live with them. It is hoped that
testing may afford useful information that he/she does not already have, and
which can be used in his/her decision-making.

Appraisal Using Test Score Information

Appraisal is crucial to the use of test score information in guidance. The guidance
counsellor uses test score information to appraise his/her clients as follows:

1. Guidance counsellors use tests and other data to determine each student’s abilities,
aptitudes, interests and other personal characteristics, in order to help the student
gain self-understanding. Tests can also help each student increase the accuracy of
self-estimates of achievement, intelligence and interests. Tests and other appraisal
data can help the guidance counsellor to understand the student better. Such data
can help the student to plan and make realistic decisions, because the individual
understands his/her personal characteristics well.

If guidance is conceived as a developmental process, then providing a student with

the results of ability, achievement, interest and personality tests, followed by a
discussion of these results with a counsellor, will ensure that the student is aware of
his/her present standing and progress in these areas, and that he/she will be capable
of putting himself/herself in a dynamic framework. He/she will be encouraged to
think of life as involving making many decisions, some of which can be approached
in a rational manner by weighing up alternatives based on accurate self-knowledge.

2. A guidance counsellor uses appraisal data (test or non-test) to assist students in

educational and vocational planning. Tests and other data can help the counsellor
to understand a student’s strengths and limitations with regard to personal
 characteristics. By using tests and interpretative devices like expectancy tables
and ‘regression equations’, the student is helped to see the relationship between
present levels of performance and educational decision, and his/her future chances
of educational and occupational success.

3. Guidance counsellors use appraisal data to diagnose students’ problems. Such

problems as reading disability, study skills deficiencies, and difficulties in relating
to other people, may be identified more precisely, and solutions determined, with
the use of test data.

4. Lastly, tests are used to evaluate the outcomes of a guidance programme. It is

important that any guidance programme be evaluated to find out whether the
programme is achieving its objectives or not.

Student appraisal is frequently conceived in a very limited sense, as telling what

someone is like from test scores. According to Shertzer and Linden (1979), appraisal is
better seen as arriving at a systematic understanding of an individual’s characteristics,
within the context of his/her life pattern. Appraisal involves the ability to interpret
information accurately. It is not merely the practice of measuring the presence or extent
of human attributes or characteristics. It also calls for judgment of their strengths,
desirability or unity.

The student appraisal services, as a part of guidance, are designed to gather and
collate data about each student, for the purpose of helping him/her carry out his/her
plans, and improve in areas where he/she is deficient, and to identify rapidly any
difficulties which may interfere with the student’s growth. This collection of data
should never be intended to be used against the student, but rather for his benefit.

A good appraisal service should be integrated, continuous and useful. An

integrated appraisal means that it includes a variety of both test and non-test
information, for example, the results of aptitude, intelligence tests and achievement
tests, autobiographical information, questionnaires, interest inventories and
occupational tests. The integrated information will enable the guidance counsellor to
have a wider and more accurate picture of the student.

For appraisal to be meaningful, it must be continuous from year to year, recording

the student’s progress in school, the changes observed by the teacher, his/her attitudes,
interests, etc. The data collected should be translated into some practical application -
the useful aspect of appraisal. Data collected should be put to work for the benefit of
the student. They should not be allowed to collect dust in the counsellor’s office. A
good appraisal programme is always student-oriented.

When putting the collected information to use, the counsellor must guard
him/herself against indiscriminate release of the information to outside agencies, or
others who have no interest in the student’s welfare. The privacy of the appraisal
information should be maintained. However, the counsellor can release information
which is of an unrestricted nature, such as name, sex, age, race and school attended.
Confidential information such as the psychological report, psychiatric evaluation or
anything that is personal, should not be released to unauthorized persons. The
counsellor must therefore have a clear understanding of what information he/she is
entitled to release, and which information is prohibited or discretionary.

Guidelines on the Use of Information Gathered

Assuming that the guidance counsellor has safeguarded the privacy of

information, how can he/she put it to a constructive use? How does he/she make it
useful? The following are some guidelines:

1. The guidance counsellor must evaluate the information as a whole, and never rely
on a single piece of information. Any piece of information must be assessed in
terms of all the information available.

2. The guidance counsellor must use his/her interpretative skills in evaluating

information instead of accepting it at face value. The counsellor may apply
his/her psychological skills and insight in evaluating subjective information and
statistical skills when evaluating objective test results.

3. In sharing information with other members of the counselling team or school

staff, the counsellor assumes full responsibility for the use made of information.
In other words, the counsellor is the guardian of information on the student.

4. The counsellor should attempt, in his/her interaction with student (clients), to

integrate the information he has into the interview.

Despite the sentiments expressed by many that testing is just another instance of
depersonalization, testing is an integral part of the counsellor’s specialized appraisal
skills. Although testing and evaluation are at times abused, they serve as an integral
part of the counsellor’s resources. Testing helps the counsellor to identify those
students or clients who are most in need of help, remedial, or other forms of guidance.
Through testing, the counsellor is able to obtain information about his/her client that is
inaccessible through a face-to-face interview, or consultation with teachers, parents and
other interested parties.

Activity 5.1: Psychological Tests

1. Administer aptitude, interest, personality and achievement tests to a student and
prepare a profile for that student. Discuss the results with the student.

2. Design an adjective checklist to measure your student’s personality.

Topic 4.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND
THE APPRAISAL OF INDIVIDUALS
In order to understand and appreciate an individual’s characteristics, aspirations and
his/her general abilities, the guidance counsellor might have to use appraisal data
collected through testing or other techniques.

Testing as a form of appraisal is an important component of an effective guidance

programme, because it provides the counsellor or clients with information that will help
the clients/students understand themselves, so that they make meaningful decisions. It
also helps the counsellor understand better the clients/students, so that effective
assistance can be given.

There are certain principles that have to be taken into account when appraisal is done.
Shertzer and Stone (1971), listed eight (8) principles of appraisal. They stated that
appraisal:
1. should be undertaken for the ultimate benefit of the individual;
2. is not required in the same amount, or to the same degree, or necessary for all
students at the same time;
3. does not require the use of a single test appraisal method or procedure for use
in every situation;
4. practices involve the study of both individuals and their environments;
5. should be concurrent and not discrete sequential operations involving
appraisal and provision of help to the individual;
6. recognizes the limitations of appraisal measures, such as that it reveals
something about a client at a particular time in history, and that no appraisal
data would be adequate evidence to judge a person;
7. aims at increasing self-understanding and wise decision-making; and
8. data must be properly safeguarded, i.e., it should be kept confidential and
should not be disclosed to individuals who are not entitled to such
information. No agency or person other than school personnel, who deal
directly with the child concerned, should have access to the students’ data
without parental or student permission (except in the case of a subpoena).
Topic 5.
A SCHOOL TESTING PROGRAMME

As part of the general application of tests in guidance, the guidance counsellor

must organize a testing programme in the school. A testing programme should be well
organized and must be related to use, integration and continuity. Relation to use means
that tests used should be applicable or relevant to a problem. Integration refers to the
extent to which there is a logical and clear-cut relationship between the different test
instruments used, and between the tests administered from grade to grade.

Lastly, a testing programme must continue over many years. This helps to follow
the growth of an individual student from year to year. It also helps the counsellor to
know his/her test instruments better.

Functions of a Testing Programme

If testing is to be introduced, it is essential that all teaching staff have a say in how
it is to be introduced and what it should contain. Testing must be integrated into the
school system as a whole. It can only work if it is seen to help achieve general school
objectives. If organized in this way, a testing programme can serve the following
functions:
1. it can improve the quality and nature of the teaching-learning process by providing
feedback to teachers on the effectiveness of their techniques;
2. it can make educational and vocational guidance more effective;
3. it can act as a stimulus for a definition of educational objectives in the school; and
4. it can help students to understand themselves, their needs, interests, abilities,
limitations, prejudices and potential for development.

Steps in a Testing Programme

A typical testing programme in a school would take the following steps:
1. Assess the needs for a test, determine what is to be measured, how much time is
available and evaluate resources.
a) The basic needs must first be established. Will they benefit the students?
b) Specific qualities that are to be measured must be established.
c) How much school time will be used and how much will it cost?

2. After satisfying oneself with needs, the next step is to select the test instrument to
be used to meet them.

3. Administration and scoring of the test.

4. Prepare test data sheet and an accompanying interpretative guide. This involves
the preparation of test profiles and the preparation of an interpretative guide - how
the results should be interpreted.
5. Make test results available to appropriate parties or persons and interpret the
implications of specific test data.

6. Follow-up: this is a question of continuity. A testing programme without a

follow-up is of little value.

Setting Up a Testing Programme in a School

An alternative way of organizing and developing a testing programme in a school is to
involve as many members of the teaching staff as possible. Since it would be difficult
to involve everybody, the following steps are suggested (Hayes and Hopson, 1971).

1. Election of a representative committee to sound out opinion and to define the aims
of the programme. Electing a committee that is representative of the different
teaching and non-teaching interests, is the most effective way of securing total
staff participation and support for the testing programme.

2. The school committee should undertake research and obtain from the staff a list of
decisions which it feels the staff and students have to make.

3. These decisions should then be discussed at staff meetings.

4. The committee should also present a report on the kinds of tests available, who
should administer them, and when, and how the tests might help teachers and
students make some of the decisions they must make. It would be impossible to
prepare such a report unless at least one of the committee members has a good
background in psychology, especially in the study of individual differences,
developmental psychology and psychological testing. If this is not the case, the
committee should attempt to employ a consultant.

5. Conduct in-service training in the use and interpretation of test scores.

6. Prepare a manual of instructions and information to accompany the programme,

and send a copy to each member of the staff and others.

The manual would contain such information as the purpose of the testing
programme, the purposes of the tests, and some of the ways in which the results
might be used, how to administer tests, mark and interpret the results, the range of
scores, the mean and standard errors of measurement, date of the standardization
sample, data on its reliability, and any details of validity studies carried out using
the test. It must also contain information about which tests are appropriate for
which age ranges, and provide written examples of test profiles and how they can
be interpreted.
 Activity 5.2: Setting Up a School Testing Programme
You are a guidance counsellor at a secondary school. Your school head has
requested you to set up a testing programme at the school in order to facilitate
objective guidance and counselling.

1. Describe how you would go about setting up such a programme.

Topic 6.
TYPES OF TESTS THAT CAN BE USED IN A TESTING
PROGRAMME
Any school testing programme will probably consist of two types of test: those
taken by all the students in the school at one time or another, and those used only when
considered to be necessary when helping a certain student.

Care should be taken when stating categorically of what a testing programme

should consist. However, a suggestion can be made as to what an ideal programme
would be.

A minimum general testing programme should consist of:

1. measures of achievement in specific subjects;
2. a general ability test;
3. a measure of personal and social adjustment; and
4. a measure of interest.

Achievement tests measure the knowledge, abilities and skills that result from
instruction in school. They generally represent a terminal evaluation of the individual’s
status on the completion of training, e.g., O-level examinations.

General ability tests measure the general intellectual development and aptitude, or
potential, of an individual. Such tests are useful as diagnostic tools, e.g., intelligence
and aptitude tests.

Personality tests measure such characteristics as emotional adjustment,

interpersonal relations, motivation and attitudes, e.g., Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI).

Interest inventories measure what an individual likes or dislikes. In guidance,

information about an individual’s interests with regard to vocation or career is very
important. Such information may assist the counsellor in guiding an individual along
the line of his/her interest, e.g., Kuder General Interest Survey.

Tests in themselves are far from being perfect measuring instruments. A test can
often fail in its function as an efficient sampler of an area of behaviour, because of
factors outside its control, such as the attitudes and motivation of the test-taker, or the
conditions under which the test is given. Most tests are, however, well designed and
constructed, and when used wisely for the purposes intended, are instruments which can
help substantially reduce the guess-work in understanding, and predicting human
behaviour and performance.

Activity 5.3: Gender Bias in Tests

1. A number of tests that may be available to you may be culturally or gender-
biased. Discuss some of the possible ways that could be used to eliminate or
guard against the influences of gender or social stereotyping in the test scores.

Topic 7.
THE INTERPRETATION OF TEST SCORES
For a guidance counsellor to understand the meaning of test results, he/she should
be familiar with testing methodology. He/she need not be a statistician, but should be
familiar with the concepts of central tendency, standard deviation, reliability, validity,
norms, etc. Here we shall concentrate on the general rules for interpreting test results to
clients/ students.

1. First, give simple statistical predictions to the student based on test data. For
example: ‘60 out of 100 girls of your age with a score like yours normally succeed
at a university, if selected’. OR ‘Your score shows that you find it easier to learn
mathematics than about 85 per cent of the other pupils in your class, and only 15
per cent of your group learn mathematics more easily than you do’.

2. Allow the student to evaluate the prediction as it applies to him/herself. During a

face-to-face interview or discussion, the student must be given an opportunity to
react to the facts. Only by encouraging the student to comment can the counsellor
gauge if the student has fully understood the implications, and how he/she feels
emotionally towards the news.

3. When making an interpretation of test data, the guidance counsellor must try to
remain neutral.

4. Facilitate the student’s self-evaluation and subsequent decisions. This is when the
counsellor attempts to reflect the feelings and attitudes of his/her client.

5. Avoid persuasive methods. If a student, for one reason or another, rejects the
data, the counsellor must point out the likelihood of the predictions being
accurate.

6. Obtain the student’s real expectations before testing. In this way, the counsellor
will often be able to know in advance if the student will be pleasantly surprised or
unpleasantly shocked. A student should not be presented brusquely with an
unexpectedly low intelligence score or unfavourable personality profiles.

For this type of test interpretation, a one-to-one relationship is essential. This is

not to say that tests could not sometimes be administered to a group, especially if it is a
class exercise leading to group discussion in a guidance programme. Research results
suggest that there are considerable dangers in interpreting ability and achievement tests
when students are in a large group. Interest questionnaires are perhaps more appropriate
for group testing and group interpretation.

Topic 8.
THE LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
1. Studies in psychological testing show that psychological tests are not void of
bias and inequities. Tests have been viewed as unfair and inadequate measures.
They sometimes reflect a racial, class, and cultural bias.
A test can show bias towards a particular group of individuals such as males,
females, or towards a particular ethnic group. Hence we have what is known as sex
bias and cultural bias. A test with sex bias means that the test contains items that
favour one sex more than another. For example, a test may contain items that
favour males, and as a result females would perform badly in the test, and convey
the wrong information that males are better than females in a particular subject or
course. A test that is culturally biased contains items that may favour one particular
ethnic group over another. For example, many of the tests developed in western
countries are culturally biased towards western culture. Using such tests on African
children may lead to wrong and invalid information, which may result in wrong
conclusions.

2. Tests, it has been argued by some writers, tend to reflect the language, culture
and learning style of a particular group in society, i.e. middle or upper class or a
dominant ethnic group. Their scores are basically a measure of race and
economic status. It is, therefore, important to select a test that is not ethnically,
racially or sexually biased. Since most tests are written and published in the
English language, most non-native English speakers might be unable to
understand fully the instructions and meanings of certain test items.

3. Tests reflect cultural or other perspectives not shared by all those who take the
tests. Performance in a test would, therefore, depend on the degree of exposure in
the field being tested. There are also differences in interpretation. This reflects
the diversity of cultural experiences.

4. Due to a lack of fairness in testing and assessment methods, some students are
sometimes misplaced, mislabelled, and harmed.

5. Tests measure a limited number of variables pertaining to achievement in

class.

6. Testing is an invasion of privacy.

7. Test data are frequently misinterpreted and misused.

8. Testing encourages a mechanistic, decision-making approach.

Summary

A test is a systematic procedure for observing and describing one or more

characteristics of a person, with the aid of either a numerical scale or a category system.
Tests can be used to make a number of decisions regarding selection, placement,
classification, and guidance and counselling. In guidance, tests can be used to help the
guidance counsellor: (a) know better the strengths, weaknesses and needs of
individuals; (b) measure individual differences which are at the centre of guidance and
counselling services; (c) show the individual his/her strengths and weaknesses, thus
making him/her better able to understand and help him/ herself; and (d) provide
interested and responsible adults with a wide range of information about the young
persons they are trying to help. Central to this is the appraisal of individual students.

A school-wide testing programme involving a number of the teaching staff is

necessary if teachers are to participate in it. In this way, they will understand and
appreciate the needs for guidance services in a school. A variety of tests can be used in
such a programme, such as achievement tests, aptitude and personality tests. Using a
combination of these tests provides better profiles of individuals. But the use and
interpretation of the tests require that the counsellor be conversant with the general
principles of psychological testing.

Evaluation

1. Many students in secondary schools face the problem of choosing the right career
for themselves. Suggest how you, as a guidance counsellor, would assist students
so that they make the right career choice.

2. Why should psychological tests be used in guidance?

3. List the different types of tests that can be used in guidance. What are their
differences and similarities?
References

Aiken, L. R. Psychological Testing and Assessment (4th ed.). London: Allyn and
Bacon, Inc. 1982.

Anastasi, A. Psychological Testing (3rd ed.). London: The MacMillan Co. 1968.

Hayes, J. & Hopson, B. Career Guidance: The Role of the School in Vocational
Development. London: Heinemann Educational Books, Ltd. 1971.

Nitko, A. J. Educational Tests and Measurement: An Introduction. New York: Harcourt

Brace and Javanovich, Inc. 1983.

Shertzer, E. F. & Stone, S. C. Fundamentals of Guidance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin

Co. 1966
 UNIT 6
Enterprise Education

RATIONALE

The unemployment of school-leavers, university graduates and even retired

personnel, is a threat to individuals and to society. There is a need to address the
situation in the formal and informal sector of the economy. Both governments and
individuals need to work together and create employment opportunities.

Unemployment has adverse repercussions on the development of any society. It

is for this reason that enterprise education attempts to provide preventive,
developmental and remedial measures.

To address some of the concerns that young people have regarding their future,
enterprise education should focus on providing them with the necessary skills they need
to establish and sustain businesses, or to become successful entrepreneurs.

Various business ventures are initiated by men and women. It might be worth
while to examine some of these small business ventures, establish the problems they
face, and consider how they can be improved, in order to compete with large
corporations in providing quality service and goods. A number of these small
businesses are owned by women. For example, hawking, vending or selling small
locally manufactured items, are self-employment activities in which women dominate.

It might be useful for guidance counsellors to assist students with information on

how to design business plans, as well as identify some of the financial institutions that
help small businesses. They can also help girls who want to venture into areas
traditionally dominated by men.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• define entrepreneurship;
• list types of unemployment;
• state the importance of self-employment;
• name the role of an entrepreneur;
• state the importance of enterprise education;
• develop a business idea into a business venture.

CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Entrepreneurship
Topic 2. Purpose of Enterprise Education
Topic 3. Unemployment
Topic 4. Self-Employment
Topic 5. Business Plan

Topic 1.
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
The goods and services in an economic society are produced through the
combined use of the factors of production, namely land, labour and capital. Sometimes
a fourth factor of production is distinguished, namely enterprise or organization.

Enterprise refers to the acceptance of the risks of production which arise through
uncertainty. The individual who, through vigorous activity, combines the factors of
production so as to produce an increased output of goods and services, thus increasing
the total wealth or material welfare of the society, is called the ‘entrepreneur’. He/she is
a co-ordinator, a risk-taker and an innovator. He/she is a high-level decision-maker.
He/she contrives new ways which are better than the old and proved ones, or he/she
simply creates new and improved products.
Components of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship has the following components:
1. Changes in activity
2. Labour
3. Capital
4. Output
Entrepreneurship is a special kind of labour or human resource. It re-thinks a
conventional paradigm. It discards traditional ways of doing things.

Roles of an Entrepreneur
An entrepreneur might perform the following thirteen (13) specific kinds of activities
for the successful operation of his/her enterprise:
1. Perceive novel or imitative market opportunities.
2. Gain command over scarce resources.
3. Purchase inputs.
4. Market the product and respond to competition.
5. Deal with public bureaucracy such as concessions, licences and taxes.
6. Manage human relations within the firm.
7. Manage customer and supplier relations.
8. Manage finance.
9. Manage production in the form of written records, supervision, co-ordinating
input flows with orders, and maintenance.
10. Acquire and oversee assembly in the factory.
11. Improve industrial engineering by minimizing inputs with a given production
process.
12. Up-grade processes and the quality of production.
13. Introduce new production techniques and products.

Topic 2.
PURPOSE OF ENTERPRISE EDUCATION
Enterprise education is aimed at orienting individuals towards innovation, making
students capable of foreseeing the future, and the needs which arise from new ways of
thinking. The prime movers of innovation are (a) the entrepreneur who perceives and
exploits new business ventures, and (b) the manager or top administrator of public
establishments.

Enterprise education also helps students to be aware that the key to development
is human resources, and that abilities, values and attitudes must be changed in order to
accelerate development. It enables students to be aware that entrepreneurship is a
significant variable in development. It is a career option.

Enterprise education also instils in students a need to achieve in a larger number

of the population. The students should be able to deduce from their own observations,
that those of the population who take greater advantage of increased opportunities, are
those individuals who have a higher need to achieve.
 Enterprise education assists students to obtain an insight that successful
entrepreneurship depends not only upon an individual’s motivation, but also on his/her
abilities, and an environment which provides incentives and opportunities for
entrepreneurs.

Activity 6.1: Business Organizations

1. Go through Reading 6.1, Types of Business Organizations, on pages 158-161.

Topic 3.
UNEMPLOYMENT
Unemployment occurs when persons capable of, and willing to, work are unable
to find suitable paid employment.

Unemployment is difficult to measure. Nevertheless, it can be measured only in

terms of those in the labour force who have no jobs but are actively seeking
employment.

Unemployment must be voluntary. People on strike are not considered to be

unemployed. Moreover, the definition must exclude those not capable of work, due to
mental or physical disability. Furthermore, those who are discouraged and quit looking
for work are not counted as unemployed.

Effects of Unemployment
The following are some of the effects of unemployment:
• people lose income and create social problems.
• the individual remains dependent on society and, consequently, society loses
its potential output.
• the unemployed can engage in anti-social behaviour which may result in
alcoholism, suicide, hypertension, low income and divorce.

Types of Unemployment
The following are some of the types of unemployment:
1. Voluntary unemployment
This occurs when people register as unemployed in order to qualify for
relief, but do not genuinely seek work. However, there will always remain
those who cannot find work owing to mental or physical incapacity.
2. Seasonal unemployment
Employment in some industries is seasonal in character. In such industries,
the demand for labour varies during the year, causing unemployment at slack
periods. Examples can be found in agriculture and industries with markets
dependent on climate.

3. Frictional employment
This occurs when people are changing jobs due to industries constantly
adapting new techniques and changing consumer demand for products. Thus,
while the demand for labour declines in some industries, it expands in others.

4. Structural unemployment
Ignorance of opportunities elsewhere, or obstacles to moving, mean that
workers do not move to available jobs in other parts of the country. It may
also be caused by changing demands for products. It can also arise from
technological changes, including automation, leading to the substitution of
labour by machinery in certain industries.

5. General unemployment
This occurs when industry in general is forced to work below its full capacity,
with some factory space lying idle and a proportion of workers laid off.

6. International
When a nation is dependent on international trade, it is vulnerable to
unemployment brought about by a fall in the demand for its exports. The fall
may occur if the prices of goods are too high to be competitive in world
markets, or if the incomes of major importing countries are reduced by
recession.

7. Disguised unemployment
Underutilization of employees. For example, casual labourers or people hired
to dig a hole, are paid but only for the task they perform.

Causes of Unemployment
Causes of unemployment include the following:
1. Imbalance between educational output and economic expansion
Unemployment may be caused by the imbalance between the rate of
expansion of the educational system and the growth of the economy. The
educational output generally outstrips what the economy can absorb; hence
there are few jobs available.

2. Irrelevant school curricula

Whenever students follow irrelevant curricula, they do not acquire
employable skills.

3. Job-rationing by educational certification

The jobs are allocated to those with higher levels of educational attainment,
regardless of whether that education is really necessary for satisfactory job
performance. This ensures that the more educated eventually replace the less
 educated, even though higher qualifications may not be needed to perform the
task adequately.

4. Job discrimination
Candidates are given jobs on the basis of gender, race or religion.

Activity 6.2: Job Discrimination

1.Generally, unemployment affects men and women differently. Discuss how job
discrimination has affected men and women in your country. Suggest some of the
possible remedies that governments and organizations could use to address job
discrimination.

The above causes of unemployment give clues to what remedies governments and
organizations could use to redress the situation.

Topic 4.
SELF-EMPLOYMENT

‘Self-employment’ means working for oneself. This means that you do not work for
someone else, but are a boss in your own right who may also employ other people.

Careers That Can Create Self-Employment

In many countries, self-employment is in the field of agriculture. However, self-
employment is not restricted to careers in agriculture. You may be self-employed in the
following areas:
• Careers in agriculture or forestry
• Providing financial services or goods
• Hawking, vending or selling to others
• Making goods for sale.

You can be self-employed by being a bricklayer, painter, tailor, wood-carver,

fisherman/woman, service worker, and even an administrative, managerial, professional
or technical worker. You only need to have the motivation, drive, determination,
energy and persistence, to make your business idea a reality.
Topic 5.
BUSINESS PLAN
If you wish to set up a business, you must have a business plan that will give
details about you, the products or services you intend to sell, and the environment in
which you intend to operate. Your business plan must address the following issues:
1. Your personal details
Indicate your personal details showing who you are, and how your background
helps your business.
2. Type of business
Mention the type of business you intend to engage in. Are other people
already in the business? Or will you engage in a business that nobody
else runs?

3. Competitors
Make a realistic appraisal of the firm’s competitors in the market. What are their
strengths, weaknesses and probable response? How and why will you surpass
them? Will your product be of the best quality?

4. Strategy
Write a plan for how goods or services are to be sold. Quantify and qualify the
market; how large is it, what drives it, why will customers buy, and how is it
organized?

5. Customers
Indicate customer characteristics and needs. Give an estimated number, spendable
income, behaviour motivation, and all the factors that make people buy.

6. Sales
The plan must detail the prices for your commodities. Can your customers afford
the charges? You should also mention how the product will be distributed and sold.
Where will you get supplies for raw materials? How will you transport the
materials?

7. Capital
How will you obtain capital investment funds to establish the business?

8. Advertising and Promotion

Show how the market will learn about the product. How will you advertise and
promote your commodities?

9. Projected Profit and Loss Statement

Calculate your projected profit and loss statement for the first year of your business.
Factors Affecting the Location of An Enterprise

1. Raw materials 6. Composition

2. Transport and parking 7. Municipal or local rates and concessions
3. Climate 8. Market
4. Power and water facilities 9. Housing
5. Workers (availability and wages) 10. Capital outlay

Activity 6.3: Preparing a Business Plan

1. Prepare a business plan for a venture in which nobody else is engaged.

Activity 6.4: Setting up a Business Plan

A video/radio tape is made in which some entrepreneurs are interviewed.

1. Set up a business plan for one of the interviews and make a class presentation.

Activity 6.5: Strategy to Set Up a Business

1. Set up an activity module which you could use to train the learners in:
a) evaluating the market;
b) evaluating yourself and other people in environmental skills;
c) working out a strategy to set up a business (e.g. capital, advertisement, etc.)

Choose one of the categories.

Summary

Enterprise education assists a prospective entrepreneur to maximize land, labour and

capital, to produce goods and services for the development of society. Business
organizations which can be private, co-operative or state-owned, help to alleviate
unemployment. Nevertheless, unemployment is caused by such factors as irrelevant
school curricula, the imbalance between educational output and expansion of the
economy, job-rationing by educational certification, and job discrimination. Types of
unemployment include: seasonal, voluntary, frictional, international and structural. One
solution to unemployment is the creation of self-employment. The initial stage of the
development of a business idea is the preparation of a business plan for the goods and
services you intend to produce.

Key Terms

Capital: Wealth which has been made by people for the production of further
wealth.

Enterprise: The acceptance of the risks of production which arise through

uncertainty.

Firm: A single business unit.

Labour: Human resources.

Unemployment: The state of those people in the labour force who have no jobs and are
actively seeking employment.
Readings

Reading 6.1
TYPES OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATION

1. Private Enterprise
Under private enterprise, firms are owned and controlled by individuals, or groups of
individuals, seeking their own profits. Such firms vary in size and type from small
one-person businesses to giant public companies.

a) One-person business
This is the simplest form of business organization and is owned and managed by
one person, called the sole proprietor.

Advantages:
i. The owner enjoys independence, because he/she is his/her own boss, makes
his/her own decisions, and does not take orders from anyone else. Such a
firm can adapt itself quickly to changing circumstances, because decisions
can be made by the owner on the spot, and nobody else needs to be
consulted.
ii. The owner has a strong incentive to work hard for profits which he/she does
not have to share with others.
iii. It requires relatively little capital.

Disadvantages
i. The small businessman/woman frequently finds it difficult because the
sources of capital are limited.
ii. He/she has nobody with the same interests in the business with whom
he/she can discuss his/her problems.
iii. He/she may rely on his/her own resources to improve or expand the
business.
iv. If the business fails, the owner may be forced to pay his/her debts, not
only by selling the business, but also by giving up his/her own personal
possessions.
v. There may be a lack of continuity on the retirement or death of the owner,
and the one-person firm may cease to function.
Importance of small firms
Small firms are important in that:
• they make a useful contribution to production and employment.
• they provide a training ground for businessmen and women, and managers
who may later move on to larger companies.
• their competition helps to keep larger firms efficient, and some small firms
may eventually become large, efficient firms in the future.
• small firms are sometimes more suitable for trying out new ideas and
techniques.
• they increase the quantity and variety of products available to the consumer.

b) Partnerships
When a person agrees with others to contribute a certain skill or a sum of money
(capital) towards the establishment of a business, he/she is called a ‘partner’. The
responsibility of running the firm, the risks and rewards are then shared jointly.

Partnership is a legally recognized association between 2 to 20 people who join

together to contribute to the capital of a firm and share its profits.

Advantages
i. They are easily formed.
ii. A large amount of capital is available.
iii. Greater specialization in management becomes possible, each partner
making him/herself responsible for one department of the firm.
iv. The introduction of a partner with new ideas may prevent a firm from
getting into a rut and so will increase its efficiency.

Disadvantages
i. Serious disagreement among the partners may lead to the dissolution of the
partnership.
ii. The partners (other than any limited partners) are individually responsible
for the debts of the firm, and may result in the loss of their private
possessions.
iii. It lacks continuity because the death of a partner may bring the business to
an end. Nevertheless, a re-organization of the partnership may demand
contingency measures.
iv. Any general partner can compromise the other partners by his/her actions.
It is essential, therefore, to be certain of a person’s integrity and business
ability before entering into a partnership with him/her.
c) Private companies
These are joint-stock organizations that are jointly owned by a number of
shareholders or stockholders. A private company is limited to a maximum of 50
members and its shares or stocks are not allowed to be sold to the general public.

d) Public companies
A public company can raise capital by public issues of stocks and shares, which
may be quoted on the stock exchange, and there is no ceiling on the number of
holders.

2. Co-operative enterprise
There are two main kinds of co-operative enterprise, namely producers and consumers.

a) Producers’ co-operatives
These consist of groups of workers who jointly run their own businesses through
elected committees or managers.

b) Consumers’ societies
These are owned by their own customers who largely share the profits.

3. Public or State Enterprise

Public enterprise (or state enterprise) occurs when governments embark on business
activities, usually as a consequence of nationalization. It is called ‘public’ because
governments act on behalf of the people or state. The industries or services
concerned are thus publicly owned, or controlled by the government, in the interests
of the public.

a) Public corporations
The management of a public corporation is in the hands of a small board
appointed by the government and, with a limited degree of government control, by
government ministers, parliament and by the consumers themselves.

b) Municipalization
A public enterprise can be run by local authorities as well as by the central
government or its agencies.
 FORMS OF BUSINESS ENTERPRISE

Co-operative
Public Private

Public Producers’ Consumers’

Corporations Co-operatives Societies

One-person Partnerships Joint-stock

Business Company

Public Companies Private Companies

Fig. 6.1. Summary of types of business organizations

Evaluation

1. (a) Identify and examine some of the business enterprises that are dominated by
women, with a view to identifying some of the problems and constraints that
women face in establishing and running these businesses.

(b) How can women be assisted to make a breakthrough in those businesses

where they are least represented?

2. What are some of the sources of finance available to women who run small
businesses in your country?
References

Harvey, J. Modern Economics. London: MacMillan Education, Ltd. 1988.

Livingstone, I. & Ord, H. W. Economics for East Africa. London: Heinemann

Educational Books, Ltd. 1968.

McClelland, D. C. & Winter, D. G. Motivating Economic Achievement. New York:

The Free Press. 1971.

Mier, G. M. Leading Issues in Economic Development. New York: Oxford University

Press. 1976

Schiller, B. R. The Economy Today. New York: Random House. 1986.

 UNIT 7
Administration of
Guidance Services

RATIONALE

Many schools run unplanned guidance services. In many cases, a teacher is

appointed by the head of the school to be in charge of guidance services. Such
arrangements often result in no guidance services at all being provided. The functions
of a guidance counsellor must be clearly stated and the role of members of staff clearly
defined. Materials on occupations are sometimes collected haphazardly and kept by a
guidance counsellor. It is important, therefore, that those involved in guidance services
be familiar with the basic principles when setting up a guidance programme, a
vocational library, and choosing the information materials.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• state the criteria for selecting material for a vocational library;
• organize a vocational library or resource centre; and
• plan a guidance programme for a school.

CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Setting Up a Vocational Library
Topic 2. Organizing a Vocational Guidance Library
Topic 3. Setting Up a Guidance Service.
Topic 1
SETTING UP A VOCATIONAL LIBRARY

Before we discuss how to set up a vocational library, we must try to define what
occupational information means. Occupational information may be defined as that
which facilitates the development of realistic expectations about an occupation, in terms
which will enable the individual to test out its compatibility with his/her self-image.
Occupational information should, therefore, try to provide a wide range of information
about the world of work, and should not merely concentrate on the provisions of facts
related, say, to the qualifications required for occupational entry. Nevertheless,
vocational literature in various forms is undoubtedly an immense and invaluable source
of occupational information. So, when setting up a vocational library, a number of
things must be taken into consideration.

Foremost is the selection of material for the vocational library. Occupational

literature varies from the ill-conceived, badly presented and biased, to the enlightened,
interesting and candid. It is, therefore, useful to bear in mind the when?, where?, who?,
why?, which?, what?, how?, and how much? of career literature.

1. When?
The when refers to the date when the pamphlet or book was published. It is
necessary to ensure that the library contains only materials which provide a true
and timely reflection of the world of work. All too often, masses of old and out-
of-date publications remain undisturbed in a vocational library. This is not
recommended. In the first place, obsolete and misleading information can be
more harmful to the reader than no information at all. Secondly, when a number
of publications in the library are obviously out-of-date, the reader may then
question the credibility of even the most up-to-date and realistic material. It is,
therefore, necessary to check and remove unsuitable publications to ensure that
the library material is relevant.

Although the date of publication is important, it must not be thought that just
because a pamphlet was published several years ago, that it is inevitably out-of-
date, or because a book was published recently, that it is up-to-date. There are
instances where a new publication on occupational information is simply a re-
write of material already published elsewhere. It is, therefore, always necessary to
use common sense when evaluating the timeliness of material.
2. Where?
The where of occupational literature poses the question: Does the information
contained in a publication apply locally? When selecting material, it is important
to ensure that ample materials about local job opportunities are available. Many
career or vocational books and pamphlets are written for a national or regional
audience and may not consider fully the needs of the local labour market. It is
necessary, therefore, to collaborate with local labour officers and others and
prepare materials which meet local needs. This does not preclude information
about national human resource needs. Information on national human resource
needs is just as vital as that on local community needs.

3. Who?
‘Who wrote the material?’ can be a useful guide to its authenticity. Was the
material written by someone in authority, or by a respected body concerned with
job opportunities such as the Ministry of Labour? Alternatively, was the material
written by somebody who was in a position to appreciate fully all the advantages
and disadvantages of the occupation considered?

Who it was written for, is another important consideration. Some pamphlets are
prepared for younger or less able students and are presented in a style appropriate
for them to read.

4. Why?
Why a piece of vocational literature was written is also important. Was it written
for the purposes of vocational guidance or was it written for recruitment? If it
was written or prepared as an aid to recruitment, then consideration must be given
to whether it gives a fair and complete portrayal of the occupations presented.

5. What?
What kind of information the library should contain is another criterion for
material selection. If the library is considered as a source of basic data about
required entry qualifications, appropriate educational paths, etc., then the selection
of material will be relatively easy. However, if the library is viewed as a rich
source of information which can help readers choose occupations on the basis of
the opportunities they offer, then the selection of material will be considerably
more difficult.

There is a need for a series of books and pamphlets which deal with one
occupation at a time, to present the views of both young and old, the satisfied and
the dissatisfied, and successful and unsuccessful workers. In this way, it would be
possible for vocational literature to portray occupations realistically.
6. How?
How was the information about an occupation collected and analyzed? Was only
one job or worker considered, or were a number of jobs and workers from
different backgrounds surveyed? This kind of knowledge is important when
assessing the objectivity of a pamphlet or book, and every effort should be made
to persuade organizations and industry to include it.

How the information is presented, is another factor to be considered. Young

people often find recruitment literature more interesting than unbiased vocational
literature, because of its more interesting and readable style. This can be
dangerous in view of the tendency of much recruitment literature to emphasize
only the more attractive aspects of an occupation.

It has been suggested that the average student tends to have a restricted
occupational outlook. This could be remedied to some extent if there were a
greater incentive for students to make better use of vocational literature. Those
who do bother to use a vocational library usually read only about the jobs with
which they are already familiar. For many, one look at a host of closely-typed,
dry looking pamphlets is enough to put them off vocational literature for the rest
of their school lives.

If the non-directed reading of vocational literature is seen as being the most

desirable way of introducing students to occupational information, then the
literature must be attractively presented in such a form that skimming through a
pamphlet will, from paragraph headings, photographs and lay-out, enable the
reader to learn the essential characteristics of the occupation. Most vocational
literature contains valuable information, but is not designed to facilitate a quick
appraisal of its content.

The effort required to read occupational material is a factor which serves to

reinforce the tendency of students to read only literature about occupations with
which they are already familiar.

7. Which?
Which occupations are covered by the material in the library must always be
borne in mind. Most of the available vocational literature concentrates on
openings for the more able school leavers. This is probably true where the
vocational library is flooded with newspaper cuttings. Information from local
newspapers usually provides information about openings for particular jobs and
the qualifications needed for them.
 The vocational library should contain information about all available occupations,
and state the minimum educational requirements and other conditions. In this
way the reader is able to make an objective assessment of him/herself in terms of
his/her suitability for the job.

8. How Much?
How much a book or pamphlet will cost is a further consideration. Most
occupational libraries contain a mass of recruitment literature because it is
provided free of charge. Some of this literature can be extremely useful, but great
care is necessary to sort the helpful from the harmful literature. An occupational
library may begin with literature that provides information about recruitment, but
should later be supplemented with other literature from places like the Ministry of
Labour, etc.

Topic 2.
ORGANIZING A VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE LIBRARY
A vocational guidance library will only be effective if readers can find the information
they want easily. It is essential that some thought be given to an information retrieval
system. Arrangements should be made with the school librarian on where to store the
information. A place or corner within a library can be selected with a card marked
‘OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION CORNER’. This will help students to find the
place easily in the library. It must be emphasized that this is only possible if there is
good co-operation between the school head, the librarian, and the guidance counsellor.
Some heads of schools or librarians may not see the point of having a corner specially
devoted to occupational information.

The library of occupational literature should contain two basic classes of reference
materials: (a) materials which provide data on the whole range of occupations and
(b) materials which describe single occupations or occupational fields in detail.

1. Materials which provide data on the whole range of occupations

The first category includes the following: appropriate publications by national
statistical and census offices providing national and local information on industries,
occupations, employment and unemployment, the Dictionary of Occupational Titles
(available in most university libraries) which provides brief descriptive statements on
various occupations, materials published periodically by such ministries as the Ministry
of Labour, reporting data on employment conditions and trends, books and monographs
which survey the whole field, books written specifically for secondary school students
which can be used for reference, and charts and graphs which provide pictorial surveys.

All these materials need periodic screening and replacement to keep them up-
to-date. The school librarian should see to it that such materials are provided
for use and not for storage.
2. Materials which describe single occupations or
occupational fields in detail
The second category contains materials which describe occupations in more
detail. This enables a student to learn the duties of a worker in a particular occupation,
the conditions of work, the rates of pay (salary or wages), the qualifications for entry
and for advancement, associations and legal aspects, and in some instances the status
the occupation has in social and economic life.

Some of these materials can be obtained from public agencies and private
publishers. It is, however, the duty of the guidance counsellor to solicit information
from industry, government ministries, and training institutions.

Pamphlets
Pamphlets are of special use for the counsellor working with students whose
vocational interests are of a juvenile, glamorized nature. Pamphlets can be handed out
to students and, because they are brief, are more likely to be read than books. Such
materials can be of real service, when presenting a realistic picture of a vocation to a
student who has unrealistic notions about it.

Information in pamphlets must, however, be supplemented by data on local

conditions of employment and up-to-date information on wages and trends. A word of
caution is appropriate here. Since materials come from many sources, most of which
have no particular standard, the information is bound to vary in quality and must be
carefully selected.

Basic Principles of Occupational Information Services

This section concludes with a look at the basic principles of occupational
information services.
1. The occupational information service is an essential part of the school’s
guidance programme. Secondary school students have problems handling academic and
social decisions, and career planning, which all demand information. They need as
much information as possible about themselves and the outside world. Students need
assistance in obtaining, evaluating and using educational, vocational and personal-social
information for their own development.

2. The focus of occupational information services is upon self-study and

future trends and changes. Change is constant. Trends in the labour force, shifts in the
nature of occupations, and new directions in educational programmes not only occur
rapidly, but are sometimes subtle and deceptive. Although information materials may
deal with facts and conditions as they once were, counsellors must work with students
in terms of what conditions are now like, or what they will become.

3. Both group and individual techniques are used to convey data to students
and assist them to interpret and use such data. Both approaches encourage self-analytic
and diagnostic methods. Both call for the student to relate impressions about
him/herself to the environment.
 4. An occupational information service demands more than giving
information. The presentation of information must be planned in terms of students’
needs. Opportunities for a student to react to what is presented must be provided, and
time must be given to the assimilation of information if it is to relate to the individual.

5. Qualified personnel to handle occupational information services are

essential. The quality of the staff will be reflected in the quality of services.

5. Occupational information services must contain provisions for evaluation.

Checks must be undertaken to determine how effective they are. Pupil, teacher
and counsellor reactions to a service should be examined, to see whether better
ways can be found of providing the information service.

Topic 3.
SETTING UP A GUIDANCE SERVICE

Among the various organizational plans for guidance services in secondary schools,
three approaches can be identified.

1. In some schools, guidance functions are carried out by teachers and

administrators in the course of their other duties, with no time or personnel assigned
specifically to guidance.

2. In other schools, guidance functions are assigned to selected teachers,

who are released from classroom duties for a part of each day.

3. The third pattern involves the use of full-time counsellors, who have no
teaching assignments, and the counsellor is expected to be more qualified as a specialist
than other teacher-counsellors.

The merits of each of the three plans above should be judged in terms of the needs
of specific schools and communities. Some questions must be answered before any of
the above plans is adopted. The questions are:
1. Will the plan achieve the desired objectives or not?
2. Will it meet the conditions demanded by the school, considering such factors as
the size of the school, the educational objectives, the qualifications and interests
of the staff, the funds available, the general characteristics of the student body,
and the culture patterns of the community?
3. Since communities and school personnel are capable of rapid change, an
important question to ask is: ‘Does the plan provide for continuing evaluation and
adaptation?’
4. What will be the roles of the school head, classroom teacher, guidance co-
ordinator and the students?
5. How can the school time-table be re-scheduled to make time possible for guidance
services?

These questions and many others would provide the criteria for choosing which
plan to adopt.

Teachers for guidance services may be selected from any department. The primary
qualification when selecting a guidance counsellor from among the teaching staff, is
that he/she must have a good relationship with the students, and that he/she has had
some training in guidance.

Some schools may arrange to draw their guidance counsellors from among those
teachers who teach compulsory subjects, such as English. This ensures that the
counsellor will also be a teacher of each pupil he/she counsels. This arrangement has
the advantage that the counsellor and students become acquainted in the classroom, and
thereby facilitates group guidance activities and the establishment of good teacher-pupil
relationships.

The disadvantage of this arrangement is that it may establish a more authoritarian

pattern of teacher-pupil relationships, which may militate against the development of
the permissive, confiding rapport that is the essence of effective counselling. The
teacher’s dual role may also create problems in the counselling relationship. A pupil
who has been disruptive in class may find that his/her guidance counsellor, who is also
his/her English teacher, is not objective and impersonal in the assessment of his/her
problems.

The role the students play in the guidance service must also be considered.
Students should be aware of the purpose of the guidance programme, know how it will
help them, and how they can help in its development. Students working with the
guidance committee of the school are likely to contribute additional ideas for the
improvement of student activity programmes, have ideas regarding the orientation of
new students, and the ways of publicizing the guidance programme. Students can also
act as a liaison between the school and the home. They cannot, however, be expected to
describe the guidance programme if they do not understand it themselves.
 Another issue to be considered when setting up guidance services in a school is:
When should guidance start? Guidance services provided during the last year, or
sometimes during the last term of school, may be described as crisis counselling. The
disadvantage of last-minute guidance is that, by this time, students will have already
committed themselves to certain courses which cannot be easily changed. In crisis
counselling, no amount of testing can show the dynamic pattern of continuous
development, which starts from the date of entry in the school. The advantages of an
early start are:

a. The development of the individual can be observed.

b. When educational and vocational guidance are seen as part of the same process,
there is a greater possibility that subjects studied in secondary school will have
some bearing on the work to be taken up when the student leaves school.
c. A continuous guidance programme makes it possible to use a series of tests at
different times, and allows staff to trace the pattern of change.
d. The student may develop a more responsible attitude to his/her own future career.
e. In a lengthy guidance scheme, a greater overall amount of career information can
be passed on to the student.
f. Many aspects of guidance can be covered before the student leaves the school.

Activity 7.1: Analyzing a Guidance Programme

1. Visit a nearby secondary school and observe its guidance programme. Prepare a
chart which shows the general organization of the programme. Interview one of
the counsellors and analyze his/her activities.
Summary

Guidance services for secondary schools can be developed along three general
lines:

1. In some schools, guidance functions are carried out by teachers and administrators
in the course of their other duties, and no time or resources are specifically
assigned to guidance.
2. In other schools, guidance functions are assigned to selected teachers who are
released from classroom duties for a part of each day.
3. Other systems employ full-time guidance counsellors who have no teaching
duties. It is not possible to say categorically which of these plans is superior to
the others. A plan that works in one situation may be ineffectual in another.

A vocational library should contain two basic kinds of occupational literature:

1. materials which provide data on occupations, and
2. materials which describe single occupations or occupational fields in considerable
detail. Information should first be evaluated before it is put in the library. The
following questions may serve as a guide for evaluating occupational literature.
a) Who published the material? Was it a reputable publisher?
b) Who wrote the material? Is the author qualified in the field?
c)Why was the material published? What was the motive for publishing the
materials?
Once collected and placed in the library, the materials should be made accessible to
students.
Evaluation

1. Perhaps the first step in initiating a guidance programme should be for an

administrator to examine his/her own attitudes and views on guidance.
Characterize the attitudes and understanding in the area of one or more secondary
school heads you have met.

2. Discuss the various information collection and dissemination techniques that could
be employed to sensitize boys and girls on gender-related issues.

References

Hayes, J. & Hopson, B. Career Guidance: The Role of the School in Vocational
Development. London; Heinemann Educational Books, Ltd. 1971.
McDaniel, H. B. Guidance in the Modern School. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc. 1956.

Rosecrane, F. C. & Hayden, V. D. School Guidance and Personnel Services. Boston:

Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1960.

Vaughan, T. D. Education and Vocational Guidance Today. London: Routledge and

Kegan Paul. 1970.