M53 Lec1.1 Limits-OneSided1 PDF

Limit of a Function and
One-sided limits
Mathematics 53
Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman)
Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) Limit of a Function and One-sided limits Mathematics 53 1 / 39
For today
1 Limit of a Function: An intuitive approach
2 Evaluating Limits
3 One-sided Limits
For today
2 Evaluating Limits
3 One-sided Limits
Introduction
Given a function f ( x ) and a ∈ R,
Introduction

what is the value of f at x near a,
Introduction

what is the value of f at x near a,
but not equal to a?
Illustration 1
Consider f ( x ) = 3x − 1.
Illustration 1
What can we say about values of f ( x ) for values of x near 1 but not equal to 1?
Illustration 1
x f (x)
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1
0.5
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1
0.5 0.5
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1
0.5 0.5
0.9
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1
0.5 0.5
0.9 1.7
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1
0.5 0.5
0.9 1.7
0.99 1.97
0.99999 1.99997
Illustration 1
x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1
0.5 0.5
0.9 1.7
0.99 1.97
0.99999 1.99997
Illustration 1
x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2
0.5 0.5
0.9 1.7
0.99 1.97
0.99999 1.99997
Illustration 1
x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2 5
0.5 0.5
0.9 1.7
0.99 1.97
0.99999 1.99997
Illustration 1
x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2 5
0.5 0.5 1.5 3.5
0.9 1.7 1.1 2.3
0.99 1.97 1.001 2.003
0.99999 1.99997 1.00001 2.00003
Illustration 1
x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2 5
0.5 0.5 1.5 3.5
0.9 1.7 1.1 2.3
0.99 1.97 1.001 2.003
0.99999 1.99997 1.00001 2.00003
Based on the table, as x gets closer and closer to 1,
Illustration 1
x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2 5
0.5 0.5 1.5 3.5
0.9 1.7 1.1 2.3
0.99 1.97 1.001 2.003
0.99999 1.99997 1.00001 2.00003
Based on the table, as x gets closer and closer to 1, f ( x ) gets closer and closer
to 2.
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1 4
0.5 0.5 3
0.9 1.7
2
0.99 1.97
1
0.99999 1.99997
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1 4
0.5 0.5 3
0.9 1.7
2
0.99 1.97
1
0.99999 1.99997
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1 4
0.5 0.5 3
0.9 1.7
2
0.99 1.97
1
0.99999 1.99997
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1 4
0.5 0.5 3
0.9 1.7
2
0.99 1.97
1
0.99999 1.99997
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
0 −1 4
0.5 0.5 3
0.9 1.7
2
0.99 1.97
1
0.99999 1.99997
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
2 5 4
1.5 3.5 3
1.1 2.3
2
1.001 2.003
1
1.00001 2.00003
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
2 5 4
1.5 3.5 3
1.1 2.3
2
1.001 2.003
1
1.00001 2.00003
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
2 5 4
1.5 3.5 3
1.1 2.3
2
1.001 2.003
1
1.00001 2.00003
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
2 5 4
1.5 3.5 3
1.1 2.3
2
1.001 2.003
1
1.00001 2.00003
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
2 5 4
1.5 3.5 3
1.1 2.3
2
1.001 2.003
1
1.00001 2.00003
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 1
x f (x)
2 5 4
1.5 3.5 3
1.1 2.3
2
1.001 2.003
1
1.00001 2.00003
−1 1 2 3
−1
As x gets closer and closer to 1, f ( x ) gets closer and closer to 2.
Illustration 2
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) =
x−1
Illustration 2
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) =
x−1
(3x − 1)( x − 1)
=
x−1
Illustration 2
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) =
x−1
(3x − 1)( x − 1)
=
x−1
= 3x − 1, x 6= 1
Illustration 2
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) =
x−1 4
(3x − 1)( x − 1)
= 3
x−1
= 3x − 1, x 6= 1 2
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 2
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) =
x−1 4
(3x − 1)( x − 1)
= 3
x−1
= 3x − 1, x 6= 1 2
−1 1 2 3
−1
As x gets closer and closer to 1,
Illustration 2
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) =
x−1 4
(3x − 1)( x − 1)
= 3
x−1
= 3x − 1, x 6= 1 2
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 2
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) =
x−1 4
(3x − 1)( x − 1)
= 3
x−1
= 3x − 1, x 6= 1 2
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 2
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) =
x−1 4
(3x − 1)( x − 1)
= 3
x−1
= 3x − 1, x 6= 1 2
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 2
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) =
x−1 4
(3x − 1)( x − 1)
= 3
x−1
= 3x − 1, x 6= 1 2
−1 1 2 3
−1
As x gets closer and closer to 1, g( x ) gets closer and closer to 2.
Illustration 3

3x − 1, x 6= 1
Consider: h( x ) =
 0, x=1
Illustration 3

3x − 1, x 6= 1
Consider: h( x ) = 4
 0, x=1
3
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 3

3x − 1, x 6= 1
 0, x=1
3
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 3

3x − 1, x 6= 1
 0, x=1
3
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 3

3x − 1, x 6= 1
 0, x=1
3
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 3

3x − 1, x 6= 1
 0, x=1
3
−1 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 3

3x − 1, x 6= 1
 0, x=1
3
−1 1 2 3
−1
As x gets closer and closer to 1, h( x ) gets closer and closer to 2.
Limit
Limit
Intuitive Notion of a Limit
Limit

a∈ R, L ∈ R
Limit

a∈ R, L ∈ R
f ( x ): function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at a
Limit

a∈ R, L ∈ R
The limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is L
Limit

a∈ R, L ∈ R
if the values of f ( x ) get closer and closer to L as x assumes values getting closer
and closer to a but not reaching a.
Limit

a∈ R, L ∈ R
if the values of f ( x ) get closer and closer to L as x assumes values getting closer
and closer to a but not reaching a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = L
x→a
Examples
f ( x ) = 3x − 1
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples
f ( x ) = 3x − 1
4
lim (3x − 1)
x →1
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples
f ( x ) = 3x − 1
4
lim (3x − 1) = 2
x →1
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples
f ( x ) = 3x − 1
4
lim (3x − 1) = 2
x →1
3
Note: In this case, lim f ( x )
x →1
2
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples
f ( x ) = 3x − 1
4
lim (3x − 1) = 2
x →1
3
Note: In this case, lim f ( x ) = f (1).
x →1
2
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples
3x2 − 4x + 1
g( x ) =
x−1
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples
3x2 − 4x + 1
g( x ) =
x−1
3x2 − 4x + 1
4 lim
x →1 x−1
3
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples
3x2 − 4x + 1
g( x ) =
x−1
3x2 − 4x + 1
4 lim =2
x →1 x−1
3
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples
3x2 − 4x + 1
g( x ) =
x−1
3x2 − 4x + 1
4 lim =2
x →1 x−1
3
Note: Though g(1) is undefined,
2 lim g( x ) exists.
x →1
1
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples

3x − 1, x 6= 1
h( x ) =
 0, x=1
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples

3x − 1, x 6= 1
h( x ) =
 0, x=1
lim h( x )
4 x →1
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples

3x − 1, x 6= 1
h( x ) =
 0, x=1
lim h( x ) = 2
4 x →1
−1 1 2 3
−1
Examples

3x − 1, x 6= 1
h( x ) =
 0, x=1
lim h( x ) = 2
4 x →1
3 Note: h(1) 6= lim h( x ).

x →1
2
−1 1 2 3
−1
Some Remarks
Remark
In finding lim f ( x ):
x→a
Some Remarks
Remark
x→a
We only need to consider values of x very close to a but not exactly at a.
Some Remarks
Remark
x→a
Thus, lim f ( x ) is NOT NECESSARILY the same as f ( a).

x→a
Some Remarks
Remark
x→a
Thus, lim f ( x ) is NOT NECESSARILY the same as f ( a).

x→a
We let x approach a from BOTH SIDES of a.
Some Remarks
If f ( x ) does not approach any

particular real number as x
approaches a, then we say
lim f ( x ) does not exist (dne).
x→a
Some Remarks

approaches a, then we say
lim f ( x ) does not exist (dne).
x→a
e.g.

1, x ≥ 0

H (x) =

0, x < 0
(Heaviside Function)
Some Remarks

3
approaches a, then we say 2
lim f ( x ) does not exist (dne). 1

x→a
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
e.g.

1, x ≥ 0

H (x) =

0, x < 0
Some Remarks

3

x→a
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
e.g.
 lim H ( x ) = 0?
1, x ≥ 0
 x →0
H (x) =

0, x < 0
Some Remarks

3

x→a
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
e.g.
 lim H ( x ) = 0? No.
1, x ≥ 0
 x →0
H (x) =

0, x < 0
Some Remarks

3

x→a
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
e.g.
 lim H ( x ) = 0? No.
1, x ≥ 0
 x →0
H (x) = lim H ( x ) = 1?
x →0

0, x < 0
Some Remarks

3

x→a
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
e.g.
 lim H ( x ) = 0? No.
1, x ≥ 0
 x →0
H (x) = lim H ( x ) = 1? No.
x →0

0, x < 0
Some Remarks

3

x→a
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
e.g.
 lim H ( x ) = 0? No.
1, x ≥ 0
 x →0
H (x) = lim H ( x ) = 1? No.
x →0

0, x < 0
lim H ( x ) dne
x →0
For today
2 Evaluating Limits
3 One-sided Limits
Limit Theorems
Theorem
Limit Theorems
Theorem
If lim f ( x ) exists, then it is unique.
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a
If c ∈ R, then xlim
→a
c
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a
→a
c = c.
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a
→a
c = c.
lim x
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a
→a
c = c.
lim x = a
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
Suppose lim f ( x ) = L1 and lim g( x ) = L2 . Let c ∈
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
lim [ f ( x ) ± g( x )]
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
lim [ f ( x ) ± g( x )] = lim f ( x )
x→a x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
lim [ f ( x ) ± g( x )] = lim f ( x ) ± lim g( x )
x→a x→a x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
lim [ f ( x ) ± g( x )] = lim f ( x ) ± lim g( x ) = L1 ± L2
x→a x→a x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a
lim [ f ( x ) g( x )]
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

lim [ f ( x ) g( x )] = lim f ( x ) lim g( x )
x→a x→a x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

lim [ f ( x ) g( x )] = lim f ( x ) lim g( x ) = L1 L2
x→a x→a x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] =
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] = c lim f ( x )
x→a x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] = c lim f ( x ) = cL1
x→a x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] = c lim f ( x ) = cL1
x→a x→a
f (x)
lim
x→a g( x )
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] = c lim f ( x ) = cL1
x→a x→a
f (x) lim f ( x )
lim = x→a
x→a g( x ) lim g( x )
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] = c lim f ( x ) = cL1
x→a x→a
f (x) lim f ( x )
L
lim = x→a = 1
x→a g( x ) lim g( x ) L2
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] = c lim f ( x ) = cL1
x→a x→a
f (x) lim f ( x )
L
lim = x→a = 1 , provided L2 6= 0
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] = c lim f ( x ) = cL1
x→a x→a
f (x) lim f ( x )
L
x→a
n
lim ( f ( x ))
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] = c lim f ( x ) = cL1
x→a x→a
f (x) lim f ( x )
L
x→a
n
lim ( f ( x ))n = lim f ( x )
x→a x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem
x→a x→a
R, n ∈ N.
x→a x→a x→a

x→a x→a x→a
lim [c f ( x )] = c lim f ( x ) = cL1
x→a x→a
f (x) lim f ( x )
L
x→a
n
lim ( f ( x ))n = lim f ( x ) = ( L1 ) n
x→a x→a
Evaluate: lim (2x2 + 3x − 4)
x →−1
x →−1
lim (2x2 + 3x − 4)
x →−1
x →−1
lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2

x →−1 x →−1
x →−1
lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 +

x →−1 x →−1
x →−1
lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
x →−1
lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x −

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
x →−1
lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

= 2 lim x2
x →−1
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
= 2 lim x + 3 lim x
x →−1 x →−1
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
= 2 lim x + 3 lim x − lim 4
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
=2 lim x
x →−1
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
=2 lim x +3 lim x − lim 4
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
=2
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
= 2(−1)
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
= 2(−1) + 3
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
= 2(−1) + 3(−1)
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
= 2(−1) + 3(−1) − 4
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
= 2(−1) + 3(−1) − 4
= −5
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
= 2(−1) + 3(−1) − 4
= −5
In general:
Remark
If f is a polynomial function, then lim f ( x )
x→a
x →−1

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →−1

2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
x →−1 x →−1 x →−1
2
= 2(−1) + 3(−1) − 4
= −5
In general:
Remark
If f is a polynomial function, then lim f ( x ) = f ( a).
x→a
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
lim (4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1)

4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 x →−2
lim =
x →−2 x2 + 2 lim ( x2 + 2)
x →−2
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
lim (4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1)

4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 x →−2
lim =
x →−2 x2 + 2 lim ( x2 + 2)
x →−2
4(−8)
=
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
lim (4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1)

4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 x →−2
lim =
x →−2 x2 + 2 lim ( x2 + 2)
x →−2
4(−8) + 3(4)
=
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
lim (4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1)

4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 x →−2
lim =
x →−2 x2 + 2 lim ( x2 + 2)
x →−2
4(−8) + 3(4) − (−2) + 1
=
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
lim (4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1)

4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 x →−2
lim =
x →−2 x2 + 2 lim ( x2 + 2)
x →−2
4(−8) + 3(4) − (−2) + 1
=
4+2
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
lim (4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1)

4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 x →−2
lim =
x →−2 x2 + 2 lim ( x2 + 2)
x →−2
4(−8) + 3(4) − (−2) + 1
=
4+2
17
=−
6
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
lim (4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1)

4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 x →−2
lim =
x →−2 x2 + 2 lim ( x2 + 2)
x →−2
4(−8) + 3(4) − (−2) + 1
=
4+2
17
=−
6
Remark
If f is a rational function and f ( a) is defined,
4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 + 2
lim (4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1)

4x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 x →−2
lim =
x →−2 x2 + 2 lim ( x2 + 2)
x →−2
4(−8) + 3(4) − (−2) + 1
=
4+2
17
=−
6
Remark
If f is a rational function and f ( a) is defined, then lim f ( x ) = f ( a).
x→a
Theorem
Suppose lim f ( x ) exists and n ∈
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
lim f (x) = n lim f ( x ),
x→a x→a
provided lim f ( x ) > 0 when n is even.

x→a
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√
lim 3x − 1
x →3
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1)
x →3 x →3
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8
x →3 x →3
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8=2 2
x →3 x →3
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8=2 2
x →3 x →3
r
x+4
lim 3
x →−1 x−2
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8 = 2 2
x →3 x →3
r r
x+4
lim 3 = 3
x →−1 x−2
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8 = 2 2
x →3 x →3
r r
x+4 −1 + 4
lim 3 = 3
x →−1 x−2 −1 − 2
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8 = 2 2
x →3 x →3
r r
x+4 −1 + 4
lim 3 = 3 = −1
x →−1 x−2 −1 − 2
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8 = 2 2
x →3 x →3
r r
x+4 −1 + 4
lim 3 = 3 = −1
x →−1 x−2 −1 − 2
√
lim 4 3 − 2x
x →7/2
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8 = 2 2
x →3 x →3
r r
x+4 −1 + 4
lim 3 = 3 = −1
x →−1 x−2 −1 − 2
√
lim 4 3 − 2x dne
x →7/2
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8 = 2 2
x →3 x →3
r r
x+4 −1 + 4
lim 3 = 3 = −1
x →−1 x−2 −1 − 2
√
lim 4 3 − 2x dne
x →7/2
p
lim x2 − 4
x →2
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8 = 2 2
x →3 x →3
r r
x+4 −1 + 4
lim 3 = 3 = −1
x →−1 x−2 −1 − 2
√
lim 4 3 − 2x dne
x →7/2
p
lim x2 − 4 =??
x →2
Theorem
x→a
N. Then,
q q
n
x→a x→a

x→a
√ q √ √
lim 3x − 1 = lim (3x − 1) = 8 = 2 2
x →3 x →3
r r
x+4 −1 + 4
lim 3 = 3 = −1
x →−1 x−2 −1 − 2
√
lim 4 3 − 2x dne
x →7/2
p
lim x2 − 4 =?? (for now)
x →2
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4

=
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4
lim 2x2

=  →3
x
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4
q
lim 2x2 −

=  x →3
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4
q
lim 2x2 − lim (5x + 1)

=  x →3 x →3
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4
q 3
lim 2x2 − lim (5x + 1)

=  x →3 x →3 
lim ( x3 − x + 4)
x →3
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4
q 3
lim 2x2 − lim (5x + 1)

=  x →3 x →3 
lim ( x3 − x + 4)
x →3

18
=
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4
q 3
lim 2x2 − lim (5x + 1)

=  x →3 x →3 
lim ( x3 − x + 4)
x →3
18 − 4

=
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4
q 3
lim 2x2 − lim (5x + 1)

=  x →3 x →3 
lim ( x3 − x + 4)
x →3
3
18 − 4

=
28
√ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4
√ !3 √ !3
2x2 − 5x + 1 2x2 − 5x + 1
lim = lim
x →3 x3 − x + 4 x →3 x3 − x + 4
q 3
lim 2x2 − lim (5x + 1)

=  x →3 x →3 
lim ( x3 − x + 4)
x →3
3
18 − 4

=
28
1
=
8
3x2 − 4x + 1
Consider: g( x ) = . From earlier, lim g( x ) = 2.
x−1 x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1
Can we arrive at this conclusion computationally?
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1

Note that lim 3x2 − 4x + 1
x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1

Note that lim 3x2 − 4x + 1 =0
x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1

Note that lim 3x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 and lim ( x − 1)
x →1 x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1

Note that lim 3x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 and lim ( x − 1) = 0.
x →1 x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1

x →1 x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)( x − 1)

But when x 6= 1, = = 3x − 1.
x−1 x−1
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1

x →1 x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)( x − 1)

But when x 6= 1, = = 3x − 1.
x−1 x−1
Since we are just taking the limit as x → 1,
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1

x →1 x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)( x − 1)

But when x 6= 1, = = 3x − 1.
x−1 x−1
3x2 − 4x + 1
lim
x →1 x−1
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1

x →1 x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)( x − 1)

But when x 6= 1, = = 3x − 1.
x−1 x−1
3x2 − 4x + 1
lim = lim (3x − 1)
x →1 x−1 x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1
x−1 x →1

x →1 x →1
3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)( x − 1)

But when x 6= 1, = = 3x − 1.
x−1 x−1
3x2 − 4x + 1
lim = lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x →1 x−1 x →1
Definition
Definition
If lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g( x ) = 0
x→a x→a
Definition
If lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g( x ) = 0 then
x→a x→a
f (x)
lim
x→a g( x )
0
is called an indeterminate form of type .
0
Definition
x→a x→a
f (x)
lim
x→a g( x )
0
0
Remarks:
Definition
x→a x→a
f (x)
lim
x→a g( x )
0
0
Remarks:
f ( a)
1 If f ( a) = 0 and g( a) = 0, then is undefined!
g( a)
Definition
x→a x→a
f (x)
lim
x→a g( x )
0
0
Remarks:
f ( a)
g( a)
2 The limit above MAY or MAY NOT exist.
Definition
x→a x→a
f (x)
lim
x→a g( x )
0
0
Remarks:
f ( a)
g( a)
3 Some techniques used in evaluating such limits are:
Definition
x→a x→a
f (x)
lim
x→a g( x )
0
0
Remarks:
f ( a)
g( a)
3 Some techniques used in evaluating such limits are:
Factoring
Rationalization
Examples
x2 + 2x + 1
Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1
Examples
x2 + 2x + 1

0
Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1 0
Examples
x2 + 2x + 1

0
Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1 0
x2 + 2x + 1
lim
x →−1 x+1
Examples
x2 + 2x + 1

0
Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1 0
x2 + 2x + 1
lim = lim
x →−1 x+1 x →−1
Examples
x2 + 2x + 1

0
Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1 0
x2 + 2x + 1 ( x + 1)2
lim = lim
x →−1 x+1 x →−1
Examples
x2 + 2x + 1

0
Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1 0
x2 + 2x + 1 ( x + 1)2
lim = lim
x →−1 x+1 x →−1 x + 1
Examples
x2 + 2x + 1

0
Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1 0
x2 + 2x + 1 ( x + 1)2
lim = lim
x →−1 x+1 x →−1 x + 1
= lim ( x + 1)
x →−1
Examples
x2 + 2x + 1

0
Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1 0
x2 + 2x + 1 ( x + 1)2
lim = lim
x →−1 x+1 x →−1 x + 1
= lim ( x + 1)
x →−1
= (−1 + 1)
Examples
x2 + 2x + 1

0
Evaluate: lim
x →−1 x+1 0
x2 + 2x + 1 ( x + 1)2
lim = lim
x →−1 x+1 x →−1 x + 1
= lim ( x + 1)
x →−1
= (−1 + 1)
= 0
Examples
x3 + 8
Evaluate: lim
x →−2 x2 − 4
Examples
x3 + 8

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →−2 x − 4 0
Examples
x3 + 8

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →−2 x − 4 0
x3 + 8
lim
x →−2 x2 − 4
Examples
x3 + 8

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →−2 x − 4 0
x3 + 8
lim = lim
x →−2 x2 − 4 x →−2
Examples
x3 + 8

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →−2 x − 4 0
x3 + 8 ( x + 2)( x2 − 2x + 4)
lim = lim
x →−2 x2 − 4 x →−2
Examples
x3 + 8

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →−2 x − 4 0
x3 + 8 ( x + 2)( x2 − 2x + 4)
lim = lim
x →−2 x2 − 4 x →−2 ( x + 2)( x − 2)
Examples
x3 + 8

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →−2 x − 4 0
x3 + 8 ( x + 2)( x2 − 2x + 4)
lim = lim
x →−2 x2 − 4 x →−2 ( x + 2)( x − 2)
x2 − 2x + 4
= lim
x →−2 x−2
Examples
x3 + 8

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →−2 x − 4 0
x3 + 8 ( x + 2)( x2 − 2x + 4)
lim = lim
x →−2 x2 − 4 x →−2 ( x + 2)( x − 2)
x2 − 2x + 4
= lim
x →−2 x−2
4+4+4
=
−2 − 2
Examples
x3 + 8

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →−2 x − 4 0
x3 + 8 ( x + 2)( x2 − 2x + 4)
lim = lim
x →−2 x2 − 4 x →−2 ( x + 2)( x − 2)
x2 − 2x + 4
= lim
x →−2 x−2
4+4+4
=
−2 − 2
= −3
Examples
x2 − 16
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2− x
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
x2 − 16
lim √
x →4 2− x
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
x2 − 16 x2 − 16
lim √ = lim √
x →4 2− x x →4 2− x
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
√
x2 − 16 x2 − 16 2 + x
lim √ = lim √ · √
x →4 2 − x x →4 2 − x 2 + x
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
√
x2 − 16 x2 − 16 2 + x
lim √ = lim √ · √
x →4 2 − x x →4 2 − x 2 + x
√
( x2 − 16)(2 + x )
= lim
x →4
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
√
x2 − 16 x2 − 16 2 + x
lim √ = lim √ · √
x →4 2 − x x →4 2 − x 2 + x
√
( x2 − 16)(2 + x )
= lim
x →4 4−x
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
√
x2 − 16 x2 − 16 2 + x
lim √ = lim √ · √
x →4 2 − x x →4 2 − x 2 + x
√
( x2 − 16)(2 + x )
= lim
x →4 4−x
√
( x − 4)( x + 4)(2 + x)
= lim
x →4 4−x
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
√
x2 − 16 x2 − 16 2 + x
lim √ = lim √ · √
x →4 2 − x x →4 2 − x 2 + x
√
( x2 − 16)(2 + x )
= lim
x →4 4−x
√
( x − 4)( x + 4)(2 + x )
= lim
x →4 4−x
√
= lim [−( x + 4)(2 + x )]
x →4
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
√
x2 − 16 x2 − 16 2 + x
lim √ = lim √ · √
x →4 2 − x x →4 2 − x 2 + x
√
( x2 − 16)(2 + x )
= lim
x →4 4−x
√
( x − 4)( x + 4)(2 + x )
= lim
x →4 4−x
√
= lim [−( x + 4)(2 + x )]
x →4
= (−8)(4)
Examples
x2 − 16

0
Evaluate: lim √
x →4 2 − x 0
√
x2 − 16 x2 − 16 2 + x
lim √ = lim √ · √
x →4 2 − x x →4 2 − x 2 + x
√
( x2 − 16)(2 + x )
= lim
x →4 4−x
√
( x − 4)( x + 4)(2 + x )
= lim
x →4 4−x
√
= lim [−( x + 4)(2 + x )]
x →4
= (−8)(4)
= −32
Examples
√
3
x−2
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√
3
x−2
lim
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√
3
√
3
x−2 x−2
lim = lim
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √
3
x−2 3
x−2 3
x2
lim = lim ·
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √
3 √
x−2 3
x−2 3
x2 + 2 3 x
lim = lim ·
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √
3 √
x−2 3
x−2 3
x2 + 2 3 x + 4
lim = lim ·
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √
3 2 √
3 3
x−2 x−2 x +2 3 x+4
lim = lim ·√ √
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 3 2
x +2 3 x+4
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √
3 2 √
3 3
x−2 x−2 x +2 3 x+4
lim = lim ·√ √
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 3 2
x +2 3 x+4
x−8
= lim
x →8
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √3 2 √
3 3
x−2 x−2 x +2 3 x+4
lim = lim ·√ √
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 3 2
x +2 3 x+4
x−8
= lim
x →8 ( x − 8)( x + 1)
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √3 2 √
3 3
x−2 x−2 x +2 3 x+4
lim = lim ·√ √
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 3 2
x +2 3 x+4
x−8
= lim √ √
x →8 ( x − 8)( x + 1)( 3 x2 + 2 3 x + 4)
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √3 2 √
3 3
x−2 x−2 x +2 3 x+4
lim = lim ·√ √
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 3 2
x +2 3 x+4
x−8
= lim √ √
x →8 ( x − 8)( x + 1)( 3 x2 + 2 3 x + 4)
1
= lim √ √
x →8 ( x + 1)( 3 x2 + 2 3 x + 4)
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √3 2 √
3 3
x−2 x−2 x +2 3 x+4
lim = lim ·√ √
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 3 2
x +2 3 x+4
x−8
= lim √ √
x →8 ( x − 8)( x + 1)( 3 x2 + 2 3 x + 4)
1
= lim √ √
x →8 ( x + 1)( 3 x2 + 2 3 x + 4)
1
=
9(4 + 4 + 4)
Examples
√
3
x−2

0
Evaluate: lim 2
x →8 x − 7x − 8 0
√ √ √3 2 √
3 3
x−2 x−2 x +2 3 x+4
lim = lim ·√ √
x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 x →8 x2 − 7x − 8 3 2
x +2 3 x+4
x−8
= lim √ √
x →8 ( x − 8)( x + 1)( 3 x2 + 2 3 x + 4)
1
= lim √ √
x →8 ( x + 1)( 3 x2 + 2 3 x + 4)
1
=
9(4 + 4 + 4)
1
=
108
For today
2 Evaluating Limits
3 One-sided Limits
Illustration 4

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

Consider: f ( x ) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
Illustration 4

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

Consider: f ( x ) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
As x → 1, the value of f ( x ) depends

on whether x < 1 or x > 1.
Illustration 4

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

4
Consider: f ( x ) =
4x − 3,

x≥1 3
1
on whether x < 1 or x > 1. −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
0
−1
−2
−3
Illustration 4

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

4
Consider: f ( x ) =
4x − 3,

x≥1 3
1
on whether x < 1 or x > 1. −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
0
−1
−2
−3
As x approaches 1 through values less than 1,
Illustration 4

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

4
Consider: f ( x ) =
4x − 3,

x≥1 3
1
on whether x < 1 or x > 1. −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
0
−1
−2
−3
As x approaches 1 through values less than 1, f ( x ) approaches −2.
Illustration 4

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

4
Consider: f ( x ) =
4x − 3,

x≥1 3
1
on whether x < 1 or x > 1. −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
0
−1
−2
−3

As x approaches 1 through values greater than 1,
Illustration 4

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

4
Consider: f ( x ) =
4x − 3,

x≥1 3
1
on whether x < 1 or x > 1. −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
0
−1
−2
−3

As x approaches 1 through values greater than 1, f ( x ) approaches 1.
Illustration 5
√
Consider: g( x ) = x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 5
√
( )
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 5
√
( )
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 5
√
( )
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 5
√
()
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Illustration 5
√
()
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Since there is no open interval I containing 0 such that g( x ) is defined on I ,
Illustration 5
√
()
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Since there is no open interval I containing 0 such that g( x ) is defined on I , we

cannot let x approach 0 from both sides.
Illustration 5
√
()
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Since there is no open interval I containing 0 such that g( x ) is defined on I , we

cannot let x approach 0 from both sides.
But we can say something about the values of g( x ) as x gets closer and closer to
0 from the right of 0.
One-sided Limits
Intuitive Definition
The
limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the left is L
One-sided Limits
The
if the values of f ( x ) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and
closer to a, but are less than a.
One-sided Limits
The
closer to a, but are less than a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = L
x → a−
One-sided Limits
The
limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the right is L
One-sided Limits
The
closer to a, but are greater than a
One-sided Limits
The
closer to a, but are greater than a
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = L
x → a+
Theorem
lim f ( x ) = L if and only if lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = L
x→a x → a− x → a+

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

f (x) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

f (x) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
4
lim f ( x )
x →1−
3
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

f (x) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
4
lim f ( x ) = lim (3 − 5x2 )
x →1− x →1−
3
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

f (x) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
4
lim f ( x ) = lim (3 − 5x2 ) = −2
x →1− x →1−
3
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

f (x) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
4
lim f ( x ) = lim (3 − 5x2 ) = −2
x →1− x →1−
3 lim f ( x )
x →1+
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

f (x) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
4
lim f ( x ) = lim (3 − 5x2 ) = −2
x →1− x →1−
3 lim f ( x ) = lim (4x − 3)
x →1+ x →1+
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

f (x) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
4
lim f ( x ) = lim (3 − 5x2 ) = −2
x →1− x →1−
3 lim f ( x ) = lim (4x − 3) = 1
x →1+ x →1+
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3

3 − 5x2 , x < 1

f (x) =
4x − 3,

x≥1
4
lim f ( x ) = lim (3 − 5x2 ) = −2
x →1− x →1−
3 lim f ( x ) = lim (4x − 3) = 1
x →1+ x →1+
2 lim f ( x ) dne
x →1
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3
Examples
√
g( x ) = x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Examples
√
g( x ) = x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Based on the graph,

√
lim x
x →0+
Examples
√
g( x ) = x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Based on the graph,

√
lim x=0
x →0+
Examples
√
g( x ) = x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Based on the graph,

√
lim x=0
x →0+
√
lim x
x →0−
Examples
√
g( x ) = x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Based on the graph,

√
lim x=0
x →0+
√
lim x dne
x →0−
Examples
√
g( x ) = x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Based on the graph,

√
lim x=0
x →0+
√
lim x dne
x →0−
√
lim x
x →0
Examples
√
g( x ) = x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
Based on the graph,

√
lim x=0
x →0+
√
lim x dne
x →0−
√
lim x dne
x →0
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
(The Heaviside Function)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x )
x →0−
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0
x →0− x →0−
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− x →0−
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− x →0−
lim H ( x )
x →0+
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− x →0−
lim H ( x ) = lim 1
x →0+ x →0+
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− x →0−
lim H ( x ) = lim 1 = 1
x →0+ x →0+
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− x →0−
lim H ( x ) = lim 1 = 1
x →0+ x →0+
lim H ( x )
x →0
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− x →0−
lim H ( x ) = lim 1 = 1
x →0+ x →0+
lim H ( x ) dne
x →0
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− x →0−
lim H ( x ) = lim 1 = 1
x →0+ x →0+
lim H ( x ) dne
x →0
lim H ( x )
x →2
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− x →0−
lim H ( x ) = lim 1 = 1
x →0+ x →0+
lim H ( x ) dne
x →0
lim H ( x ) = lim 1
x →2 x →2
Examples

3
1, x ≥ 0

Let H ( x ) = 2
0, x < 0

1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
lim H ( x ) = lim 0 = 0
x →0− x →0−
lim H ( x ) = lim 1 = 1
x →0+ x →0+
lim H ( x ) dne
x →0
lim H ( x ) = lim 1 = 1
x →2 x →2
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
lim p( x )
x →2−
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x
x →2− x →2−
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
lim p( x )
x →2+
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x
lim p( x ) = lim
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x x ( x − 2)
lim p( x ) = lim = lim
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4 x →2+ 2 ( x − 2 )
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x x ( x − 2) x
lim p( x ) = lim = lim = lim
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4 x →2+ 2 ( x − 2 ) x →2+ 2
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x x ( x − 2) x
lim p( x ) = lim = lim = lim =1
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4 x →2+ 2 ( x − 2 ) x →2+ 2
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x x ( x − 2) x
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4 x →2+ 2 ( x − 2 ) x →2+ 2
lim p( x )
x →2
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x x ( x − 2) x
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4 x →2+ 2 ( x − 2 ) x →2+ 2
lim p( x ) = 1
x →2
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x x ( x − 2) x
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4 x →2+ 2 ( x − 2 ) x →2+ 2
lim p( x ) = 1
x →2
lim p( x )
x →3
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x x ( x − 2) x
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4 x →2+ 2 ( x − 2 ) x →2+ 2
lim p( x ) = 1
x →2
x2 − 2x
lim p( x ) = lim
x →3 x →3 2x − 4
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x x ( x − 2) x
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4 x →2+ 2 ( x − 2 ) x →2+ 2
lim p( x ) = 1
x →2
x2 − 2x 9−6
lim p( x ) = lim =
x →3 x →3 2x − 4 6−4
Examples
√
 5 − 2x, x≤2


Let p( x ) =
 x2 − 2x

 , x>2
2x − 4
√ √
lim p( x ) = lim 5 − 2x = 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−
x2 − 2x x ( x − 2) x
x →2+ x →2+ 2x − 4 x →2+ 2 ( x − 2 ) x →2+ 2
lim p( x ) = 1
x →2
x2 − 2x 9−6 3
lim p( x ) = lim = =
x →3 x →3 2x − 4 6−4 2
Exercises
3x − 12
1 Evaluate: lim √
x →4 3 − 2x + 1
x2 + 1

, if x < −1


2 Find lim f ( x ) given: f ( x ) = x−1
x →−1  √
1 − x + 5, if x ≥ −1

6x − 4

1
3 Evaluate: lim +
x →2/3 3x2 + 4x − 4 3x + 2

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Limit of a Function and

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman)

1 Limit of a Function: An intuitive approach

1 Limit of a Function: An intuitive approach

Given a function f ( x ) and a ∈ R,

Given a function f ( x ) and a ∈ R,

Given a function f ( x ) and a ∈ R,

Based on the table, as x gets closer and closer to 1,

As x gets closer and closer to 1, f ( x ) gets closer and closer to 2.

As x gets closer and closer to 1,

As x gets closer and closer to 1,

As x gets closer and closer to 1,

As x gets closer and closer to 1,

As x gets closer and closer to 1, g( x ) gets closer and closer to 2.

As x gets closer and closer to 1,

As x gets closer and closer to 1,

As x gets closer and closer to 1,

As x gets closer and closer to 1,

As x gets closer and closer to 1, h( x ) gets closer and closer to 2.

Intuitive Notion of a Limit

Intuitive Notion of a Limit

Intuitive Notion of a Limit

Intuitive Notion of a Limit

The limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is L

Intuitive Notion of a Limit

The limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is L

Intuitive Notion of a Limit

The limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is L

3 Note: h(1) 6= lim h( x ).

Thus, lim f ( x ) is NOT NECESSARILY the same as f ( a).

Thus, lim f ( x ) is NOT NECESSARILY the same as f ( a).

We let x approach a from BOTH SIDES of a.

If f ( x ) does not approach any

If f ( x ) does not approach any

If f ( x ) does not approach any

lim f ( x ) does not exist (dne). 1

If f ( x ) does not approach any

lim f ( x ) does not exist (dne). 1

If f ( x ) does not approach any

lim f ( x ) does not exist (dne). 1

If f ( x ) does not approach any

lim f ( x ) does not exist (dne). 1

If f ( x ) does not approach any

lim f ( x ) does not exist (dne). 1

If f ( x ) does not approach any

lim f ( x ) does not exist (dne). 1

1 Limit of a Function: An intuitive approach

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 +

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x −

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4

lim (2x2 + 3x − 4) = lim 2x2 + lim 3x − lim 4