Voltage Dividers:

A voltage divider is a simple circuit which turns a large voltage

into a smaller one. Using just two
series resistors and an input voltage, we can create an output voltage that is a fraction of
the input.
Voltage dividers are one of the most fundamental circuits in electronics.

In Basic principle A voltage divider in its simplest form consists of a pair of resistors connected
in series, whereby the total voltage across the two of them is
divided into two parts. A voltage divider is considered to be loaded
when a further resistance is connected in parallel with one of the pair.
The current and voltage in each part of the circuit are calculated as in
any other series or parallel circuit using Kirchhoff’s laws.

R R1R2
Voltage Sensor:
In voltage sensors, the measurement is based on the voltage divider. Mainly
two types are of voltage sensors are available- Capacitive type voltage
sensor and Resistive type voltage sensor.

Capacitive Voltage Sensor

As we know that a capacitor comprises of two conductors or simply two plates
and in between these plates, a non-conductor is kept. That non-conducting
material is termed as dielectric. When an AC voltage is provided across these
plates, current will start to pass owing to either the attraction or the repulsion
of electrons by means of the voltage present on the opposite plate. The field
among the plates will create a complete AC circuit without any hardware
connection. This is how a capacitor works.
Next, we can discuss about the voltage division in two capacitors which are in
series. Usually in series circuits, high voltage will develop across the
component which is having high impedance. In the case of capacitors,
capacitance and impedance (capacitive reactance) are always inversely

proportional. The relation between voltage and capacitance is

Resistive Voltage Sensor

There are two ways in converting the resistance of the sensing element to the
voltage. First one is the simplest method that is to provide a voltage to the
resistor divider circuit comprises of a sensor and a reference resistor which is

represented below.
The voltage that is developed across the reference resistor or sensor is
buffered and then given to the ADC. The output voltage of the sensor can be

expressed as
The drawback of this circuit is the amplifier present here will amplify the whole
voltage developed across the sensor. But, it is better to amplify only the
voltage change due to the change in resistance of the sensor. This is
achieved by the second method implementing the resistance bridge which is
shown below.

Basic Principle:
 The voltage sensor measures the voltage drop across a precision voltage divider, which is
proportional to, but smaller than the voltage at the inputs. The current sensor measures the voltage
drop across a precision 0.5 Ohm resistor, which is proportional to the voltage according to voltage =
resistance * current. Current and voltage measurements alternate rapidly and multiple
measurements are averaged in order to obtain an accurate measurement of real power.

The voltages are then digitized via a 12-bit Analog-to-Digital converter to obtain a PASPort-
compatible signal.

CUK Converter:
The Ćuk converter (pronounced Chook; sometimes incorrectly spelled Cuk, Čuk or Cúk) is a
type of DC/DC converter that has an output voltage magnitude that is either greater than or
less than the input voltage magnitude.

Working principle
A Ćuk converter transforms a DC voltage at the input to a DC voltage at the output with reversed
polarity. Compared to the Buck, Boost and Buck-Boostconverters the Ćuk converter uses an
additional inductor and capacitor to store energy. Consider the following sequence of the MOSFET
conduction state:

 1. On-state: The current through the inductor L1 increases linearly and the diode blocks.

 2. Off-state: Since the current through the inductor L1 can not abruptly change the diode must carry
the current so it commutates and begins conducting. Energy is transferred from the inductor L1 to the
middle capacitor C2 resulting in a decreasing inductor current.

 3. On-state: The current through the inductor L1 again increases linearly and the diode blocks. The
middle capacitor discharges and supplies the RC load through the inductor L2. The induced voltage
across the resistor R has the opposite polarity of the input voltage.

The circuit has two limits of operation. For a PWM duty cycle D ➝ 0 the output voltage equals zero,
and for D ➝ 1 the output voltage grows toward negative infinity. In between those limits the output
voltage in continuous conduction mode is given by: Vout = -D/(1-D) · Vin. The combination of inductors
and capactors acts as a second order low pass filter reducing the voltage ripple at the output.

CUK Convereter Advantages over other converters:

Features of a buck - boost converter are
• Pulsed input current, requires input filter.
• Pulsed output current increases output voltage ripple
• Output voltage can be either greater or smaller than input voltage.
It will be desirable to combine the advantages of these basic converters into one
converter. 􀁬CuKconverter is one such converter. It has the following advantages.
• Continuous input current.
• Continuous output current.
• Output voltage can be either greater or less than input voltage.

OptoCoupler:
optocoupler provides signal transfer betweenan isolated input and output via an infrared Emitting
Diode (IRED) and a silicon phototransistor. The IREDsends a beam of infrared energy to an
optical receiver inside a single package with a light conducting mediumbetween the emitter and
detector. This mechanismprovides complete electrical isolation of electronic circuitsfrom input
to output while transmitting information from one side to the other, and from one voltage
potential toanother.

Why use an Optocoupler

The reasons are:
1. To isolate electrical systems which must
communicate but have their grounds at different
potentials as well as removing ground loops in an
isolated switched mode power supply (SMPS).
2. To isolate low power input control circuits from high
power circuits such as in motor drive applications.
3. To block electrical noise from signals by isolating it
away from another part of the circuit.
4. To safely isolate people from dangerous electrical
systems.
Relay Operation:
A relay is defined as an electrically controlled device that opens and closes electrical
contacts, or activates and deactivates operation of other devices in the same or another
electrical circuit. Two types of relay technology are available, mechanical and solid
state. A mechanical relay is essentially a combination of an inductor and a switch,
where the electromagnetic force of the inductor causes a switch to change position &
we are using here mechanical state.

very electromechanical relay consists of an consists of an

1. Electromagnet
2. Mechanically movable contact
3. Switching points and
4. Spring

Working:
 Relay works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 When the electromagnet is applied with some current it induces a magnetic field
around it.
 Above image shows working of the relay .A switch is used to apply DC current to
the load.
 In the relay Copper coil and the iron core acts as electromagnet.
 When the coil is applied with DC current it starts attracting the contact as shown.
This is called energizing of relay.
 When the supply is removed it retrieves back to the original position. This is called
De energizing of relay.