Name of student Teacher's name: Koh K. W. Subject: Chemisty Ciass: L6C4 Topic : Chemical bonding Lesson no: 14 Sub-topic: 1. lonic and covalent bonds Date: 14. 08.07 2. Lewis structures: Day/Time: Tue ( 4.30 - 6.30pm) Chemical Bonding — lonic and covalent bonds 1. The chemical bond is the force of attraction that binds atoms together in a chemical compound, 2. Inmost chemical reactions: (a) Only valencs on lectrone arsine inte tema tore. conten (0) (i) Most atoms tend to attain the electronic configuration of a noble (inert) gas which is stable ie aan octet configuration. This is known as the octet rule. (In some cases, stability is achieved by attaining the electronic configuration of the inert gas helium, which is 1s") = aur (i) The reason why inert gases are stable and unreactive is because all the electrons in the atoms are paired and the s and p valence sub-shells are full. (c) The octet configuration is usually achieved by the atoms through * gaining electrons, losing electrons, or + sharing electrons. (@) Exceptions to the octet rule exist in the formation of some chemical compounds, for example: the electronic configuration of. Mg” 2.8 (complete octet - follows octet rule) phe 281832182 {incomplete octet - does net follow octet rule) cr 2844 (expansion of the octet — does not follow octet rule) 1. (@) lonic bonds are produced when electrons are completely transferred from atoms of one element to atoms of another element, forming an ionic compound with oppositely charged ions. (b) Positive ions (cations) are formed when an atom loses electrons and negative ions (anions) are formed when atoms gain electrons. (¢) The number of electrons lost or gained will usually result in the attainment of the stable electronic. configuration of a noble gas. 2. (@) The positive and negative ions are held together by ionic bonds, (b) The ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the positive and negative ions (c) For example: ‘Sodium chloride ( NaCl) is ionic, containing Na” and CI ions, and so contains ionic bonds. The ions are formed by transferring one electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom. mite ty ay aer > Nr far ze 288 {d) In an ionic compound, each ion is able to attract oppositely charged ions in all directions, resulting In the formation of 2 solid glant fonic lattice structur3, Factors influencing the formation of ions(cations and anions) and ionic compounds cee es Seomaacag mast 4 puete athens torment fave Yte Dy ete wegy ae que Meta X, low eectronegativity Noncmetl Y, PF Utechow olfinity hgh electropositee) high ecronegethty . ‘usuelly from Group 1 ond 2 wont ran Graphs ig. a7 Lt WITHA Woh ¥ (q)atom away aver re toond i forwud overall OR wre “ ionic compoun wagative Fexeur ane WAL Bwimetnn ST Kea comqonnl ‘Giant lone late (sti) formed { Note: Energetically, for an ionic compound to be formed, the lattice energy must be higher than ‘the energy involved in the formation of the cation and anion. (Refer to topic: Thermochemistry)} gy Properties of ionic compounds secruspinenes atten € toc eomponts Me yeas vit" (a) exist as crystalline solids at ordinary temperature due . fF fethe stony lonfe bonde betrecn the canons and te CQO , foo eee i é ae any detection lends ots ayers moweg and sina ee charged ions being next to each other. The ensuing a aaa eta gs {0) have high metting points, boiling points, and enthalpies of vaporisation because of the strong electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions, which requires a lot of energy to break. (©) usually are soluble in water (as itis a polar solvent) due to the high hydration energy of the ions; but are not soluble in non-polar organic solvents. (@ do not conduct electricity when solid, but are good conductors of electricity in the motten state Or in aqueous solutions due to the presence of mobile ions. 2Lewis symbols gee 8 sail 1. Lewis symbols are used to show the arrangement of valence electrons before and after bonds are formed. The electrons in the valence (outer) shell of an atom (in its ground state) can be represented simply by a number of dots corresponding to the number of valence electrons as shown in the examples below Number af lence ‘ 2 3 4 5 ‘ ’ 5 slectrons cas Stairs = api boat esa eT {except He) Lewis He Lis Bez Symbol 2. Some atoms are ‘excited’ before bonding takes place during a chemical reaction. In such cases, the atoms are represented by Lewis symbols different from those in their ground states. For example: a = 5 z @ Carbon atom © Aluminio atom 2 oer Al “Ale tst 2st apd 2p 2 2py! apt As? 25? 2p! 3c! apt ast 2st apt 3st apa 3p, Graimd sate Excited state crowd ste Excived sore 3. In Lewis symbols for ions, ‘dots’ and ‘crosses’ are often used to show where electrons come from. For example, in the negative ions shown below the ‘dots’ represent the original electrons of the atoms and the ‘crosses’ represent the extra electrons added. Thargeon * * # = = z 7 No. of Electrons telost Zeist © elost © delost_ «ae se re te gained gained gained gained gained or lost Example’ Group Group? Group 13. Group 14 Group 14 Group 18 Group 16 Group 17 Lewis smb (HY [Liy’ [BeJ™ BT” [cI Ye) 4. Examples: Lewis diagram to show formation ofionic compounds. Facies affecting fovmation ch Wwe bend (@) UF Awuijaton energy —dectrn affinity (0) Cac, = latte energy (© LioWrite the chemical formula and draw Lewis structures for the ionic compounds formed from the reaction between the following elements: 4. potassium and sulphur a a e eek at [Se] > KS i$ aX Ht [ss] 2. magnesium and fitrogen + Sr emia Wa? N Ni dogt tr Leni] Migs Mae MH Na 4. Asingle covalent bond is formed when two atoms, each with a single electron, come together so that the two electrons are shared between the two atoms, each atom in the compound achieving a stable inert gas electronic configuration. (However there are some exceptions) 2. Inthe formation of the single covalent bond between two atoms: = (@) each atom has an atomic orbital containing @ single unpaired electron, in the valence shell Qauti's _, (©) the two orbitals overlap so that an electron pair is produced, which is shared by both atoms. The 5 cleciron pair with opposite spins move in a single molecular orbital excusve (Example: Rule ( The covalent bond in a hydrogen molecule, H2 (Valence electronic configuration of H: 1s') » " w sect stot C)-G)- Wotan Toray (il) The covalent bond in a hydrogen chloride molecule, HC! (\alence electronic configuration of Cl: 35° 3p") Ape al FS Fst 5 SPE )-O HECEH oor +1 (electronic coniguration of ¢ is now 2.8 and H fe 2) ao if ak So a carbon atom usually forms four covalent bonds. (b) Nitrogen ( electronic configuration: 2. § ) has 5 valence electrons. it has to gain 3 electrons through sharing to complete the octet ( 2.8 ). Hence the chemical formula for ammonia is NHs and its Lewis structure is H-N-H 4 (©) In.CO,, the carbon atom shares 2 pairs of electrons with each oxygen atom, forming double bonds: peced (@) Atriple bond is formed inthe ritrogen molecule: *N = N¥ 8, The usual number of covalent bonds formed ( to achieve the octet configuration) by the common, ‘elements found in covalent compounds is follows: lement No. of valence electrons No. of covalent bonds formed 9. Exceptions to the octet rule. ‘Some elements can form covalent compounds without obeying the octet rule, For example ‘The central Be atom has only 4 electrons in the valence shell (fewer than @ — incomplete octet) @ The central P atom has 10 electrons in its valence shell (called an expanded octet) i This can only occur in elements that can accommodate more than 8 electrons in its valence shell. The valence shell of phosphorous (n=3) can contain up to 18 electrons (The octet is ‘expanded by using the empty 3d atomic orbitals). (©) Elements from Period 1 (H and He ) can never form compounds with more than 2 electrons in the valence shell (maximum number of electrons: 2) while those from Period 2 cannot form we ‘compounds with more than 8 electrons in their valence shell (maximum 8 electrons) 5 se uke BCNOEN SI Wa My, WSR SG MY % ca taaes we wwProperties of covalent compound: Properties of covalent compounds depend on whether they have a simple molecular structure or 2 giant molecular structure. ‘Simple covalent compounds (coval jar 1, Exist as molecules in solids, liquids or gases. 2 The bonds between atoms in the molecules (intramolecular) are strong covalent bonds wile the bonds between molecules (intermolecular) are weak van der Waals forces. Low melting point, low boiling point, and low enthalpy of vapourisation because of weak van der ‘Waals forces between molecules. Non-conductors of electricity because of the absence of ions. Usually not soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Examples: Cl, CO:, CCl, HO poe Giant covalent e: ds cular (Mo vows dow wauls) Exist as solids under normal conditions 2. High melting point, high boiling point, and high enthalpy of vapourisation because of strong covalent bonds between the atoms. Non-conductor of electricity in the solid or molten state due to the absence of ions, Insoluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents Examples: SiO; (slicon dioxide), SIC (silicon carbide) Drawing Lewis Structures for covalent molecules and polyatomic ion: General Rules ] 4 Determine which atoms are attached to each other or the central atom. The atom thatis least electronegative (except hydrogen) is usually the central atom, Arrange the terminal atoms around the central atom. ‘Add up al the valence electrons of the atoms. fits an ion, add one electron for each negative charge and ‘subtract one electron for each positive charge. 3, Plave one pair of electrons between the central atom and each terminal atom, forming a bond ( can be indicated by aline-—) 44, Complete the octet of all the terminal atoms bonded tothe central atom. (Note: Duplet for hydrogen) 5 Place any let over electrons onthe central atom in pairs 68. the central atom has less than an octet, then pais of electrons must be moved tot from the terminal stoms to ‘orm multiple Bends s0 that each atom has an octet [P These guidelines cannot be used for all compounds. Exceptions wil exis. {mae structures only show the bonds and distibution of electrons around the atoms, Lewis structures do not ‘show the structure or shape of the actual molecule or species] Draw the Lewis structure for the following species. Indicate the central atom that has an incomplete octet, ‘a complete octet and an expanded octet. repre TE (@) cel, ed qu (2) SFa . abe c ee els St S be . Rolston sel 206 Srstny apy qe we Fe. ve ce aoe ye e @) Ho (yr so. ~~ g ee i 20-$—0 ¥ de» We si 2 6 (se >[Bond Energy and bond fength] (inverse yropevtiwal) 1. (@) The strenath of the covalent bond is measured by the bond energy which isthe amount of nergy requited to break a covalent bond, per mole of bonds. The greater the bond eneray,the stronger the bond. {b) Covalent compounds with small bond enerales decompose easly when heated; e.g. hydrogen iodide (HI) decomposes when heated to red heat due tothe weaker H+! bond: but hydrogen chlonde (HC) does not. Yond \eKsin a HL> tcl (@ Some molecules are very unreactivé because oftheir very large bond energies. The nitrogen molecule (Nz) is unreactive because of the very large bond energy of 944 kmol". A farge amount of energy must be supplied tothe Nz molecule to break the triple bond before nitrogen can react with other elements 2. (@) The covalent bond length is the distance between the nuclei ofthe two atoms in the bond. (0) In general, the shorter the bond length, the greater the bond energy, the stronger the covalent bond. Voind trurgy WVINe Word < AUPE Yond < sagie Vea 4. Some Lewis structures do not represent the true nature of the molecule or the ion it portrays. For ‘example, the bond length and bond energy determined experimentally may not correspond with that shown in the Lewis structure drawn, This is true of many polyatomic molecules and ions, 2. In some cases, more than one Lewis structure may be possible. The true structure may lie somewhere in between and cannot be drawn with Lewis symbols, The true structure is called a resonance hybrid and the Lewis structures that contribute to the real structures are called resonance structures.3. Examples : Draw Lewis diagrams representing possible resonance structures and the corresponding resonance hybrid structure for each of the species below: Resonance hybrid Resonance Structures structure @ so, ots Ui be BC NO PNe o ba mg MLSE RS Ct BH rome 8 K ca ee & bese cs Fe ba Rr ORS