Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.
2
Error Analysis
1) Accuracy
Degree of closeness in which a measured value approaches a true value of a quantity under
measurement.
When accuracy is measured in terms of error :
Guaranteed accuracy error (GAE) is measured with respect to full scale deflation.
Limiting error (in terms of measured value)
GAE * Full scale deflection
LE
Measured value
2) Precision
Degree of closeness with which reading in produced again & again for same value of input
quantity.
3) Sensitivity
Change the output quantity per unit change in input quantity.
qo
S
qi
4) Resolution
Smallest change in input which can be measured by an instrument
5) Threshold
Minimum input required to get measurable output by an instrument
6) Zero Drift
Entire calibration shifts gradually due to permanent set
3
7) Span Drift
If there is proportional change in indication all along upward scale is called span drift.
TYPES OF ERROR
a) Gross Error : Error due to human negligency, i.e. due to loose connection, reading the value
etc.
b) Systematic error : Errors are common for all observers like instrumental errors,
environmental errors and observational errors.
c) Random errors : Error due to unidentified causes & may be positive or negative.
Absolute Errors :
A Am Ar
Am Measured value
Ar True value
Relative Errors :
AbsoluteErrors A
r =
Truevalue AT
Am
A A A 1
1 r T T m r
4
Composite Error :
i) Sum of quantities
X X1 X2
x x1 x2
So, for multiplication & division, fractional or relative errors are added.
X1m Xm2
If X
Xp3
X X X X
m 1 n 2 p 3
X X1 X2 X3
Precision Index
1
h
2
5
Probable Error
r = 0.6745
0.4769
r
h
2 2 2
X 2 X 2 X 2
x x1 x2 ...... xn
X1 X2 Xn
Probable Error
2 2 2
X 2 X 2 X 2
rx rx1 rx2 ...... rxn
X1 X 2 Xn
Electro-Mechanical Instruments
1) Permanent magnet moving Coil (PMMC)
Deflecting Torque
Td = nIAB
A = Area of coil
G
Deflection I
k
6
Enhancement of PMMC
i) Ammeter
For using PMMC as an ammeter with wide range, we connect a small shunt resistance in
parallel to meter.
I
m multiplication factor
Im
Basically, ‘m’ is ratio of final range (as an ammeter) to initial range of instrument.
Rm
R sh ; R m = meter resistance
m 1
ii) Voltmeter
A series multiples resistance of high magnitude is connected in series with the meter.
M = multiplication factor
V
m
Vm
R s Rm m 1
Sensitivity of voltmeter
Sv
1
Rs Rm / V
Ifsd V
Application of PMMC
7
2VRMS
Rs Rm Rf
0.45VRMS
Iavg ; For Ac input
R s R m R f
For DC input
VDC
Iavg
Rs Rm Rf
I
avg AC 0.45 Iavg DC
(Assuming VDC VRMS )
(Sensitivity)AC 0.45(Sensitivity)DC
1 2 dL
Deflecting torque, Td I
2 d
L = Inductance
= deflection
8
1 2 dL
K I
2 d
I2
MI meter measures both ac & dc quantities. In case of AC, It measures RMS value.
1
1 T 2
IRMS i2 t dt
T 0
3) Elector dynamometer
dM
Deflecting Torque, Td i1 i2
d
For DC, i1 i2 I
dM
Td I2
d
I2
i2 Im2 sin t
dM
Tdavg I1I2 cos
d
Im1 I2
Where I1 & I2
2 2
9
Applications of dynamometer
1) Ammeter
Fixed coils are connected in series.
I1 I2 I
0 (Angel between I1 & I2 )
dM
Td I2
d
At balance, Tc Td
dM
K I2
d
I2
2) Voltmeter
V
I2 I1 , 0
Rs
cos 1
V 2 dM
Td
R 2s d
At balance, Td Tc
V 2 dM
K V2
R s2 d
10
3) Wattmeter
Fixed coils carry same current as load & as called as current coils.
Moving coil is connected across voltage and thus current voltage, a high non-inductive
load is connected in series with MC to limit the current.
dM
Td I1 I2 cos
d
V dM Pavg dM
I cos
Rs d R s d
At balance, k Td
Pavg
Symbol :
VL IL cos 30
VL IL cos 30
11
IL is line current
P3 W1 W2
3VL IL cos
Q3 3 W2 W1
3VL IL sin
Q3 3 W2 W1
tan
P3 W1 W2
3 W2 W1
tan1 for lag load
W1 W2
3 W2 W1
tan1 for lead load
W1 W2
Errors in wattmeter
IL2rc
% r * 100
PT
IL = load current
rC = CC Resistance
PT = True Power
V2
% r * 100
R sPT
V = voltage across PC
12
Rs = Series multiplier resistance
PT = True Power
Zp Rp R s jwLp
Rp R s Zp R s jwLp
= load pf angle
Lp
tan1
Rs
4) Energy meter
VIcos t
WT * kwhr
1000 3600
WT = True energy
13
VI cos t
True Energy = WT * kw.hr
1000 3600
W WT
Error = % r m * 100
WT
If friction is over compensated by placing shading loop nearer to PC, then disc starts rotating
slow with only PC excited without connecting any load is creeping.
Otherwise if over voltage is applied on pressure coil then also creeping may happen due to
stray magnetic fields.
To remove creeping holes are kept on either side of disc diametrically opposite & the torque
experienced by both holes is opposite & they stop creeping.
TotalNo.of Re w / kwhr due to creeping
% creeping error = * 100
TotalNo.of Re w / kwhr due to load
Thermal Instruments
These instruments work on the principle of heating and are called as Thermal Instruments.
These are used for high frequency measurements.
They can measure both AC & DC.
In case of AC, they measure RMS value.
Electrostatic voltmeter
1 2 dc
Deflecting torque, Td V
2 d
At Balance,
Td Tc
1 2 dc
V k
2 d
V2
14
dc
cons tant
d
Cm V
Cs ; m
m 1 Vm
VB
Iw _____________(1)
Rh l.r
Switch at (A)
If Ig 0
Vs I w l1r
Vs
Iw _____________(2)
l1r
Switch at (B)
Vx I w l2r
Vx
Iw ________(3)
l2r
Vs Vx
l1r l2r
l2
Vx Vs
l1
15
r = resistance of slide wire (Ω/ m)
VR
R S
Vs
Instrument Transformer
Current transformer
Equivalent circuit
N2
Turns Ratio = Nominal Ratio n
N1
X Xs
tan1 l
Rl R s
I cos I sin
R = Actual Ratio n
Is
16
Errors in current transformer
1) Ratio Error :
Ip
Current ratio is not equal to turns ratio due to no-load component of current.
Is
K R
% r * 100
R
K = n = Nominal Ratio
R = Actual Ratio
Potential Transformer
Equivalent circuit
N2
Turns Ratio = n =
N1
VP
Actual Transformation Ratio = R =
VS
1 IS X
R n RP cos XP sin I RP I XP , Where tan1
R
VS n
IS
XP cos RP sin I XP IRP
Phases angle error n
nVs
17
AC Bridges
AC Bridges
Balance condition : ID 0
Z1 Z 4 Z2 Z3
Z1 Z 4 Z 2 Z3
1 4 2 3
Z 2 Z3
Z1 2 3 4
Z4
2 R wL
Q D
wL R
3 1 D =wcR
Q
wCR
4 Q = wcR 1
D
wCR
Measurement of Inductance
18
R2R3
R1
R4
L2L3
L1
R4
R2R3
R1
R4
L1 R2R3C4
This bridge is only suitable for coils where 1 < Q < 10
Q = Quality Factor
19
(v) Owen’s Bridge
R3C 4
R1
C2
L1 R 2R3C4
Measurement Of Capacitance
De-Sauty’s Bridge
R3
r1 R2 r2 R1
R4
R4
C1 C2
R3
D = dissipation factor
= C1r1
r1 = internal resistance of C1
Schering Bridge
R3C 4
R1
C2
R 4 C2
C1
R3
dissipation factor = D = C4R 4
Measurement of frequency
Wien Bridge Oscillator
Balancing Condition
R3 R1 C2
R4 R2 C1
Frequency of Osculation
1
f
2 R1R2C1C2
20
Measurement of Resistance
Classification of Resistance
1) Low Resistance : R ≤ 1Ω , Motor and Generator
2) Medium Resistance : 1Ω < R < 100kΩ , Electronic equipment
3) High Resistance : R > 100 kΩ, winding insulation of electrical motor
DC Bridges
1. Wheatstone Bridge
Vth
Ig
R th R g
P R
VTh V
P Q R S
PQ RS
R Th
PQ R S
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Sensitivities
1) Current sensitivity , Si mm/mA
Ig
= deflection of Galvan meter in mm
2) Voltage sensitivity, S mm/V
VTh
3) Bridge Sensitivity , SB mm
R /R
VThS v
SB
R / R
V.S v
SB
R S SR 2
For Maximum Sensitivity
R S = 1
S R
V.S v
SB, max
4
22
3. Voltmeter Ammeter Method
4. Ohmmeter
a) Series Type
when R X 0
23
for Half scale deflection
R .Rm
R X Rh R se sh
R Rm
sh
b) Shunt Type
RS = current limiting resistor
If R X 0
Im 0 = zero deflection
If R x
Im IFSD = Full scale deflection
For Half scale Deflection
RmRS
R x Rh
Rm R S
0.4343t
R
V
C log10
VC
24
t = time in (seconds)
V = source voltage
VC = Capacitor voltage
25
Lissajous Pattern
If both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRT is applied with the sinusoidal signal,
the wave form pattern appearing on screen is called Lissajous Pattern.
Case – 1: Both signals have same frequency
Vx Vm sin w x t
Vy Vm sin w y t
Vx Vy Vm
wx w y w
= variable
S.No Lissayous Pattern
1
0 or 360
0 90
Or
270 360
3
90 or 270
90 270
Or
180 270
180
26
Finding
1) Lissajous Pattern in Ist & IIIrd Quadrant
X 1 Y1
sin1 1 sin
X
2 Y2
for anti-clockwise orientation phase difference = (360 - )
for clockwise orientation, phase difference =
Case – 2
wx w y
Vx Vm sinwx t
Vy Vm sinwy t
wy fy Number of horizental tangencies
wx fx Number of vertical tangencies
fy 4
2
fx 2
27
Digital Meters
10 5 2.5 1.25
T1 1 0 0 0 10V < 12V
T2 1 1 0 0 15V > 12 V
T3 1 0 1 0 12.5 > 12 V
T4 1 0 0 1 11.25 < 12 V
In first clock cycle, MSB is set to get voltage corresponding to the digital o/p
If V0 < Va , then in next cycle next bit is set else,
If V0 > Va , MSB is reset & next bit is set
We continue the same process till we reach LSB.
28
Specifications of Digital Voltmeter
1) Resolution
The smallest value of input that can be measured by digital meter is called resolution.
1
R
10n
n = No. of full Digits (0, 1,….., 9)
2) Sensitivity
S = Resolution x Range
3) Over – Ranging
The extra 1
2 digit is called over-ranging
If n = 3, we can measure from 0 – 999
1
Resolution , R 0.001
103
if n 3 1 digit, 1 digit can be 0 & 1.
2 2
we can measure from 0 – 1999
1
Resolution, R 0.005
2000
if 3
4 digit is there than MSB can be 0 – 3.
4) Total Error
Full Scale
Error = (% error in reading) x reading + (NO. of counts)
Range of meter
29
Q–meter / Voltage Magnifier
Practical Q-meter
Also includes series resistance of source (oscillator)
wL
True Q T
R
wL wL QT
Measured Q, Qm
R Rsh R R
R 1 sh 1 sh
R R
R
Q T Qm 1 sh
R
30
Measurement of unknown capacitance
Test capacitance is connected at T3 & T4 .
Circuit is resonated at C = C1
1
fr = ………(1)
2 2 C1 CT
C T = Test Capacitance
C T is removed & circuit is resonated at C = C2
1
fr = ………(2)
2 LC2
from (1) & (2)
CT C2 C1
Measurement of self-capacitance
Resonance is achieved at C = C1
1
f1
2 L C1 Cd
At C = C2 , resonance is achieved at fr2
1
f2 = n f1,
2 L C2 Cd
C1 n2C2
Cd
n2 1
31