Contents

Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

Error Analysis .......................................................................................... 3
Electro-Mechanical Instruments ............................................................. 6
Potentiometer / Null Detector .............................................................. 15
Instrument Transformer ....................................................................... 16
AC Bridges ............................................................................................. 18
Measurement of Resistance ................................................................. 21
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) ........................................................... 25
Digital Meters ....................................................................................... 28
Q–meter / Voltage Magnifier ................................................................ 30

© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

1
 Manual for K-Notes

Why K-Notes?

Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.

What are K-Notes?

A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.

When do I start using K-Notes?

It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).

How do I use K-Notes?

Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.

© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

2
Error Analysis

Static characteristics of measuring system

1) Accuracy
Degree of closeness in which a measured value approaches a true value of a quantity under
measurement.
When accuracy is measured in terms of error :
 Guaranteed accuracy error (GAE) is measured with respect to full scale deflation.
 Limiting error (in terms of measured value)
GAE * Full scale deflection
LE 
Measured value

2) Precision
Degree of closeness with which reading in produced again & again for same value of input
quantity.

3) Sensitivity
Change the output quantity per unit change in input quantity.
qo
S
qi
4) Resolution
Smallest change in input which can be measured by an instrument

5) Threshold
Minimum input required to get measurable output by an instrument

6) Zero Drift
Entire calibration shifts gradually due to permanent set

3
7) Span Drift
If there is proportional change in indication all along upward scale is called span drift.

8) Dead zone & Dead time

The range of input for which there is no output this portion is called Dead zone.
To respond the pointer takes a minimum time is called dead time.

TYPES OF ERROR

a) Gross Error : Error due to human negligency, i.e. due to loose connection, reading the value
etc.
b) Systematic error : Errors are common for all observers like instrumental errors,
environmental errors and observational errors.
c) Random errors : Error due to unidentified causes & may be positive or negative.

Absolute Errors :

A  Am  Ar

Am  Measured value

Ar  True value

Relative Errors :

AbsoluteErrors  A
r = 
Truevalue AT

Am
 A  A  A 1 
1 r  T T m r

4
Composite Error :

i) Sum of quantities
X  X1  X2
x    x1  x2 

ii) Difference of quantities

X  X1  X2
x    x1  x2 
So for sum & difference absolute errors are added.

iii) Multiplication of quantities

X  X1  X2  X3
X  X X X 
  1  2  3 
X  X1 X2 X3 
iv) Division of quantities
X
X 1
X2
X  X X 
  1  2 
X  X1 X2 

So, for multiplication & division, fractional or relative errors are added.

X1m Xm2
If X 
Xp3

X  X X X 
  m 1  n 2  p 3 
X  X1 X2 X3 

Precision Index

Indicates the precision for a distribution

1
h
2

5
 Probable Error

r = 0.6745 

0.4769
r
h

Standard deviation of combination of quantities

2 2 2
 X  2  X  2  X  2
x    x1    x2  ......    xn
 X1   X2   Xn 

Probable Error

2 2 2
 X  2  X  2  X  2
rx    rx1    rx2  ......    rxn
 X1   X 2   Xn 

Electro-Mechanical Instruments
1) Permanent magnet moving Coil (PMMC)
Deflecting Torque
Td = nIAB

Where n = no. of turns

I = current flowing in coil

A = Area of coil

B = magnetic flux density

G
Deflection   I
k

G = NBA & K = Spring constant

 Eddy current damping & spring control torque in used.

 For pure AC signal, the pointer vibrates around zero position.
 It is used to measured DC or average quantity.
 It can directly read only up to 50mV or 100mA.

6
 Enhancement of PMMC

i) Ammeter

For using PMMC as an ammeter with wide range, we connect a small shunt resistance in
parallel to meter.

I
 m  multiplication factor
Im

Basically, ‘m’ is ratio of final range (as an ammeter) to initial range of instrument.

Rm
R sh  ; R m = meter resistance
m  1 

ii) Voltmeter

A series multiples resistance of high magnitude is connected in series with the meter.

M = multiplication factor

V
m
Vm

R s  Rm m  1 

Sensitivity of voltmeter

Sv 
1

Rs  Rm   / V
Ifsd V

Application of PMMC

1) Half wave rectifier meter

I
I  Iavg  m


7
 2VRMS

Rs  Rm  Rf  
0.45VRMS
 Iavg   ; For Ac input
R s  R m  R f 
For DC input

VDC
 Iavg  
Rs  Rm  Rf 
I 
avg AC  0.45 Iavg   DC
(Assuming VDC  VRMS )

(Sensitivity)AC  0.45(Sensitivity)DC

2) Full wave rectifier meter

2 2VRMS
 Iavg  AC

Rs  Rm  2R f  
0.9VRMS

Rs  Rm  2R f 
VDC
 Iavg DC 
Rs  Rm  2Rf 
 Iavg  AC
 DC (Assuring V
 0.9 Iavg RMS  VDC )

Sensitivity AC  0.9 Sensitivity DC

2) Moving iron meter

1 2 dL
Deflecting torque, Td  I
2 d

I = current flowing throw the meter

L = Inductance

 = deflection

Under steady state

8
 1 2 dL
K  I
2 d

  I2

 MI meter measures both ac & dc quantities. In case of AC, It measures RMS value.
1
1 T  2
IRMS    i2  t  dt 
T 0 

 If i  t   I0  I1 sin wt  I2 sin2wt  .......

1 2 2
IRMS  I20 
2
 I1  I2  ....... 
 Air friction Damping is used
 Condition for linearity
dL
  cons tant
d
 MI meter cannot be used beyond 125Hz, as then eddy current error is constant.

3) Elector dynamometer

dM
Deflecting Torque, Td  i1 i2
d

For DC, i1  i2  I

dM
Td  I2
d

  I2

For AC, i1  Im1 sin t

i2  Im2 sin  t  

dM
Tdavg  I1I2 cos 
d
Im1 I2
Where I1  & I2 
2 2

9
 Applications of dynamometer

1) Ammeter
Fixed coils are connected in series.
I1  I2  I
0 (Angel between I1 & I2 )
dM
Td  I2
d

At balance, Tc  Td

dM
K  I2
d

  I2

It reads both AC & DC & for AC it reads RMS.

2) Voltmeter

Rs  Series multiplier resistance

V
I2  I1  , 0
Rs

cos   1

V 2 dM
Td 
R 2s d

At balance, Td  Tc

V 2 dM
K     V2
R s2 d

It reads both AC & DC & for AC it reads RMS.

10
3) Wattmeter

Fixed coils carry same current as load & as called as current coils.

Moving coil is connected across voltage and thus current  voltage, a high non-inductive
load is connected in series with MC to limit the current.

dM
Td  I1 I2 cos 
d

V dM Pavg dM
I cos  
Rs d R s d

At balance, k  Td

  Pavg

Symbol :

Two wattmeter method

W1  VRY IR cos  VRY & IR 

 VL IL cos 30   

W2  VBY IB cos  VBY & IB 

 VL IL cos 30   

Where VL is line to line voltage

11
 IL is line current

These expression remain same for  -connected load.

P3  W1  W2

 3VL IL cos 

Q3  3  W2  W1 

 3VL IL sin 
Q3 3  W2  W1 
 tan   
P3  W1  W2 
 3  W2  W1  
  tan1   for lag load
  W1  W2  
 3  W2  W1  
   tan1   for lead load
  W1  W2  

= Remember, In our case W1 is wattmeter connected to R-phase and W2 is wattmeter

connected to B-phase.

= If one of the wattmeter indicates negative sign, then pf < 0.5

Errors in wattmeter

a) Due to potential coil connection

IL2rc
% r  * 100
PT

IL = load current

rC = CC Resistance

PT = True Power

V2
% r  * 100
R sPT

V = voltage across PC

12
 Rs = Series multiplier resistance

PT = True Power

b) Due to self inductance of PC

If PC has finite inductance

 
Zp  Rp  R s  jwLp

Rp  R s Zp  R s  jwLp

% r  tan  tan *100

 = load pf angle

  Lp 
  tan1  
 Rs 
 

4) Energy meter

Energy = Power * Time

VIcos  t
WT  * kwhr
1000 3600

WT = True energy

 It is based on principle of induction.

 It is an integrating type instrument.
t
 Wm  VIsin     * kwhr
3600
Where Wm = measured Energy
 = angle between potential coil voltage & flux produced by it.
 = load pf angle
 Error = Wm  WT
No.of Re voluations N
 Energy constant = 
kwhr P.t
Totalno.ofrevolutions
 Measured Energy = Wm 
K

13
 VI cos  t
 True Energy = WT  * kw.hr
1000 3600
W  WT
 Error = % r  m * 100
WT

Creeping Error in energy meter

 If friction is over compensated by placing shading loop nearer to PC, then disc starts rotating
slow with only PC excited without connecting any load is creeping.
 Otherwise if over voltage is applied on pressure coil then also creeping may happen due to
stray magnetic fields.
 To remove creeping holes are kept on either side of disc diametrically opposite & the torque
experienced by both holes is opposite & they stop creeping.
TotalNo.of Re w / kwhr due to creeping
% creeping error = * 100
TotalNo.of Re w / kwhr due to load

Thermal Instruments

 These instruments work on the principle of heating and are called as Thermal Instruments.
 These are used for high frequency measurements.
 They can measure both AC & DC.
 In case of AC, they measure RMS value.

Electrostatic voltmeter

1 2  dc 
Deflecting torque, Td  V  
2  d 

At Balance,

Td  Tc

1 2 dc
V  k
2 d

  V2

Condition for linearity

14
 dc
  cons tant
d

For increasing the range, we connect another capacitor in series

To increase the range from Vm to V

Cm V
Cs  ; m
m  1  Vm

Potentiometer / Null Detector

Iw = working current

VB
Iw  _____________(1)
Rh  l.r

Switch at (A)

If Ig  0

Vs  I w l1r

Vs
Iw  _____________(2)
l1r

Switch at (B)

Vx  I w l2r

Vx
Iw  ________(3)
l2r

Vs Vx

l1r l2r

l2
Vx  Vs
l1

15
 r = resistance of slide wire (Ω/ m)

l = Total length of slide wire (m)

l1 = length at which standard cell ( Vs ) is balanced

l2 = length at which test voltage ( Vx ) is balanced

Measuring a low resistance

VR
R S
Vs

Instrument Transformer
 Current transformer
Equivalent circuit

N2
Turns Ratio = Nominal Ratio  n 
N1

 X  Xs 
  tan1  l 
 Rl  R s 

I cos   I sin 
R = Actual Ratio  n 
Is

16
 Errors in current transformer

1) Ratio Error :
Ip
Current ratio is not equal to turns ratio due to no-load component of current.
Is
K R
% r  * 100
R
K = n = Nominal Ratio
R = Actual Ratio

2) Phase Angel Ratio :

Ideally, Phase difference between Ip & Is should be 1800 but due to no-load component of
current, it deviates from that value.
I cos   I sin  180
Phase angle error =   * degrees
nIs 
Phase angle between primary & secondary currents
= 180    degrees

 Potential Transformer
Equivalent circuit

N2
Turns Ratio = n =
N1
VP
Actual Transformation Ratio = R =
VS

1  IS  X 
R  n  RP cos   XP sin    I RP  I XP  , Where   tan1 
R 
VS  n   
 IS 
  XP cos   RP sin    I XP  IRP 
Phases angle error    n 
 nVs 
 
 

17
AC Bridges

 AC Bridges
Balance condition : ID  0
Z1 Z 4  Z2 Z3
 Z1 Z 4  Z 2 Z3

  1  4     2  3 

Z 2 Z3
Z1    2  3  4 
Z4

Quality Factor & dissipation factor

Quality Factor (Q) Dissipation Factor
(D)
1 wL R
Q D
R wL

2 R wL
Q D
wL R

3 1 D =wcR
Q
wCR

4 Q = wcR 1
D
wCR

Measurement of Inductance

(i) Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Here, we try to measure R1 & L1

18
 R2R3
R1 
R4
L2L3
L1 
R4

(ii) Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge

R2R3
R1 
R4
L1  R2R3C4
This bridge is only suitable for coils where 1 < Q < 10
Q = Quality Factor

(iii) Hay’s Bridge

Used for coils having high Q value
R 2R 3R 4 2 C24
R1  2
1
1 
Q
R 2R3C 4
L1  2
1
1 
Q
1
Q
R 4 C 4

(iv) Anderson’s Bridge

This Bridge is used for low Q coils.

R2R3
R1   r1
R4
CR3
L1  R  R 4  r  R2R3 
R4  2 

19
(v) Owen’s Bridge

R3C 4
R1 
C2
L1  R 2R3C4

Measurement Of Capacitance
 De-Sauty’s Bridge
R3
r1  R2  r2   R1
R4
R4
C1  C2
R3
D = dissipation factor
= C1r1
r1 = internal resistance of C1

 Schering Bridge
R3C 4
R1 
C2
R 4 C2
C1 
R3
dissipation factor = D = C4R 4

Measurement of frequency
 Wien Bridge Oscillator
Balancing Condition
R3 R1 C2
 
R4 R2 C1
Frequency of Osculation
1
f
2 R1R2C1C2

20
Measurement of Resistance

Classification of Resistance
1) Low Resistance : R ≤ 1Ω , Motor and Generator
2) Medium Resistance : 1Ω < R < 100kΩ , Electronic equipment
3) High Resistance : R > 100 kΩ, winding insulation of electrical motor

DC Bridges

Medium Resistance Measurement

1. Wheatstone Bridge

Finding Theremin Equivalent

Vth
Ig 
R th  R g
 P R 
VTh  V   
P  Q R  S 
PQ RS
R Th  
PQ R S

For Balance Condition

Ig  0
 VTh  0
 PS = RQ

21
Sensitivities

1) Current sensitivity , Si  mm/mA
Ig
 = deflection of Galvan meter in mm

2) Voltage sensitivity, S   mm/V
VTh

3) Bridge Sensitivity , SB  mm
 R /R 
VThS v
SB 
 R / R 
V.S v
SB 
 R S  SR  2
For Maximum Sensitivity
R S = 1
S R
V.S v
SB, max 
4

2. Carey –foster slide wire Bridge

r = slide wire resistance in 
m .
for case (1).
At balance
P R  1r
 ………….(1)
Q S  L  1  r
For case (2)
R & S is reversed
P S  2r
 ………..(2)
Q R  L  2  r
From (1) & (2)
R 1r S 2r

S  L  1 r R  L  2 r

22
3. Voltmeter Ammeter Method

a) Ammeter near the load

Vv
Rm   RX  RA
IA
Vv = voltage across voltmeter
I A = Ammeter current
R X = Test resistance, R A = Animator resistance
Rm  R T RA
% error =  100   100%
RT Rx

b) Voltmeter near the load

Vv VX
Rm  
IA IX  Iv
1 R XR v
Rm  
IX I v RX  Rv

VX VX
Rm  R X
% error =  100%
RX

If R X  R aR v , voltmeter is connected near the load

R X  RaR v , ammeter is connected near the load

4. Ohmmeter

a) Series Type
when R X  0

Im  IFSD = Full scale deflection

when R X  
Im  0 = zero deflection

23
 for Half scale deflection
 R .Rm 
R X  Rh  R se   sh
 R  Rm 
 sh 

b) Shunt Type
RS = current limiting resistor
If R X  0
Im  0 = zero deflection
If R x  
Im  IFSD = Full scale deflection
For Half scale Deflection
RmRS
R x  Rh 
Rm  R S

Measurement of Low Resistance

 Kelvin’s Double Bridge Method

Unknown resistance
P qr  P p 
R S   
Q pqr Q q
P, Q = outer ratio arms
p, q = inner ratio arms
S = standard resistance
r = lead resistance
R = Test resistance

High Resistance Measurement

 Loss of charge Method

t
VC  t   Ve Rc

0.4343t
R
 V 
C log10  
 VC 

24
 t = time in (seconds)
V = source voltage
VC = Capacitor voltage

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

 The velocity of e is changed by changing the pre-accelerating & accelerating anode

potential
KE =PE
1
mv 2  qVa
2
2qVa

m
 Deflection sensitivity

D = deflection height on screen

d = distance between plates
d = length of vertical deflecting plates
L = distance between centre of plate & screen
Va = anode potential
Vy = Vertical plate Potential
L d Vy
D V
2dVa mm
deflection sensitivity
D L d
S  V
Vy 2dVa mm

25
Lissajous Pattern
If both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRT is applied with the sinusoidal signal,
the wave form pattern appearing on screen is called Lissajous Pattern.
Case – 1: Both signals have same frequency
Vx  Vm sin  w x t 


Vy  Vm sin w y t   
Vx  Vy  Vm
wx  w y  w
 = variable
S.No  Lissayous Pattern
1

  0 or 360

0    90
Or
270    360
3

  90 or 270

90    270
Or
180    270

  180

26
Finding 
1) Lissajous Pattern in Ist & IIIrd Quadrant
X  1  Y1 
  sin1  1   sin  
X
 2   Y2 
for anti-clockwise orientation phase difference = (360 -  )
for clockwise orientation, phase difference = 

2) Lissajous Pattern in IInd & IVth Quadrant

X 
  180  sin1  1 
 X2 
Y 
 180  sin1  1 
 Y2 
for clockwise orientation, phase difference = 
for anti-clockwise orientation = 360   

Case – 2
wx  w y
Vx  Vm sinwx t
Vy  Vm sinwy t
wy fy Number of horizental tangencies
 
wx fx Number of vertical tangencies

fy 4
 2
fx 2

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Digital Meters

Type of converter Maximum Conversion Time

1) Dual slope ADC 2n1 Clocks
2) Successive Approximation Register (ADC) n Clocks
3) Counter ADC 2n Clocks
4) Flash ADC 1 Clock

 Dual slope A/D Converter

Va = analog input
VR = Reference input
VR
Va 
T1
 T2  T1 
T1  2n TCLK
Maximum conversion time = 2n1 TCLK

 Successive Approximation Register

Suppose = VREF  1a V
and Va = 12V
D3 D2 D1 D0

10 5 2.5 1.25
T1 1 0 0 0  10V < 12V
T2 1 1 0 0  15V > 12 V
T3 1 0 1 0  12.5 > 12 V
T4 1 0 0 1  11.25 < 12 V

 In first clock cycle, MSB is set to get voltage corresponding to the digital o/p
 If V0 < Va , then in next cycle next bit is set else,
 If V0 > Va , MSB is reset & next bit is set
 We continue the same process till we reach LSB.

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Specifications of Digital Voltmeter
1) Resolution
The smallest value of input that can be measured by digital meter is called resolution.
1
R
10n
n = No. of full Digits (0, 1,….., 9)

2) Sensitivity
S = Resolution x Range

3) Over – Ranging
The extra 1
2 digit is called over-ranging
If n = 3, we can measure from 0 – 999
1
Resolution , R   0.001
103
if n  3 1 digit, 1 digit can be 0 & 1.
2 2
we can measure from 0 – 1999
1
Resolution, R   0.005
2000
if 3
4 digit is there than MSB can be 0 – 3.

4) Total Error
Full Scale
Error = (% error in reading) x reading + (NO. of counts) 
Range of meter

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Q–meter / Voltage Magnifier

 If works on the principal of series resonance.

At series resonance
XL  XC
V
I
R
VC  IX C
XC XL
V V
R R
VC = V. Q
VC  Q

 Practical Q-meter
Also includes series resistance of source (oscillator)

wL
True Q T 
R
wL wL QT
Measured Q, Qm   
R  Rsh   R   R 
R  1  sh   1  sh 
 R   R 
 R 
Q T  Qm  1  sh 
 R 

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 Measurement of unknown capacitance
Test capacitance is connected at T3 & T4 .
Circuit is resonated at C = C1

1
fr = ………(1)
2 2  C1  CT 
C T = Test Capacitance
 C T is removed & circuit is resonated at C = C2
1
fr = ………(2)
2 LC2
from (1) & (2)
CT  C2  C1

 Measurement of self-capacitance
 Resonance is achieved at C = C1
1
f1 
2 L  C1  Cd 
At C = C2 , resonance is achieved at fr2

1
f2  = n f1,
2  L  C2  Cd 

C1  n2C2
Cd 
n2  1

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