(1.

) Memory Hierarchy:-
In practice, a memory system is a hierarchy of storage devices with different
capacities, costs, and access times.

What is the rationale for having a memory Hierarchy:-

Because it has a big impact on the performance of the applications .In the
level of hierarchy to limit waiting by higher levels, a lower level will respond by filling
a buffer and then signaling to active the transfer.
(2.)

i. Latency:-
In a network, latency is an expression of how much time it takes for a packet of
data to get from one designated point to another. In some usages, latency is
measured by sending a packet that is returned to the sender and the round-trip
time is considered the latency.

ii. Memory Controller:-

Every computer has within it a hardware logic circuit called the memory
controller. This is the part of the system that, well, controls the memory. It
generates the necessary signals to control the reading and writing of information
from and to the memory, and interfaces the memory with the other major parts of
the system. The memory controller is normally integrated into the system chipset.

iii. Memory bus:-

The memory bus is the computer bus which connects the main memory to the
memory controller in computer systems. And it is used to transfer information
between the CPU and main memory the RAM in the system.

iv. Little-endian:-
Those are the terms that describe the order in which a sequence of bytes are
stored in computer memory. Describes a computer architecture in which, within a
given 16- or 32-bit word, bytes at lower addresses have lower significance.

v. Big-endian:-
Those are the terms that describe the order in which a sequence of bytes are
stored in computer memory. Describes a computer architecture in which, Big-
endian is an order in which the "big end" (most significant value in the sequence) is
stored first (at the lowest storage address).

vi. Virtual Memory:-

Virtual memory combines your computer’s RAM with temporary space on your hard
disk. And in other words Virtual Memory is a feature of an operating system that
enables a process to use a memory (RAM) address space that is independent of
other processes running in the same system, and use a space that is larger than the
actual amount of RAM present, temporarily relegating some contents from RAM to
a disk, with little or no overhead.

(3.)
i.) Random Access Memory (RAM):-
RAM is the best known form of computer memory and easy to upgrade. See more .Random
access memory (RAM) is the best known form of computer memory. RAM is considered
"random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and
column that intersect at that cell. RAM comes in many different packages, referred to as
modules, and there are many different types of RAM all designed to be compatible with a
certain system.

ii.) Magnetic disks:-

The primary computer storage device .Like tape, it is magnetically recorded and can be re-
recorded over and over. Disks are rotating platters with a mechanical arm that moves a
read/write head between the outer and inner edges of the platter's surface. It can take as
long as one second to find a location on a floppy disk to as little as a couple of milliseconds on
a fast hard disk.

iii.) Tape Drives:- A tape

drive is primarily used to back up important information from a computer. The tapes come in
a variety of sizes, from the 20-80 GB range for home users and single computer office use, to
hundreds of gigabytes and even into the terabytes (approximately 1000 gigabytes) for large
servers and entire networks of computers .It can be used manually or set to automatic
operation for a personal computer comes with software that allows the user to easily perform
a number of actions. There it can be used to backup individual files, folders, entire drives, or
the contents of the whole computer. Of course, the most important operation is the ability to
restore any data which is lost or damaged. The tape drive software allows the user to restore
any or all of the saved files with the push of a button.

iv.) Registers:-
Registers are temporary memory units that store words .The registers are located in the
processor, instead of in RAM, so data can be accessed and stored faster .And also a special,
high-speed storage area within the CPU. All data must be represented in a register before it
can be processed.

(4.) Von Neumann Architecture:-

The von Neumann architecture is a computer design model that uses a processing unit and a
single separate storage structure to hold both instructions and data. It is named after
mathematician and early computer scientist John von Neumann. Such a computer implements
a universal Turing machine, and the common "referential model" of specifying sequential
architectures, in contrast with parallel architectures.

(5.)
i. Fixed logic processors and selectable logic processors:-
Fixed Logic Processor
 Least powerful
 Performs a single operation
 Functionality hardwired (cannot be changed)
 Example: processor that computes sine
Selectable Logic Processor
 Slightly more powerful than fixed logic
  Can perform more than one function
 Exact function specified each time processor invoked
 Example: compute sine or cosine

ii. Fixed logic processors and parameterized logic processors:-

Fixed Logic Processor
 Least powerful
 Performs a single operation
 Functionality hardwired (cannot be changed)
 Example: processor that computes sine

Parameterized Logic Processor

 Accepts set of parameters that control computation
 Parameters set for each invocation
 Example
– Compute hash function, h(x)
– Parameters specify constants p and q used in computation.

(6.) The structure of a CPU:-

(8.) The Fetch-Execute cycle of the Von Neumann Architecture:-

The fetch execute cycle is the time period of which the computer reads and processes the
instructions from the memory, and executes them. This process is a continuous cycle which is
used until the computer is turned off or there are no more instructions to process.

 Basis for programmable processors

 Allows processor to move through program steps
 Automatically Implemented by processor hardware