nanomaterials

Article
Green Synthesis, Characterization and Application of
Proanthocyanidins-Functionalized
Gold Nanoparticles
Linhai Biao 1,2,† , Shengnan Tan 3,† , Qinghuan Meng 1,2 , Jing Gao 1,2 , Xuewei Zhang 1,2 ,
Zhiguo Liu 1,2, * and Yujie Fu 1,2, *
1 Key Laboratory of Forest Plant Ecology, Ministry of Education, Northeast Forestry University,
Harbin 150040, China; klp15blh@nefu.edu.cn (L.B.); mengqinghuan@nefu.edu.cn (Q.M.);
gjing_123@hotmail.com (J.G.); xueerzh@hotmail.com (X.Z.)
2 State Engineering Laboratory of Bio-Resource Eco-Utilization, Harbin 150040, China
3 Analysis and Test Center, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China; tsnan_99@hotmail.com
* Corresponding: zguoliu@nefu.edu.cn (Z.L.); yujie_fu@nefu.edu.cn (Y.F.);
Tel.: +86-451-8219-2224 (Z.L.); Fax: +86-451-8210-2082 (Y.F.)
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Received: 21 December 2017; Accepted: 16 January 2018; Published: 21 January 2018

Abstract: Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using plant extracts is one of the more promising
approaches for obtaining environmentally friendly nanomaterials for biological applications and
environmental remediation. In this study, proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold nanoparticles were
synthesized via a hydrothermal method. The obtained gold nanoparticles were characterized by
ultraviolet and visible spectrophotometry (UV-Vis), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR),
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements. UV-Vis and
FTIR results indicated that the obtained products were mainly spherical in shape, and that the
phenolic hydroxyl of proanthocyanidins had strong interactions with the gold surface. TEM and XRD
determination revealed that the synthesized gold nanoparticles had a highly crystalline structure
and good monodispersity. The application of proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold nanoparticles
for the removal of dyes and heavy metal ions Ni2+ , Cu2+ , Cd2+ and Pb2+ in an aqueous solution was
investigated. The primary results indicate that proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold nanoparticles
had high removal rates for the heavy metal ions and dye, which implies that they have potential
applications as a new kind of adsorbent for the removal of contaminants in aqueous solution.

Keywords: proanthocyanidins; gold nanoparticles; heavy metal ions; dye

1. Introduction
Gold nanoparticles are one of the most extensively studied noble metal nanomaterials due to its
potential applications in catalysis, optical and electronic devices, biodiagnostics and medicine [1–3].
Various wet chemical methods have been reported for the synthesis of gold nanoparticles, such as
citrate reduction and the Brust-Schiffrin method [1,4]. It has been discovered that the capping agents
or the shells of gold nanoparticles are very important for their physicochemical properties, toxicity
and applications [2,5,6]. In addition, the development of novel synthetic strategies for the preparation
of monodisperse gold nanoparticles and the assembly of nanoparticles into one- and two-dimensional
structures are critical for their applications [7,8]. Recently, there has been a renewed interest in green
synthesis of nanoparticles [9–14]. For example, gold nanomaterials were synthesized by using plant
extracts as both the reducing and capping agents [15]. Plant extracts that have great potential in heavy
metal accumulation and detoxification are the best candidates for nanoparticle green synthesis and
environmental remediation applications.

Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53; doi:10.3390/nano8010053 www.mdpi.com/journal/nanomaterials

Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 2 of 12

Pomegranates are cultivated and consumed in large quantities in China. Pomegranate peels
(Punica granatum) are usually discarded as waste. However, it has been found that pomegranate
peel contains a significant portion of polyphenols and proanthocyanidins, and has the highest
antioxidant activity among the peel, pulp and seed fractions [16,17]. The extract yield of polyphenols
and proanthocyanidins from pomegranate peels by water extraction was 15–20% and 1.2–9.0%,
respectively [16,18]. Polyphenols and proanthocyanidins are well known for their antioxidant
activity [19–21]. Therefore, the water extract of pomegranate peels could be a potential reducing
compound used for the green synthesis of gold nanoparticles.
Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles using plant extracts can minimize their toxicity, whereas
most chemical methods for the synthesis by using hazardous compounds such as hydrazine, sodium
borohydride, and dimethyl formamide (DMF) as reducing agents results in a more complicated and
time-consuming process for removing the toxic compounds for biomedical applications. Furthermore,
synthesis of metal nanoparticles using plant extracts is very cost effective, and therefore can be used as
an economical and valuable alternative to the large-scale production of metal nanoparticles. In addition,
the full utilization of plant waste is a sustainable path for development.
In this study, we explored using the water extract of pomegranate peels as both a reducing and
a capping agent to prepare gold nanoparticles via a hydrothermal method. Since proanthocyanidins
are the main components of the water extract of pomegranate peels, which are the mixtures of the
several different compounds (nearly one hundred phenolic compounds) [17], we further focused on
the use of proanthocyanidins for the synthesis of gold nanoparticles.
Proanthocyanidins, naturally occurring antioxidants widely available in vegetables, fruits,
nuts, seeds, flowers, and bark, have been reported to possess a broad spectrum of biological,
pharmacological, and therapeutic activities against free radicals and oxidative stress [19,22–24].
To the best of our knowledge, the green synthesis of proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold
nanoparticles has not been thoroughly explored. Furthermore, we investigated the application of
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles for the removal of dyes and heavy metal ions
Ni2+ , Cu2+ , Cd2+ and Pb2+ in an aqueous solution.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
Proanthocyanidins were purchased from the Aladdin Reagent Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China).
Tetrachloroauric (III) acid hydrate was obtained from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. (Shanghai,
China). All other reagents were of analytical purity grade. Ultra-pure water was used throughout this
study, and its resistivity was >18 MΩ·cm.

2.2. Synthesis of Pomegranate Peel Extract Protected Gold Nanoparticles

The dried pomegranate peel was ground into a fine powder and collected through an 80-mesh
sieve. Pomegranate peel powder was degreased with petroleum ether (solid-liquid ratio 1:20) for
1 h, and then filtrated and dried. A microwave-assisted extraction method was used to extract the
pomegranate peel powder. In a conical flask, 2 g of dried peel powder was added to 50 mL of pure
water. After extraction by microwave at 350 w for 70 s, the mixed solution was further extracted at
100 ◦ C for 60 min. The mixed solution was then centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min. The obtained
supernatant was used for the following synthesis. The supernatants were diluted by a factor of 40
with pure water. 0.64 mL of 2% HAuCl4 ·4H2 O aqueous solution was then added to 50 mL of diluted
supernatant. The mixed solution was stirred for 30 min. 40 mL of the final solution was transferred
into a Teflon-lined 50 mL autoclave, and then sealed and maintained at 140 ◦ C for 4 h.
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 3 of 12

2.3. Synthesis of Proanthocyanidin-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles

In a typical experiment, 50 mL of the 0.64 mM proanthocyanidin aqueous solution was prepared
by dissolving proanthocyanidins in pure water. 0.64 mL of the 2% HAuCl4 ·4H2 O aqueous solution
was then added. The mixed solution was stirred for 30 min. 40 mL of the final solution was transferred
into a 50 mL Teflon-lined autoclave, and then sealed and maintained at 140 ◦ C for 4 h. A dark red
solution was obtained, which indicated that proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles had
been produced. The pH of the final gold colloid was approximately 2.5.

2.4. Removal of Heavy Metal Ions and Methylene Blue (MB)

To explore the removal effect on heavy metal ions and methylene blue (MB), gold nanoparticles
were separated from the initial solution by centrifugation. They were obtained by centrifugation at
relative centrifugal force RCF 22,680 g for 15 min. The obtained gold nanoparticles were dried at 60 ◦ C
overnight. In a typical experiment, proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles were added to
35 mL of a 20 mg/L heavy metal ion (Ni2+ , Cu2+ , Cd2+ and Pb2+ ) solution at pH 8.0 or MB solution,
0.0350 g (final concentration of 1 g/L). The mixed solution was shaken at 140 rpm for a predefined time
(generally 6 h). Gold nanoparticles were then centrifuged at RCF 22,680 g for 6 min, and an aliquot
of the supernatant was used to determine the remaining concentration of the heavy metal ions by
flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Based on the obtained concentrations of the heavy metal ions
in the supernatant, the removal rate for heavy metal ions by proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold
nanoparticles could be calculated. The removal efficiency for heavy metal ions by gold nanoparticles
under different pH conditions was also investigated. Gold nanoparticles were added into the 20 mg/L
heavy metal ion solution at pHs varying from 4 to 10 for 6 h, and then the same operations were
performed as mentioned before.

2.5. Characterization of Gold Nanoparticles and Determination of the Concentration of Heavy Metal Ions

2.5.1. UV-Vis Absorption Spectra

UV absorption spectra of the gold colloid were measured by UV-5500 spectrophotometer
(Metash, Shanghai, China). 4 mL of the dilute colloid solution was added into a quartz cuvette
for the measurement.

2.5.2. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

FTIR spectra were measured by IR Affinity-1 (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) using the KBr pellet
method. The sample was prepared by mixing the precipitate of the gold nanoparticles (derived from
the centrifugation of the gold colloid solution) with a small amount of solid KBr. FTIR spectra of the
pure proanthocyanidins was also measured for comparison.

2.5.3. Transmission Electron Microscopy

The produced gold nanomaterials were imaged using a JEM-2100 transmission electron
microscope (JEOL Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) at 200 kV. The samples for TEM characterization were prepared
by placing 5 µL of the as-synthesized gold colloid solution on a carbon coated copper grid and dried
at room temperature.

2.5.4. X-ray Diffraction

Powder X-ray diffraction patterns were record using D/MAX 2200VPC, Tokyo, Japan)
(40 kV/40 mA). The sample for XRD determination was derived from centrifugation of the gold
colloid solution.
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 4 of 12

2.5.5. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry

The metal
Nanomaterials content
2018, 8, 53 was determined by flame atomic absorption spectroscopy equipped 4with of 12
a hollow cathode lamp and an air-acetylene flame (AnalytikJena AG, novAA 350, Jena, Germany).
wavelengths
The wavelengths (nm) used
(nm) for for
used thethe
determination of of
determination the analyses
the analyseswere:
were:copper
copper324.8,
324.8,nickel
nickel 232.0,
232.0, lead
283.3 and Cadmium 228.8. 3
3 −
228.8. Gas flow was 50 dm ··h and
−1 1 andthe
theaspiration
aspirationrate
ratewas
was55cm 3
cm·min
3
·min.−1 .
−1

3. Results and Discussion

3.1.
3.1. UV-Vis
UV-Vis and
and FTIR
FTIR Absorption
Absorption Spectra
Spectra
Figure
Figure 1a 1a shows
shows thethe UV-Vis
UV-Vis absorption
absorption spectra
spectra of of the
the water
water extract
extract of
of the
the pomegranate
pomegranate peels
peels
and the synthesized gold colloid in a typical experiment. The water extract of
and the synthesized gold colloid in a typical experiment. The water extract of the pomegranate peels the pomegranate
peels
had no had no obvious
obvious UV absorption
UV absorption from from
400 nm400 to
nm700to 700
nm, nm, as indicated
as indicated in Figure
in Figure 1a. 1a. There
There is
is an
an absorption
absorption bandband peaking
peaking at at
530 530
nm nm afterthe
after thehydrothermal
hydrothermalprocess,
process,which
whichcan canbebe ascribed
ascribed to
to the
the
plasmon resonance band (PRB) of the gold nanoparticles [25]. The representative
plasmon resonance band (PRB) of the gold nanoparticles [25]. The representative TEM image of the TEM image of the
obtained gold nanoparticles
obtained gold nanoparticles is is shown
shownin inFigure
Figure1b. 1b.The
Thesize
sizedistribution
distributionofofthethegold
gold nanoparticles
nanoparticles is
is indicated
indicated in in
thethe inset.
inset. The
The average
average diameter
diameter of of gold
gold nanoparticles
nanoparticles was
was 13.0
13.0 ± 5.4
± 5.4 nm.nm.AsAs shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 1b,1b,
thethe
sizesize distribution
distribution of the
of the goldgold nanoparticles
nanoparticles is relatively
is relatively broad,
broad, whereinwherein
therethere are
are both
both some large and some small nanoparticles. In order to obtain monodispersed
some large and some small nanoparticles. In order to obtain monodispersed gold nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles,
pure
pure proanthocyanidins
proanthocyanidinswere wereinvestigated
investigatedinin thethe
following
followingsynthesis, since
synthesis, proanthocyanidins
since proanthocyanidins are the
are
main components of the water extract of pomegranate
the main components of the water extract of pomegranate peels. peels.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. (a)
(a) UV-Vis
UV-Vis absorption
absorption spectra
spectra of
of the
the water
water extract
extract of pomegranate peels
of pomegranate peels and
and the
the
synthesized gold
synthesized gold colloid
colloid in
in aa typical
typical experiment;
experiment; (b)
(b) The
The representative
representative TEM
TEM image
image of
of the
the obtained
obtained
gold nanoparticles.
gold nanoparticles.

Figure 2a shows the UV-Vis absorption spectrum of the obtained

Figure 2a shows the UV-Vis absorption spectrum of the obtained proanthocyanidins-
proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold colloid in a typical experiment. The absorption band
functionalized gold colloid in a typical experiment. The absorption band peaking at 532 nm is
peaking at 532 nm is the plasmon resonance band (PRB) of the gold nanoparticles, which is in
the plasmon resonance band (PRB) of the gold nanoparticles, which is in accordance with the previous
accordance with the previous studies [25]. The single PRB also indicates that the obtained gold
studies [25]. The single PRB also indicates that the obtained gold nanomaterials are mainly spherical
nanomaterials are mainly spherical in shape, in accordance with the Mie theory, and did not form
in shape, in accordance with the Mie theory, and did not form agglomerates [26,27]. In most of the
agglomerates [26,27]. In most of the reported cases of green syntheses via plant extracts, the PRBs of
reported cases of green syntheses via plant extracts, the PRBs of the gold nanoparticles were usually
the gold nanoparticles were usually broad and weak [21,28]. Here, the strong PRBs were due to the
broad and weak [21,28]. Here, the strong PRBs were due to the high productivity of gold nanoparticles
high productivity of gold nanoparticles in the synthesis. The stability of the gold colloid can be
in the synthesis. The stability of the gold colloid can be monitored by UV-Vis absorption spectra.
monitored by UV-Vis absorption spectra. The obtained gold colloid was very stable during storage,
The obtained gold colloid was very stable during storage, and could be maintained at room temperature
and could be maintained at room temperature for more than one month without obvious changes. In
for more than one month without obvious changes. In addition, the proanthocyanidin-functionalized
addition, the proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles showed good stability in the
gold nanoparticles showed good stability in the different NaCl concentrations (0.1–0.5 M) and pH
different NaCl concentrations (0.1–0.5 M) and pH solutions (3.0–9.0). The stability of the obtained
solutions (3.0–9.0). The stability of the obtained gold nanoparticles was further verified in the following
gold nanoparticles was further verified in the following centrifugation-redispersion experiments.
centrifugation-redispersion experiments. The proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles
The proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles were collected by centrifugation, as
indicated in the inset in Figure 2a. They were able to be redispersed and recovered in pure water or a
metal salts solution into a stable gold colloid. Figure 2b shows the UV-Vis absorption spectrum of
proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold nanoparticles redispersed in the CuCl2 solution. The UV-Vis
absorption spectrum of the redispersed solution is nearly same as that of the initial solution in the
synthesis. Gold nanoparticles can be further collected by centrifugation to test their adsorption
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 5 of 12

were collected by centrifugation, as indicated in the inset in Figure 2a. They were able to be redispersed
and recovered in pure water or a metal salts solution into a stable gold colloid. Figure 2b shows the
UV-Vis absorption spectrum of proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold nanoparticles redispersed in
the CuCl2 solution. The UV-Vis absorption spectrum of the redispersed solution is nearly same as that
Nanomaterials
of the initial2018, 8, 53 in the synthesis. Gold nanoparticles can be further collected by centrifugation
solution 5 of to
12
test their adsorption ability for heavy metal ions as shown in inset in Figure 2b. It is known that the
ability
commonlyfor heavy metal
used gold ions as shown
nanoparticles in inset
reduced by in Figure
citrate 2b. It is method
or NaBH known that
tendthe commonly
to aggregate in used gold
the repeat
4
nanoparticles reduced byexperiments.
centrifugation-redispersion citrate orThe NaBH methodof proanthocyanidins-functionalized
extra4 stability tend to aggregate in the repeat gold
centrifugation-redispersion
nanoparticles in this study implied that the surfaces of the goldof
experiments. The extra stability proanthocyanidins-functionalized
nanoparticles were well protected by
gold nanoparticles
the associated in this study implied that the surfaces of the gold nanoparticles were well
proanthocyanidins.
protected by the associated proanthocyanidins.

Figure 2.
2. (a)
(a)UV-Vis
UV-Vis absorption
absorption spectra
spectra ofproanthocyanidin-functionalized
of the the proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles
gold nanoparticles solution
solution before
before and after and after
centrifugation; centrifugation;
(b) UV-Vis (b) UV-Vis
absorption spectra absorption spectra of gold
of the proanthocyanidin-functionalized the
nanoparticles redispersed in the 20 mg/L
proanthocyanidin-functionalized CuCl2 solutionredispersed
gold nanoparticles before and after centrifugation.
in the 20 mg/L CuCl2 solution
before and after centrifugation.
Figure 3 shows the FTIR spectrum of the pure proanthocyanidins and proanthocyanidins-
functionalized3goldshows
Figure the FTIR
nanoparticles. spectrumof pure
In the spectrum of proanthocyanidins,
the pure proanthocyanidins
the broad absorption and
proanthocyanidins-functionalized − 1 gold nanoparticles. In the spectrum
band peaking at 3365 cm was ascribed to the formation of the hydrogen bond between phenolic of pure proanthocyanidins,
the broadof
hydroxyl absorption band peaking
proanthocyanidins. The at 3365 cm−1bands
absorption was ascribed to the
at 1610 and formation
1105 cm−1 wereof the hydrogen
attributed bond
to those
between phenolic hydroxyl
of the characteristic functional of groups
proanthocyanidins. The absorption
of poly flavonoids bands at 1610 and 1105
moiety in proanthocyanidins, cm those
whereas
−1 were
attributed to those− 1 of the characteristic functional groups of poly
at 1520 and 777 cm were attributed to the skeletal stretching modes of the aromatic ring and CH flavonoids moiety in
proanthocyanidins, whereas those at 1520 and 777 cm −1 were attributed to the skeletal stretching
out-of-plane deformation of the aromatic rings with two adjacent free hydrogen atoms, respectively,
modes
indicating of the aromatic ring
the prominent and CH
presence out-of-plane(PC)
of procyanidin deformation
structure of the aromatic
[29,30]. In the FTIR rings with two
spectrum of
adjacent free hydrogen atoms, respectively, indicating the prominent presence
proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold nanoparticles, the characteristic absorption bands were quite of procyanidin (PC)
structure
similar to [29,30].
those ofIn the FTIR
standard spectrum of proanthocyanidins-functionalized
proanthocyanidins, except that the absorption band gold nanoparticles,
corresponding to the
the
characteristic absorption bands were
− 1 quite similar to those of standard
hydrogen bond moved to 3200 cm . These results confirmed that proanthocyanidins were associatedproanthocyanidins, except
that the
with goldabsorption
nanoparticles.bandThecorresponding
shift effect atto the
the hydrogen
hydrogen bond
bond moved
region to 3200
implied thatcm
−1. These results
phenolic hydroxyl
confirmed
of the proanthocyanidins had strong interactions with the surface of the gold nanoparticles. at the
that proanthocyanidins were associated with gold nanoparticles. The shift effect
hydrogen
The FTIRbond region ofimplied
spectrum that phenolic hydroxyl of gold
the proanthocyanidin-functionalized the nanoparticles
proanthocyanidins had strong
after adsorption of
interactions
2+ with the surface of the gold nanoparticles.
Cu is also shown in Figure 3. The characteristic absorption bands were quite similar to those of the
The FTIR
standard spectrum of the
proanthocyanidins andproanthocyanidin-functionalized
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold
goldnanoparticles
nanoparticles after adsorption
without Cu2+ ,
of Cu 2+ is also shown in Figure 3. The characteristic absorption bands were quite similar to those of
except that the absorption band corresponding to the hydrogen bond moved to 3420 cm . This result − 1
the
can standard
be ascribed proanthocyanidins
to the coordination and effect
proanthocyanidin-functionalized
of Cu2+ with phenolic hydroxyl gold nanoparticles without
of proanthocyanidin,
Cu , except
2+
which that the
influenced theirabsorption
hydrogenband bondcorresponding
interactions. to the hydrogen bond moved to 3420 cm . This
−1

result can be ascribed to the coordination effect of Cu2+ with phenolic hydroxyl of proanthocyanidin,
which influenced their hydrogen bond interactions.
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 6 of 12
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 6 of 12

Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 6 of 12

Figure
Figure 3. FTIR 3. FTIR spectra
absorption absorption spectra of pure
of pure proanthocyanidins proanthocyanidins
and the and the
proanthocyanidin-functionalized
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles.
gold nanoparticles.

3.2. TEM and XRD

Figure 3. Characterization
FTIR absorption spectra of pure proanthocyanidins and the
3.2. TEM proanthocyanidin-functionalized
and XRD Characterization gold nanoparticles.
Figure 4a shows the representative TEM image of the gold nanoparticles. Most of the gold
Figure 4a shows
nanoparticles were the representative
of spherical shape withTEM imagesize
a narrow of distribution.
the gold nanoparticles.
It has been noticed Most ofsome
that the gold
3.2. TEM and XRD Characterization
nanoparticles were of spherical
gold nanoparticles shared their shape with a narrow
proanthocyanidin size
shell, and distribution. It has like
formed a structure beena plum
noticed that some
pudding
model,Figure 4a shows
as indicated
gold nanoparticles sharedin the
Figure
theirrepresentative
4a. The sizeTEM
proanthocyanidin image
shell,ofof
distribution the
and gold
gold nanoparticles.
theformed a structureisMost
nanoparticles aof
indicated
like theingold
plum the
pudding
nanoparticles
inset. The were
average of spherical
diameter of shape
the with
gold a narrow
nanoparticles size
is distribution.
14.5 ± 2.0 nm It
(n
model, as indicated in Figure 4a. The size distribution of the gold nanoparticles is indicated in the has
= been
100). noticed
Gold that some
nanoparticles
inset.gold
Thenanoparticles
with different
average size shared
can be of
diameter their
theproanthocyanidin
obtained bynanoparticles
gold using a seed shell,
isand
growth14.5formed
± 2.0 anm
method. structure like aGold
For(nexample,
= 100). plum
the pudding
as-prepared
nanoparticles
model, as indicatedininthe
gold nanoparticles Figure
typical 4a.experiment
The size distribution
at 140 °C were of the goldas
added nanoparticles is indicated
seeds to the synthesis in the
solution,
with different size can be obtained by using a seed growth method. For example, the as-prepared
inset. The average
then heated to 140 diameter
°C for 4 h.ofThe the average
gold nanoparticles
size of the is 14.5
obtained ± 2.0
goldnm (n = 100).
nanoparticle Gold
is 28 nanoparticles
nm,
◦ C were added as seeds to the synthesis solution, which is
gold with
nanoparticles
different
in the
sizethe
typical
canmean
be obtained
experiment at 140
almost two times size of bytheusing
seeds.a A seed growth
high method.
resolution For example,
transmission the as-prepared
electron microscopy
then gold
heated
HRTEM to 140 ◦of
nanoparticles
image C one
forthe
in 4typical
h. The
typical averagegold
experiment
spherical size of the obtained
atnanoparticle
140 °C were added
is gold
shown as innanoparticle
seeds to the
Figure is lattice
4b.synthesis
The 28 nm, which is
solution,
fringe
almost two
then
spacing times
heated to the
indicated mean
140in
°Cthe 4size
forimage of
h. The the seeds.
average
is 0.238 nm,size Aofhigh
which the resolution
obtained
corresponds gold transmission
nanoparticle
to the (111) facet is electron
of 28 microscopy
nm, which
crystal plane is
of
HRTEM image
almost
the gold two of onethe
times
cubic phase.typical
mean spherical
size of thegoldseeds.nanoparticle
A high resolution is shown in Figure
transmission 4b. The
electron lattice fringe
microscopy
HRTEM
spacing imageinofthe
indicated one typical
image is spherical
0.238 nm,gold whichnanoparticle
corresponds is shown
to thein(111)
Figure 4b.of
facet The latticeplane
crystal fringeof the
spacing
gold cubic phase.indicated in the image is 0.238 nm, which corresponds to the (111) facet of crystal plane of
the gold cubic phase.

Figure 4. (a) The representative TEM images of proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles;

(b) HRTEM images of one typical gold nanoparticle.

Figure 4. (a)4.The
Figure representative
(a) The TEM
representative TEMimages
imagesof
of proanthocyanidin-functionalized
proanthocyanidin-functionalized goldgold nanoparticles;
nanoparticles;
(b) HRTEM
(b) HRTEM imagesimages of one
of one typical
typical goldnanoparticle.
gold nanoparticle.
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 7 of 12

Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 7 of 12
The crystalline nature of the gold nanoparticles was further verified by the XRD measurement,
as shownThe crystalline
in Figure nature
5. The of the
peaks goldassigned
were nanoparticles was further from
to diffractions verified
theby(111),
the XRD measurement,
(200), (220) and (311)
as shown in Figure 5. The peaks were assigned to diffractions from the (111), (200),
planes of face centered cubic (fcc) gold (JCPDS 04-0784), respectively [27]. This result indicates (220) and (311)
that the
planes of face centered cubic (fcc) gold (JCPDS 04-0784), respectively [27]. This result indicates that
nanoparticles are pure, well-crystallized gold crystals. The width of the (111) peak was employed to
the nanoparticles are pure, well-crystallized gold crystals. The width of the (111) peak was employed
calculate the average crystallite size using the Scherrer equation. The calculated average size is 10.1 nm,
to calculate the average crystallite size using the Scherrer equation. The calculated average size is
which is a little smaller than the particle size obtained from TEM. A similar difference between TEM
10.1 nm, which is a little smaller than the particle size obtained from TEM. A similar difference
and XRD determination
between TEM and XRD ofdetermination
nanomaterials of has also been has
nanomaterials reported in areported
also been recent study [31].study [31].
in a recent

Figure 5. XRD
Figure patterns
5. XRD patternsofofthe
theproanthocyanidin-functionalized gold
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles.
nanoparticles.

3.3. Formation
3.3. Formation Mechanism
Mechanism of Proanthocyanidins-Functionalized Gold
of Proanthocyanidins-Functionalized GoldNanoparticles
Nanoparticles
In this study, oligomeric proanthocyanidin complexes (OPCs, dimeric, trimeric and tetrameric
In this study, oligomeric proanthocyanidin complexes (OPCs, dimeric, trimeric and tetrameric
proanthocyanidin) were used in the synthesis. OPCs are primarily known for their antioxidant
proanthocyanidin) were used in the synthesis. OPCs are primarily known for their antioxidant activity
activity against free radicals and oxidative stress [32]. Thus, proanthocyanidin can be considered as a
against
class of reducingand
free radicals oxidative
agents. stress [32].
The reaction for theThus, proanthocyanidin
formation can be considered
of gold nanoparticles is believed toas be
a class
a of
reducing agents.
typical redoxThe reaction
process, for the
wherein theformation
gold ions of aregold nanoparticles
reduced is believed
to gold atoms to be a typical redox
by proanthocyanidins.
process, wherein the gold
Proanthocyanidins areions are reduced
comprised to gold atoms
of the monomeric unitby proanthocyanidins.
flavan-3-ol (+) catechin andProanthocyanidins
(−) epicatechin. are
comprised of the monomeric unit flavan-3-ol (+) catechin and (−) epicatechin. The multiple
The multiple hydroxyl groups (–OH) from the basic monomer catechin and epicatechin arehydroxyl
the
potential reactive sites for reducing Au(III) in the synthesis [21]. The initial
groups (–OH) from the basic monomer catechin and epicatechin are the potential reactive sites forstep of oxidation may
occurAu(III)
reducing on the B-ring
in theofsynthesis
the catechin due The
[21]. to partial deprotonation,
initial which leads
step of oxidation may to the transformation
occur on the B-ringofof the
o-phenols to o-quinones, a fundamental step in browning. O-quinones are highly reactive species
catechin due to partial deprotonation, which leads to the transformation of o-phenols to o-quinones,
that form dimers and subsequently polymers due to prolonged autoxidation with other
a fundamental step in browning. O-quinones are highly reactive species that form dimers and
polyphenolic molecules [33]. At the same time, the Gold (III) was reduced to atomic Au. Some
subsequently
additionalpolymers due tofrom
hydroxyl groups prolonged autoxidation
the catechin with other
and epicatechin polyphenolic
interacted molecules
with the gold surface,[33].
as At
the same time,
revealed bythe Gold
FTIR (III) was reduced
determination, which was to atomic Au. Some
finally made up of additional hydroxyl
the functionalized shellgroups from the
of the gold
catechin and epicatechin
nanoparticles. interacted with the gold surface, as revealed by FTIR determination, which
was finally made up of the functionalized shell of the gold nanoparticles.
3.4. Removal of Dye and Heavy Metal Ions in Aqueous Solution
3.4. Removal of Dye and Heavy Metal Ions in Aqueous Solution
The discharge of various dyes into the hydrosphere is a significant source of water pollution,
due to
The their recalcitrant
discharge nature.
of various Methylene
dyes into theblue (MB), a heterocyclic
hydrosphere aromatic source
is a significant chemicalofcompound, is
water pollution,
extensively used in the textile industry to colorize products, which can be considered
due to their recalcitrant nature. Methylene blue (MB), a heterocyclic aromatic chemical compound, to be one kind
of typical dye discharged into the environment [34,35]. MB is the most commonly used substance for
is extensively used in the textile industry to colorize products, which can be considered to be
dying cotton, wood and silk. Various materials, such as natural materials, industrial solid wastes,
one kind of typical dye discharged into the environment [34,35]. MB is the most commonly
agricultural by-products, and biosorbents, have been developed in the removal of MB from
usedwastewater
substance for dying cotton, wood and silk. Various materials, such as natural materials,
[36–38]. In this study, the removal of MB in water solution by
industrial solid wastes, agriculturalgold
proanthocyanidins-functionalized by-products, and biosorbents,
nanoparticles have Figure
was investigated. been developed
6 shows in a the
removal of MB from
photograph of the wastewater
20 mg/L [36–38]. In thisand
MB solution, study,
the the removal
removal of MB
effects of in
thewater solution
addition of by
proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold nanoparticles was investigated. Figure 6 shows a photograph
of the 20 mg/L MB solution, and the removal effects of the addition of proanthocyanidin-functionalized
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 8 of 12

Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 8 of 12
gold nanoparticles (initial concentration, 1 g/L). Citrate-gold nanoparticles were also tested as the
control sample, as indicated in Figure
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold6.nanoparticles
The solution(initial
color concentration,
did not change with Citrate-gold
1 g/L). the addition of
citrate-gold nanoparticles.
nanoparticles In addition,
were also tested it has
as the control beenasreported
sample, indicated that the 6.
in Figure mixing of thecolor
The solution citrate-gold
did
not changewith
nanoparticles with the addition of
methylene citrate-gold
blue nanoparticles.
(MB) enhanced the In addition, it
extinction has been reported
coefficient that the of
and absorbance
mixing
the dye of the
[39,40]. citrate-gold
However, thenanoparticles
blue solution with
wasmethylene
decoloredblue
by (MB) enhanced the extinction
proanthocyanidin-functionalized
coefficient and absorbance of the dye [39,40]. However, the
gold nanoparticles within 30 min, as shown in Figure 6. The removal rate wasblue solution wasmoredecolored
than by98% as
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles within 30 min, as shown in Figure 6. The
measured from UV absorption at 664 nm. The adsorption mechanism is believed to be related with the
removal rate was more than 98% as measured from UV absorption at 664 nm. The adsorption
interactions between proanthocyanidins on the gold nanoparticle surface and molecular moiety of MB.
mechanism is believed to be related with the interactions between proanthocyanidins on the gold
Methylene
nanoparticlemolecules
blue surface andaremolecular
likely attracted to MB.
moiety of the nanoparticle
Methylene bluesurface by dipole-dipole
molecules interactions
are likely attracted to
between
the nanoparticle surface by dipole-dipole interactions between the nitrogen in the methylene and
the nitrogen in the methylene blue and the phenolic groups of proanthocyanidins blue their
chemical association.
and the phenolic groups of proanthocyanidins and their chemical association.

Figure 6. Photograph of the methylene blue (MB) solution (20 mg/L) before addition of gold
Figure 6. Photograph of the methylene blue (MB) solution (20 mg/L) before addition of gold
nanoparticles and after addition of gold nanoparticles for 30 min.
nanoparticles and after addition of gold nanoparticles for 30 min.
In addition to the dyes, we further explored proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold
nanoparticles
In addition tofor thethe removal
dyes, of heavyexplored
we further metal ions in aqueous solutions. Toxic heavy metal
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold ions have
nanoparticles
been excessively released into the aquatic environment due to various industrial
for the removal of heavy metal ions in aqueous solutions. Toxic heavy metal ions have been excessively activities, and have
created
released intoathe major global
aquatic concern [41].due
environment Theto major toxicindustrial
various metal ionsactivities,
in water and that have
are hazardous
created atomajor
humans, as well as other forms of life, are cadmium, copper, nickel, lead, mercury and chromium.
global concern [41]. The major toxic metal ions in water that are hazardous to humans, as well as
Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions from aqueous solutions include chemical
other forms of life, are cadmium, copper, nickel, lead, mercury and chromium. Conventional methods
precipitation, ion exchangers, chemical oxidation/reduction, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis,
for the removal of metal
ultrafiltration, ions from
etc. [41,42]. aqueous
However, solutions
these includetechniques
conventional chemical precipitation,
have their own ioninherent
exchangers,
chemical oxidation/reduction,
limitations. reverse osmosis,
It is, therefore, necessary to develop electrodialysis,
new methods or ultrafiltration,
nanomaterialsetc. for[41,42]. However,
the low-cost,
these high-efficiency
conventional techniques
minimization have their own
of chemical or inherent
biologicallimitations.
sludge and the It is, therefore, necessary
regeneration to develop
of biosorbents.
new methods Goldor nanomaterials
nanoparticles havefor theused
been low-cost, high-efficiency
for a variety minimization
of applications, such as in of chemical
catalysis, or biological
optical and
electronic devices, biodiagnostics
sludge and the regeneration of biosorbents. and bioimaging [2,43]. However, there are few studies on the
application of gold nanoparticles for the removal of heavy metal ions. The
Gold nanoparticles have been used for a variety of applications, such as in catalysis, optical gold nanoparticles in this
study weredevices,
and electronic functionalized by oligomeric
biodiagnostics andproanthocyanidin
bioimaging [2,43]. complexes,
However, which are also
there are very
few potent
studies on
metal-chelating agents derived from the multiple hydroxyl groups (–OH) of catechin and
the application of gold nanoparticles for the removal of heavy metal ions. The gold nanoparticles
epicatechin in proanthocyanidin [22,33]. Therefore, we further investigated the application of
in this study were functionalized by oligomeric proanthocyanidin complexes, which are also very
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles on the treatment of the typical heavy metal ions
potentCumetal-chelating
2+, Cd2+, Ni2+ and Pb agents
2+. derived from the multiple hydroxyl groups (–OH) of catechin and
epicatechin in proanthocyanidin [22,33]. Therefore, we further
The removal efficiency of proanthocyanidins-functionalized goldinvestigated
nanoparticles for theheavy
application
metal of
proanthocyanidin-functionalized
ions under different conditions was evaluated. It was found that the pH and adsorption time are themetal
gold nanoparticles on the treatment of the typical heavy
two2+critical
ions Cu , Cd2+ ,factors
Ni2+ and Pb2+ . the removal efficiency for heavy metal ions. Figure 7a shows the
influencing
removal
The removalefficiency of goldofnanoparticles
efficiency for Cu2+, Cd2+, Ni2+and Pb2+
proanthocyanidins-functionalized at different
gold pH conditions
nanoparticles for heavy aftermetal
incubation
ions under in the conditions
different corresponding wasmetal salts solution
evaluated. It wasfor found
6 h. The results
that the indicated that the removal
pH and adsorption time are
efficiency increased as pH rose from 4.0 to 8.0, and was nearly constant at
the two critical factors influencing the removal efficiency for heavy metal ions. Figure 7a shows the high levels of pH 8.0 from
10.0. With a pH of 8.0, the removal rates for Cu2+, Cd2+, Ni2+ and Pb2+ were 95.6%, 96.5%, 92.9% and
removal efficiency of gold nanoparticles for Cu2+ , Cd2+ , Ni2+ and Pb2+ at different pH conditions after
98.9%, respectively. Since a pH of 8.0 is a more moderate condition, it was chosen to be used in the
incubation in the corresponding metal salts solution for 6 h. The results indicated that the removal
next experiments. Figure 7b shows the removal efficiency of gold nanoparticles for Cu2+, Cd2+, Ni2+
efficiency
and Pb under different adsorption times at pH 8.0. The results revealed that the adsorptionpH
increased
2+ as pH rose from 4.0 to 8.0, and was nearly constant at high levels of 8.0 from
process
10.0. With a pH of 8.0, the removal rates for Cu2+ , Cd2+ , Ni2+ and Pb2+ were 95.6%, 96.5%, 92.9% and
98.9%, respectively. Since a pH of 8.0 is a more moderate condition, it was chosen to be used in the next
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 9 of 12

experiments. Figure 7b shows the removal efficiency of gold nanoparticles for Cu2+ , Cd2+ , Ni2+ and
Pb2+ under different
Nanomaterials adsorption
2018, 8, 53 times at pH 8.0. The results revealed that the adsorption process 9 of 12 was
very quick at the initial stage, gradually slowing down after 30 min incubation, and was then constant
was very quick at the initial stage, gradually slowing down after 30 min incubation, and was then
from 3 h to 6 h. For instance, the removal rate for Cu2+ was 81.4% after 1 min adsorption, and more
constant from 3 h to 6 h. For instance, the removal rate for Cu2+ was 81.4% after 1 min adsorption,
than 95% after 3 h incubation. The adsorption characteristics of gold nanoparticles for Cd2+ , Ni2+ and
and more than 95% after 3 h incubation. The adsorption characteristics of gold nanoparticles for
2+
Pb were 2+ for Cu2+ ,
Cd2+also
, Ni2+very
and similar
Pb2+ were toalso
thatvery
for Cu
similar. Intosummary,
that for Cuthe optimized
2+. In summary,adsorption condition
the optimized adsorption
2+
Cd , Ni 2+ and for 2+
PbCuby gold nanoparticles is ananoparticles
pH of 8.0, with anofadsorption time of 3–6 h. ofControl
condition 2+, Cd2+, Ni 2+ and Pb2+ by gold is a pH 8.0, with an adsorption time
3–6 h. Control experiments using citrate gold nanoparticles for2+
the removal
experiments using citrate gold nanoparticles for the removal of Cu were also performed. The highest of Cu 2+ were also

removalperformed. The highest

rate by citrate removal rate by
gold nanoparticles Cu2+ gold
forcitrate nanoparticles
was only 16.5%, as forindicated
Cu2+ was in
only 16.5%,
Figure 7b.as
indicated in Figure 7b.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) The removal efficiency of proanthocyanidin-gold nanoparticles for 20 mg/L of Cu2+,
Figure 7.2+ (a) 2+The removal efficiency of proanthocyanidin-gold nanoparticles for 20 mg/L of
Cd , Ni and Pb2+ at pH 4.0–10.0 after incubation for 6 h; (b) the removal efficiency of
Cu2+ , Cd 2+ , Ni2+ and Pb2+ at pH 4.0–10.0 after incubation for 6 h; (b) the removal efficiency of
proanthocyanidin-gold nanoparticles for 20 mg/L of Cu2+, Cd2+, Ni2+ and Pb2+ at adsorption time from
proanthocyanidin-gold nanoparticles 2+ , Cd2+ , Ni2+ and Pb2+ at adsorption time
20 min to 360 min under pH 8.0. Thefor 20 mg/L
removal of Cu
efficiency of citrate-gold nanoparticles for the removal
from 20ofminCu2+ to
was360
alsomin under
tested pH 8.0. The removal efficiency of citrate-gold nanoparticles for the
for comparison.
removal of Cu2+ was also tested for comparison.
One advantage of proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles in removing heavy
metal ions is that gold nanoparticles are easy to collect from the aqueous solution by centrifugation,
One advantage of proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles in removing heavy metal
as indicated in Figure 2b, and then for recovery for further utilization. Nearly all of the gold
ions is nanoparticles
that gold nanoparticles
were able to beare easy from
collected to collect
the metalfrom thesolution,
salts aqueous solution
as judged by solution
by the centrifugation,
color as
indicated
andinUV Figure 2b, and then
absorption spectra.for The
recovery for further
superior stabilityutilization. Nearly all of the gold nanoparticles
of proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold
nanoparticles
were able in repeatfrom
to be collected centrifugation-redispersion
the metal salts solution, experiments implied
as judged by that
the the surfacecolor
solution of gold
and UV
nanoparticles
absorption spectra. was
The well protected
superior by the
stability associated proanthocyanidins. In addition,
of proanthocyanidin-functionalized some gold
gold nanoparticles in
nanoparticles are able to share their proanthocyanidins shell, as indicated in Figure 4a, and form a
repeat centrifugation-redispersion experiments implied that the surface of gold nanoparticles was well
plum pudding model structure, which may contribute to their characteristic stability and easy
protected by the associated proanthocyanidins. In addition, some gold nanoparticles are able to share
manipulation.
their proanthocyanidins
The adsorption of shell,
heavy asmetal
indicated
ions byinproanthocyanidin-functionalized
Figure 4a, and form a plum gold pudding model structure,
nanoparticles can
which may contribute
be ascribed to theto their characteristic
proanthocyanidin shell,stability
since theandPRBeasy bandmanipulation.
of gold nanoparticles did not show
The adsorption
obvious changes ofwhen
heavythey metal ions
were by proanthocyanidin-functionalized
redispersed in the heavy metal ion solution. goldThenanoparticles
interaction can
be ascribed to the proanthocyanidin shell, since the PRB band of gold nanoparticles the
between metal ions and the remaining hydroxyl groups (–OH) of proanthocyanidin on didgold
not show
surface plays an important role in sequestering the metal ions.
obvious changes when they were redispersed in the heavy metal ion solution. The interaction The adsorption process can between
be
schematically illustrated in Figure 8. Oligomeric proanthocyanidin complexes were well covered on
metal ions and the remaining hydroxyl groups (–OH) of proanthocyanidin on the gold surface plays an
the gold nanoparticle surface, the remaining hydroxyl groups (–OH) of catechin and epicatechin in
important role in sequestering the metal ions. The adsorption process can be schematically illustrated in
proanthocyanidin interacted with the metal ions and acted as a bidentate ligand to coordinate with
Figure the
8. Oligomeric
heavy metalproanthocyanidin
ions. For example, complexes were well
recent spectroscopic covered on the
determinations havegold nanoparticle
confirmed that thesurface,
the remaining hydroxyl
Cu(II)-catechin groups
complex (–OH) of
formation in catechin andions
which Cu(II) epicatechin
can reactin proanthocyanidin
with interacted
catechin in the presence of with
the metal ionsinand
oxygen acted
a metal as a bidentate
chelation ligand to
and the oxidation coordinate
process [22]. with the heavy metal ions. For example,
Recently, Zero
recent spectroscopic valent iron nanoparticles
determinations have confirmed(nZVI) have
that the beenCu(II)-catechin
explored for the complex
removal offormation
heavy in
metal ions in groundwater and wastewater [44]. The mechanisms that
which Cu(II) ions can react with catechin in the presence of oxygen in a metal chelation and the facilitate the removal are
complex. It has been speculated that the core-shell structure in the iron nanoparticles involve the
oxidation process [22].
Recently, Zero valent iron nanoparticles (nZVI) have been explored for the removal of heavy metal
ions in groundwater and wastewater [44]. The mechanisms that facilitate the removal are complex.
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 10 of 12

It has been speculated that the core-shell structure in the iron nanoparticles involve the removal
processes wherein the metallic iron core acts as an electron donor source, promoting reduction of
the compounds. The shell layer, generally composed of Fe2+ , Fe3+ and O, enables sorption,
Nanomaterials 2018, 8, 53 10 of 12
surface
complexation, and electron transport from and to the core. A variety of heavy
removal processes wherein the metallic iron core acts as an electron donor source, promoting
metal ions can be
removed by nZVI with high rates and capacities [44,45]. However, there
reduction of the compounds. The shell layer, generally composed of Fe , Fe and O, enables
2+are some
3+ disadvantages to
using nZVI, suchsurface
sorption, as thecomplexation,
fact that someandofelectron
the metal ions can
transport frombe released
and from
to the core. the nZVI
A variety over metal
of heavy long periods
of time ions
[44].can be removed by
In comparison nZVI
to the nZVIwithsystem,
high rates
theand capacities
removal [44,45]. of
efficiency However, there are some
gold nanoparticles for heavy
disadvantages to using nZVI, such as the fact that some of the metal ions can be released
metal ions is higher in this study [45]. Furthermore, there were no re-dissolving phenomena for at least from the
nZVI over long periods of time [44]. In comparison to the nZVI system, the removal efficiency of
12 h in the proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold system. Thus, proanthocyanidins-functionalized
gold nanoparticles for heavy metal ions is higher in this study [45]. Furthermore, there were no
gold nanoparticles
re-dissolving are expectedfor
phenomena to at
beleast
developed
12 h in as
thea proanthocyanidins-functionalized
new kind of adsorbent to remove goldthe heavy metal
system.
ions in groundwater and wastewater.
Thus, proanthocyanidins-functionalized gold nanoparticles are expected to be developed as a new
kind of adsorbent to remove the heavy metal ions in groundwater and wastewater.

Figure 8. Schematic illustration of the interaction process between proanthocyanidin-functionalized

Figure 8. Schematic illustration of the interaction process2+ between proanthocyanidin-functionalized
gold nanoparticles and heavy metal ions (Example for Cu ).
gold nanoparticles and heavy metal ions (Example for Cu2+ ).
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
A facile, one-step hydrothermal method has been developed to prepare
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles. The gold nanoparticles have good
A facile, one-step hydrothermal method has been developed to prepare proanthocyanidin-
mono-dispersity and a highly crystalline structure. Furthermore, the
functionalized gold nanoparticles. The gold nanoparticles have good mono-dispersity and a highly
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold colloid was very stable, and could be repeatedly collected
crystalline
and structure. Furthermore,
redispersed the proanthocyanidin-functionalized
in the aqueous solution without obvious changes. goldMost
colloid was very stable,
importantly,
and could be repeatedly collected and
proanthocyanidin-functionalized redispersed
gold in the
nanoparticles can aqueous
be utilizedsolution withoutofobvious
for the removal dyes andchanges.
heavy metal
Most importantly, ions in the aqueous solution.gold
proanthocyanidin-functionalized Thenanoparticles
primary results
can bedemonstrated thatremoval
utilized for the
of dyesproanthocyanidin-functionalized
and heavy metal ions in the gold nanoparticles
aqueous have high
solution. Theremoval
primary rates for dye
results and heavy
demonstrated that
metal ions, which implies that they have potential applications as a new kind of adsorbent for the
proanthocyanidin-functionalized gold nanoparticles have high removal rates for dye and heavy
removal of contaminants in an aqueous solution.
metal ions, which implies that they have potential applications as a new kind of adsorbent for the
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by the Fundamental Research
removal of contaminants in an aqueous solution.
Funds for the Central Universities (2572017EY01), the National Key R & D program (2016YFD0600805), the
Acknowledgments: TheFund
Natural Science authors gratefully acknowledge
of Heilongjiang the financial
Province (LC2015008) support
and Harbin by the Fundamental
Innovation Talents ProjectResearch
Funds for the Central Universities (2572017EY01), the National Key R & D program (2016YFD0600805), the Natural
(2015RQQXJ053).
Science Fund of Heilongjiang Province (LC2015008) and Harbin Innovation Talents Project (2015RQQXJ053).
Author Contributions: L.B., J.G. and X.Z. synthesized and characterized the particles, and analyzed the data.
S.T. and Q.M. contributed
Author Contributions: reagents/materials/analysis
L.B., J.G. and X.Z. synthesizedtools. and Z.L. and Y.F. designed
characterized the experiments
the particles, and wrotethe data.
and analyzed
S.T. and the
Q.M.paper.
contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools. Z.L. and Y.F. designed the experiments and wrote
the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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