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    Aviation

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    in SS ST | a (oy fo] a a) 4 Be pereeut Ses EP escceeties f |=ife) =a Ss 2% GAS TURBINE THEORY imeskaur iSgataae ea me ee ee Fens a se Cope he Une Se th ‘il ies Sens. ne 008 Tht Ave, New York NY 10188 ‘Tin etion © Longman Group UK Limited 1987 Allright ror pat of ths gblction tht te epoca narra sae, 1 Wanted any frm yan ea etn neha, photocopying corde or tervise, ‘how ier te pr writen prison 9 the Poise or force permit ese copying te Une Kingdom bad bythe Cony Licensing ‘Xsen) i 90 eter Cot Road Ponen WIP SE Fit published 1981 Ele pression 1971 Second lito publ 1972 Third eon bse under he Loman Scene & Techical mpi 1987 Sih ingresn 1983 Library of Congress Catalging-a-Publcation Data (Cen, Henry 1921 Sep. 23- Biography: Incas ide serch Crchon) i Sarena HH Tite TWVIRG) 1947 21483 so-21874 ISBN 6-70-2075: (USA ony) th Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Cotes, ‘Gas tne theory. to Gawain LT Ropes, GEC. Tit Sarva 118 ass Te ISBN 0-582-30539-x Proce by Langman Singapore Publishers Pe) La Pema in Sngapere Conten, races 1 Introduction Lt Open eye singleshaft and twin-saft arrangements 1 Malt-spoo! arrangements 13 Close epeles 1 Aireralt propulsion 13 Industral applications 16 Some fture posslties 1.7 Gas turbine design procedure 2 Shaft power eyeles 21 Ideal ecles 22 Methods of accounting for component losses 23 Design point performance calelatons 244 Comparative performance af practical eyes 2.5 COGAS cytes and cogeneration schemes 26 Closed eye as turbines 3) Gas turbine eyees for alreraft propulsion 34 Covetia of performance 32 Intake and propelling noze iiencies 3.3 Simple turbojet cycle 34 The wrbolan engine 35 The utboprop engine 1 36 Thrust augmentation 1 4 Centrifugal compressors 1 441 Principle of operation 1 42 Work done and pressure rise m1 45 The ditsee 19 144 Compreabliy cts Bs 445 Nom-dimensional quantities for plotting compressor hartley 0 446 Compressor characterises im ‘49 Computerised design procedures 16 Axial ow compressors bs 51. Basie operation 19 52 Blementary theory it 33 Sage presare ratio nt 5 Blockage im the compresor annie 19, 55. Depts of rection 12 S6 Threedimension 136 57. Design process 164 58 Blade deven 18s 59. Calculation of stage performance 195 510 Compressiity etlcte 20 511 Of-design performance 210 S12 Aval compresorcharacteritiy 2 513 Clonure 20 ‘Combustion systems a1 61 Form of combustion system 21 {62 Some important factors afeting combustion chamber design 223 {63 The combustion proces as {64 Combustion chamber performance 2 {65 Some practical problems 26 Axial und radial low turbines 2H 714 Blementaty theory of ail flow turbine 2 172 Vortex theory 251 73 Choice of bade profile, pitch and chord 261 74 Estimation of stage pevormance 283 7 Overall turbine performance mn 16 The coled turbine 2 77 The radial low turbine 1 Prediction of performance of simple gas turbines 9 8.1 Component characteristics a1 £2 Of-design operation ofthe single shaft gas turbine £3 Bullet running ofa gas generator 4 Off-design operation offre turbine engine 5 Of-desig operation ofthe jet engine 6 Methods of displacing the equilium running ine 187 Incorporation of vane presse losses 9 _Predition of performance—further topics 9.1 Methods of improving par-oad pesformance 92 Matching procedures for twin-spool engines 953 Some notes on the behavieu of twin-spool engines 494 Matching procedures for trbotan engines 9:5 Tramslet behaviour of gas turbines 96 Principles of contro systems Appendix. A Some notes on gas dynamics ‘hl Compressblty fl (qualitative treatment) 'A2 Basi equations for steady one-dimensional compressible renmararpns rey [AS taeatopi Now ina duct of varying area ‘Aa Festionless fow ina constant aren duct with beat transfer [AS Adiabatic low in «constant area duet with faction 1X6 Plane normal shock waves 'A7 Oblique shock waves [AB Iseatropic two-dimension ‘compresion 3 sipersoic expansion and Appendix B Problems Appendix © References Index Preface to third edition “Thecontinued us of his book since the appearance ofthe fist edition in 1981 sugess that the objectives ofthe original authors were sound, To the great regret of Pofesors Roger and Saravanamuttoo, Dr Cohen was unable 19 join them inthe preparstion ofthis pew edition. They would ike to expres ‘hei appreciation of his eater contbution, However, and in partial for Initing the Book in the fst pace. Since the second eatin Was published in 1972 considerable advances have ten made and the gas turbine has become wal etablishad in variety of applications. This hes required considera updating. particularly of the Tnroduction. Sub-sectons have besn added tothe chapter on shaft power ‘seo include combined gas and stem cycles. cogeneration scherns ‘Gosed cles, and many minor modifetios have been made througheut the book 1 take acount of recent developments The chapter on axial ow ‘compressors his been rewritten and enlarge, and describes in detail the design ofa compressor to meet a particular aerodynamic speifeation which ‘matches the worked example oa turbine design. A section on radal Now turbines has been added tthe turbine chapter. Ta Keeping with the introductory nature ofthe book, and to avid losing sight of physical principles, no attempt hs ben made to introduce modem ‘computational methods for prediiag the low in turbomcinery ‘Appropriate references to such matters have been added, however, 10 courage the stadent to peru these more advanced opis ‘As a reslt of ma in Append B. The manual can be purchased by writing to: The Bookstore, Caricton University, Ota, Ontario KIS-5B6,C Finally, this edition would not have been pose witbout the generous support of Profesor Saravanamuttoo' search by the Natur! Scenes and Enginceing Research Council of Canads. He would particulary hike express his thanks to Dr Hemard Maclsie of GasTOPS and the many ‘pment fom Pratt and Whitney Canada, Rll Roses, and the Royal Nay with whom he has collaborated for many years Maret 1986 oxen ot becn inched. A few references have ben selected, however, and are {ppended to appropriste chapters. These ae given not ony ae suggestions forfurther reading ut also as acknowledgement of sure of iformation, Some problems, with answers are given tthe end of the book. In most cases thse have bows chosen to ilstrate various points which have not appeared in the worked cxampks in the text Acknowledgements are duc t0 the Universities of Cambedge, Bristol and Durham for permission to ane problems which have sppearedin thir examinstion pape’ “The authors have obaned such knowledge as they poses from contact withthe work ofa large number of people. would therefore be invidious to ‘eknowledge their debt by mention of one or two names which the authors Sssocinte in their minds with particular aspects of the work. They woul however, keto express their gratitude in a corporate way t thei former colleagues inthe esearch teams of what wer once the Turbine Division of the Royal Aivrat Establishment and Power Jets (R. & D.) Ltd, now the ‘National Gas Turbine Establishment. Tnconcusion, the authors will welcome any erticisms both of detail and ofthe general scheme oft book. Only from sch etc ca they hope to ‘iseover wheter the right approach hasten adopt in teaching te fan ‘dementalsofthinow subst Apr 1980 ne. 1 Introduction ‘ofthe variow means of producing mechanical power te turbine sin many respecte the most saisactry. The absence of reiprocating and rubbing members means that balancing problems are ew, thatthe lubricating il ‘Consumption is exceptionally low, and that reliability can be high. The inherent advantages of the turbine were st realized using water as the ‘working fluid, and hydro-electric power ssl a significant contributor to the world’s energy resources. Around the turn ofthe twentieth century the steam turbine Bega carer and, quite apart from its wie we asa marine ower plant, fats become the most important prime mover fr electecty ereration, Steam turbine plant producing over S00 MW of shaft power trith am eicieney of nearly aD per cent are now being used. Insite of is ‘ccf devlopment,thesteam turbine does haveaninherentdissdvantage 1 that the production of high-pressure high-temperature steam involves the installation of buy and expensive seam generating equipment whether {be conventional boiler or nuclear reactor Te significant features that ‘he hot guns produced in the boiler fumace of reactor core never reach the turbine: they are merely usd indiecty to produce an intermediate Suid, ‘namely stam. Clearly @ mich more compact power plat results when the ‘water to steam sep i eliminated ad the ot gases themselves are used 10 rive the turbine. Serious development ofthe gis turbine bepan not long before the Second World War with shaft power in mind, bot attention Was soon transfered tothe turbojet engine for icerat propulsion. The gas {turbine began to compete sucesflly nother els only in the mid nineteen Fes bot since then t har made a progressively greater impoct in an increasing variety of application. order to produce an expansion through a turbine a pressure ratio must be provide, and the fis necestary step inthe cycle ofa gas turbine plant ‘tt therefore be compression ofthe working Mai. I after compression the ‘working fluid were to.be expanded rely sn the turbine. and there were to loss in ether component the power developed bythe turbine would just equal that absorbed by the compressor. Thu ithe two were coupled together the combination would do no more than tur sl round. But the power devcloped by the turbine canbe increased bythe addition of energy to rase the temperature of the working Hid prior to expansion. When the ‘working Sid aia very suitable means of doing this by combustion of fac in the ar which has been compressed. Expansion of the ot working ‘ud then produces a greater power output fom the trbine, 20 that ii tbl to provide a uel output in addition to the power necessaty to dive the compressor. This represents the as turbine or internal ombstion turbine ini simplest form. The three main components are a compressor, ‘combustion chamber and turbine, connected together as shown diagra: ‘matically in Fig. Lh FUG. Simple on tine tem In practi losses occur in both the compresor and turbine which increase the power absorbed by the comprewor and decrease the power output of the turbine. A ‘esrtain addition tothe energy of the working Dd and hones eran fel supply, wil therefore be required before the one component Candrve he other This fl produces po useful power, tha thecomponeat losis contribute to a lowering of the efciency of the machine. Further ‘dition of fal will esl in « wef power output, although for «given flow of air there isa limit tthe eat at which Fel can be supplied therefore to the net power output. The maximum fuel air ratio that may be tse is governed bythe working temperature ofthe highly srewed trbine bades, which temperature must not be allowed to exceed certain criial ‘ale: This value depends upon the crep strength of the materials asd in "he consrution of the turbine and the working ie equite. “These then are the two main factors allacting the performance of gas turbines: component eficencesandturbine working temperature The they cane made, the better te all-zound performance ofthe pant. I wa, in at, lowefcenies and poor turbine materials which brought about the failure ofa numberof early atemps to construct «gas turbine engine. For ‘tample, in 1908 wo French engncers Armengaud and Lema, ball unit hich did ite more than turn ssf over: the compresoeeficency wat ‘robably no more than 60 percent and the maximum as temperature that Could be used was about 740K willbe shown in Chapter 2 that the overall eficeney of the gas turbine ‘le depends also upon the pressure ratio af the compesor. The dificult ‘oT obtasing a suicently high pressure ratio with an adequate compressor svrroovcrion 3 ficiency was ao resolved until he tience of aerodynamics could be applied fo the problem. The development of the gs turbine has gone hand in hand ‘with the development ofthis science and that of metallurgy, with he rsult, that now possible to find advanoed engines using pressure ratios of uP to 36:1, component eficiencics of 8590 percent, and turbine inlet temperatures of up to 1650 K. Tithe earliest days ofthe gas turbine, wo possible systems efcombustion were proposed: one at constant pressure. the ther at constant volume: ‘Theoretically, the thermal efiency ofthe constant volume eye i higher than tht ofthe constant presue eee, but the mechanical dificulies are ‘ery much greater. With best addition at constant volume, valves are neces {ty to isolate the combsstion chamber from the compressor and turbine. Combustion therefore intermittent, which impairs the smooth cunning of ‘he machine It is dificult to design a turbine to operate eficiently under such odio andy although several uiriysoccsfl attempts were made in Germany during the period 1908-1930 to construct gas turbines operating fon this system, the development ofthe constant volume type has been ‘scontinued In theconstant peste gas turbine combustionisa continous ‘proces in which valves are unnecessary and it was soon accepted thatthe Constant pressure cycle had the reser possiblities for ature development Ttisimportantt realize tha inthe gas turbine the processes ofcompression. combustion and expansion do not cece in single component as they do In reciprocating engine. They occu in components which ae separate in the senae tha they can be designed tested and developed individually, and ‘here components can be linked together to form a gas turbine unt in 2 ‘arity of ways. The posible number of components aot limited 0 the three already mentioned. Other compressors and turbines can he added, with intercolesbetwoen the compresor and eheat combustion chambers betwoen the frbines A heat-exchanger which uses some ofthe energy in the tarbine exaust gas to preheat the ai entering the combustion chamber ‘ay ako be introduce. These refinements may be used to increase the power ‘output and eficency of the plant atthe expen of added complet, neigh fad cost. The way in which theve components are linked together not only ‘Mece the mauimum overall thermal efficiency, but also the variation of tticiency with power outpat and of output torque with rotational speed ‘One arrangement may be sutabe for driving am aller under varying load at constant speed, wile another may be more sultable for driving & ships propeller where the power varies as the cube of the speed "Apaft ftom variations ofthe simple eye obtained by the adition of those other components, consideration mit be given to two systems ds tinguished by the use of pen and clase cycles. Inthe much more common ‘open eyee sas (urine which we have been considering up to this pi fresh atmospheric ai is dear into the ere continuously and eneay 5 ‘Ade by the combustion of fuel inthe working Mai sil. In this case the ‘products of combustion are expanded through the Yurbine and exhausted to atmosphere In the alterative closed cycle shown i Fig. 12 the same ‘working fd, be it sr of some other gas repeatedly crolated theough the machine. Clary in tis type of plan the fuel cannot e buat in the ‘working Mond and the necesaryenersy must be added n'a heater oss: bolle" wherein the fs Durie ln Separate ai sream supp! by an a 2 Simple ened eee auilary fan, The closed cycle is more akin to that of steam turbine lant im chat the combustion gases do not themselves passthrough the {urine Inthe gas turbine the ‘condense takes the form of precooe for ‘cooling the gus belore it re-enters the compresor. Namerous advantages are claimed for the closed eye and these mil be pat forward in section 13 itis certainly the more suitable form of gas turbine cycle a mile econ {so be used as the soure of heat because its dangerous to exhaust to ‘mosphere a gxs which has pusied through the reactor core with the ‘ossblity of radioactive contamination Finally, various combined steam and gas eles have been proposed, with ‘he gas tacbine exhaust supplying energy to the steam Bole. Figure 13 tee LOPES CYCLESNGLESIAFY AND TWENSHA ARRANGEMENTS s shows such a system, It makes the best ute of the comparatively low grade ‘eat by employing a dual pressure steam cycle. This i ima Yat ted im naclear power stations fuelled with natural uranium which also operate Ca comparatively low temperature. Alternatively, because of the unset ‘uygen in the turbine’ exhaust gts possible fo barn additional fl in the stem boiler. This permits use of single reste team cle, but atthe expense of the added complesty of a combustion system in the boi. ‘Although the characteristic compactness of the gas turbine Is sacrificed in binary cycle plan. 2 significant number have been built for eleicity ‘generation. It shouldbe noted ha thermal flecks of upto $0 percent ean, beacheve, which are considerably in exces ofthe values obtained by ether steam turbine or dee plant The gas turbine has proved ite vo bean extremely adaptable source of power and has been wed for a wide variety of functions, ranging fom ‘etre pomer generation and jet propulsion tothe supply of compressed ait land process heat, and the remainder of this Introduction is imende (0 mph thinadapabilty} We shall commence however by dscusing the ‘asious ways im which the components can be linked together when the ‘objets the production of shaft power-In other words, Ne shall ist have in ‘mind gus tarbins for eletrie power generation, pomp dives for Bs ogi Pipelines, and land and sea transport The vas majority of land-based gas Turbines are in we forthe St tof those, and applications to Land and sea transport are sil in ther infancy although the gas turbine is widely sed in naval plications, 1.1 Open cycle single-shaft and twin-shaft arrangements the gas turbine is required to operate ata fixed speed and fixed load ‘condition such as in peak Toad power generation schemes, he single shalt arrangement shown in Fig 1 may be suitable Flexibility of operation, ve the rapidity with whic the machite can accommodate isl to changes of load and rotational speed, and ficiency at part lad, are in this ease un lmportan Indead the eflctively high inertia due to the drag of the com reso an advantage cate it rede the danger of overspeasing nthe ‘rent fa loss of electrical lad A heat-etchanger might be added 28 n Fig. 1.) to improve the thermal efficiency although for a given sof plant the ower output could be reduced by as much as 10 pr cent due 10 fictional pressure loses in the heat-exchanger: the use ofa heat-exchanger would Be Eontemplated only i ramning houts wee high Figure 1b) shows a modified frm proposed for use when the fue. ¢2- pulverized coal, such hat the products of combustion contain constituents [atyanrod went ore he and Chapt pe tended 6 sernoovcron which corrode o erode the turbine blades. It x much let efcent than the formal cycle bestse the eatexchanger, ineviaby les than pete Is Teansersing te whole ofthe energy input stead of merely a stall part of| it Such a eycle mould only be considered ia suply of‘ uel was wall Able at very low cost. Asrios effort was made to develop a coal During 3s turbine in the early nineteen fics but with He success. More succes hes teen achieved with esidual ol and provided tha the maximum tomperatare {kept at scent low level the straightforward yee can be wed fo ra FIG. 1 Sing stat pe yl statins with et exchanger When flexibility in operation s of paramount importance, such a8 in ‘oad rail and marine application, the use of mechanically independent (or free) power rrbine is desirable In this rwin-saftsrrangement, Fig. 1, the high-presure turbine drives the compresior and the combination acts 384s generator forthe low-pressure power turbine. Twin-shalt arrange ‘ents are also used for large sl lect generating units, with he ower turbine designed to run atthe aernator speed without the ned for an ‘apensve reduction gearbox. A sgnficat advantage thatthe sarter ent nea only beset tum over the gas generator. The sarer may bea seam turbine, desl or an expansion turbine operated fom a supply of pipeline 1s. A dhadvaniage ofa separate power utbine, however shat a shedding of electrical load can Lead to rapid overpeeding ofthe turbine, and the ‘control system must be designed to prevent thi. Variation of power fr bath single- and twin-shaft unite obtained by controling the fuel ow supplied to the combustion chamber AlSOUgh {hey behave in rather dierent ways a wil be explained in Chapter 8, in ‘oth cases the cycle pressure ratio and maximum temperature decease a5 MuLtesroot aanaenents 7 ‘the powers reduced from the design valve with theres that the thermal ‘ficiency deteriorates considerably at pst load "The performance of a gar turbine may be improved substantially by reducing the work of compression and/or increasing the work of expansion. For any given comprentor pressure catia, the power required per unit ‘quantity of working fide direct proportional tothe inet temperature I therefore the compression process catied out in (WO OF more stages with itercooling, the work of compression will be reduced. Similary. the Turbine output ca be increased by dividing the expurson into wo oF more ‘ages, and reheating tbe gas to the maximum permissible temperature between the stage Although the power output I improved the cost it Additional fel wll be heavy unless heatexchange is als employed. One “rvangement ofa plant incorporating intercooling hea-exchange and rebeat SSahowm in Fig. 6. Compler cycles ofthis type ofthe posibiity of varying the power output by contrling the fud supply 10 the reheat chambe leaving the gan generator operating closer tt optimum conditions. Much teiter economy a pat load can therefore be achieved ‘Complercyles were proposed nthe ary days of gas turbines, when they were nese to obtain reasonable thermal efiency tthe low turbine 4 1G. Compe an with iercolig et xchange al eet ‘temperatures then posible, It can realy be seen, however, that the inberent simplicity and compactness of the gas turbine have Been los. In many Spplcations smalls and low capital cost are more important than high ‘thermal eMiency, and itis igifint that the gas turbine did not start to ber widely wed (apart from aire applications) until higher turbine inlet temperatures made the simple cycle economically viable. Unless the gus "urine erin tosupplan the stem torbine hie lade generating Stations, the preference forthe simple cycle with or without heat-etchange They te remain. 1.2 Malté-spoo! arrangements ‘To obtain high thermal efkieney without using a heat-exchanes, pressure ratios essential A certain dificult then arises which follows fom the nature of the compression process. Because ofthe igh air mass ow ates involved non-positive displacement compres are always ted in gus toes Ahough te tulenage Cenriugal comprenor i apable of producing» igh Presa ai fer ‘moderate power ts eficncy is appresably lower than that ofthe al flow compremor For hs rnsn the il contrciosswormaly pec partcolty fr lrpe unt Unfortunatly th type of compresses more rons fo instability when operting st condtions wey removed om icagn opering im, When wich-a comprenor operates a rttoal Spends wel Below the design vale, thes density in he ast ew aes tic too lows the al ow veloc becomes eee, ad the des Sal The unable pon. manifested by violent serodyamie iran itty tobe encountered wena gi utine lard ap ropes ow nthe problem is particularly severe if an attempt is made to obtain a ramire rat of mare than about 1 i one compres, One way of ve Coming this fiat ito dive the compressor ito to or more sions Inhisontet diision means mechonica separation peritingeach ection to run at diferent rotational sped. uni the ineroded compressor Shown in Fig. 1. When the compresor are mechanically iniopenden tach il rue sown turbine, 2 suabearengemest blag shown In Fig 17. Thelow-presnee compressor den bythe Tow-presie urbine OL + ol FIG. 17 Tiny engine ‘nd the high-pressure compressor by the high-pressure turbine. Power i normally taken either fem the low-pressure turbine shalt, fom an ad tional fee power turbine. The configuration shown in Fig. 7 i usually refered to a a rin-spool engine It should e noted tha although the t¥0 spoolsaremschaniallyindependent.theespecdsaretelatacrodynamically Ad this wl be discussed urbe in Chap 9, Te twin-spool layout i widely sed both for shaft power units and for the avert engines discusted i sation 14. In some cares, expsially with ‘engines of smal air low, the high pressure compressor i ofthe centr fuga type: this is Becatne atthe high preteres volved the volume ow rate i ow and the blading requir fot an axial compressor woud Be too small for goed eficiency. Twin-spool unis were ist nrodvoad at a peste Tato of about 10:1. and are suitable for cycle presite ration of at Teast 230: For very high presure ratios a wiple-spoot arrangement may be used {AS an allemative to multrpools 2 high presure tio can be sly coupes ° mploye with single compresor if several stages of variable stator blades {cused This approach has ben ponected by General Eletricand presse Tati of around 13:1 have been obtained in this manner. In advanced {echnology engines, combinations of mult-pool arrangements and variable 1.3 Closed cycles Outstanding among the many advantages cltimed forthe closed eel i the possiblity of sig a high pressure (and hence a high gs density) throughout thc ece which would result ina rolucd ize ofterbomachinery fora given ‘uiput aod enable the power output to be altered by a change ef presare level i the circuit This form of control means that a wide range flead can ‘beascommodated without alteration of the maximum cele temperatare snd ence with ite variation of overall efcieney. The chief disadvantage of the ‘owed cycle isthe need foram external eating system, which involves the ‘oe ofan airy cycle and introduce temperature diference between he ‘combustion gases andthe working fluid. The allowable working temperate ‘Of the surfaces inthe heater will therefore impose an upper Lit on the ‘maximum temperate ofthe main eel Atypical arrangement of a closed ‘jee ga turbine ic shown i Fig 8 The cyl inches a water cooled pe IG Simple cae ece ps tine {nol forthe main cycle Mui hetwoen the Hea-ctchanger and comptes. Tints particular areangement the gus heater forts part ofthe cjce ofa auxiliary ps turbine set. and power i cnttlled by means ofa blow-off ‘ake and an auxiliary supply of compressed gus as shown, Besides the advantages ofa smaller compressor and turbine and efiient » urnoouenon control the closed ele lb avoid erosion ofthe trbine blades and other ‘eurimental eects doe to the products of combustion. Also, the need for filration ofthe incoming ai, whichis. severe problem in the us of open ‘yc unis operating in contaminated atmosphere, is eliminted. The igh ‘Eesty ofthe working Mid raproves eat transfer 0 that more elective het-exchange is possible. Final, the closed icon opens up the field for the use of ase other than ar having more desirable thermal properties. AS ‘wl be seen inthe next chapter, the marke ference in the values of the Ipod eats or ait anda monatomic gat sacha hla docs not fet the (T3~ Ti) ‘Assuming thatthe gs reheated oa temperature equal oT, diferenia: tion ofthe expression fr specie work output shows tat the optimum point inthe expansion at which to reheat is whea the pressure ratios (and hence temperate drops and work transfer) forthe HP and LP turbines are equal ‘With this optimum division, itis then posible to derive expression forthe Speclic output and efenc in terms or and as before. Wetinge = #”~"™ they become Ana ai ey en e9 ‘Comparison ofthe W/c,T, carves of Fig. 26 with those of Fig 2216) shows that feheat markeuly icreaes the specie outpt. Figure 2b) homeve indicates that tis i achieved atthe expense of eficieney. This 10 be ‘expect tesause one is adding les ficient cyte (4486 in Fig. 2a) 10 {he simple cycle—lesr ficient esate operates ove a smaller temperare ‘ange: Not that the eduction in efcicncy becomes ls severe ashe mai- ‘num eye temperature is increase, Cee FIG. 26 Work ugar ee Chele with reheat and heat-exchange ‘The reduction in eiciency duc to reheat ean be overcome by adding hest- cachange asin Fig. 27. The higher exhaust gas temperature i now fly lise inthe heat-exchanger andthe increase in work onipot i no longer ‘ft by the increase in heat supplied. In fac, when a hen-exchange i a FIG. 27 Reheat ple with eatechange employed the eciency is higher with reheat than without a shown by & ‘comparison of Figs 23 and 24. The family of coastatt lines emit the ‘same features as those forthe simple cycle with heat-exchange each curve having the Carmot value at r= Ian fling with increasing r to mest the ‘corresponding ficiency curve of thereat cycle without hea-exchange at the value ofr corresponding to maximum specie work output © t oye 8 1G. 28 Econy—rebeat ple with ea echange Cycles with intercooled compression {AN similar improvement in specific work output to that obtained by reheat ‘ante achieved by spliting the compression and intrcooling the gs between the LP and HP compressors; and, assuming that the ai is terco0}ed 7, ‘ten beshown that the posto work output sa mamma when the presare fate ofthe LP and HP compresors ae equal. The use of ineroolers is Skiom contemplated in practice because they are bulky and need larze ‘Qunttes of cooling water The main advantage of the gas turbine, thai 5 Sompact and tellcoetaied, i then lost For this reason no performance ‘Surves for yes with interooting are included sufi say that they are Similar to Fipy 216) and 24 although the incense n specie work output fn eduction i ofiieny wth respect. the simple cycle are not so marke, (Armodiiation tothe low temperature region of cycle normaly less ‘Sieniican than «comparable moifcation to the igh temperature region) ‘AS with reheat, ntercooling increases the eyceefiiency only when a eat- exchanger also incorporate, and then curves almost dential to those of Fig. 28 ae obtained “This discussion of ideal cycles shouldbe suficlent to indicate the main ‘fects of additions (o the simple gas turbine: We have seen thatthe choice ‘f pressure ratio will depend on whether its high eficeney or high specific ‘work output fi smal size) whichis required: aed that in cycle without Ieatcuchange «higher pressure ratio mast be used 10 take advantage of Ligher permasible turbine inlet temperature It wil be evdeat om what follows that thee conclusions are albo broadly true of practical cytes sthich component loses are taken inte account 2.2. Methods of accounting for component losses The performance of real eyles difes from that of ideal eyces for the flowing reasons (6) Because id velocities ar high in urbomachiner the change in hnetic nergy betvenn inlet and out ofeach componcel caneot necesty ‘eignored farther consequences tha the compression and expansion proces are ireversbleadiabatcs and thereone involve an increase In entrops (b) Fluid trction results in pressure losses in combustion chambers und heat-exchangers and als nthe inlet and exhaust dts (Losses inthe ‘ucts connecting components are usilly included inthe associat ‘component losses) (o) Thar heatexchanger isto be of economic sie, terminal temperature dierences ate inevitable; ie. de compressed air cannot be heated to the temperature ofthe gs leaving the turbine. (a) Slightly more work than that required for the compression proces will be necesary to overcome bearing and ‘winds friction in the trans- mission between compresor and turbine and to dive ancillary com> Ponents sich a fos ado pumps, (The values ofc, and ofthe working Bui vary throughout the eye ‘dae to changes of temperature and with internal combustion, dt ‘hangs in chemical composition. LU) The definition ofthe efietncy ofan ideal yee is unambiguous, but {isis ot te eas for an open eye with ternal combustion. Knowing ‘the compresior delivery temperatre composition ofthe fae and tu bine inet temperature requited, a straightforward combustion calcul tion yield the falar ratio neeesary anda combustion efieney ean alo be included to allow for incomplete combustion. Thus it willbe Postible to express the cyle performance unambiguously in terms of fuel consumption per unt net ork output en ferme ofthe specie {il consumption To conver this toa cjeleeiiency i nce 10 ‘adopt some convention for expressing the hating valu of the fa. (@) With internal combustion the mass ow through the turbine might be thought to be greater than that throwgh the compressor by vite ofthe fuel ade. in practice, about 1-2 per cant of the compresed ai ‘ad off for cooling turbine iss and Blade roots, and we sal se lter ‘thatthe fuel/air ratio employed isin the region 001-002. Thus for ordinary yee caleultions ii sulicently accurate to assme that the fel added merely compensates fr tht tows thi bok i wil always ‘be assumed thatthe mass flows through the comprewor and turbine fare equal. For modern aircraft engines which operate with very high turbine inlet temperatures, greater quate of cooling ara used (to ss through cooling pussapes in he turbine blading) ad this approx ‘mation will ot be aden when etiating accurately the performance fa na design Methods of accounting for factor (a) to) must be discussed before giving examples of ele poformance calculations Stagnation properties The kinetic eneray terms inthe stady flow energy eqsaton can be accounted foc implicitly by making ve of the concept of stagation (or talent Physically, the stagnation enthalpy hy the enthalpy Which a gas stream of enthalpy hand velocity C mould posses when brought to ret adiabatically fod without work tussle. The energy equation then reduces to hohe YO~C8) = 0 ad thus hy defined by dy = heer 29 ‘When the Aid i. pefot gas pT can be substituted for h nd the core responding concept of stagnation fr total) temperature T, is defined by haT+Cins, en (C2, sll the dai temperature and, whenitisnecessry toemphasize ‘he itnction, T x refered to the sae temperature. An idea ofthe order ‘of magntede ofthe diferene between Ty and obtained by consdering tic at atmosphere lemperstre, for which cy = 10S K))kg K. flowing at 100 mi. Then to TT = rons 10 sk 18 fll from the energy equation that if there i no heat or work transfer 7, wil remain constant the duct is varying im cross-sectional eh, oF friction is degrading. diected Kinetic energy io random molecular nergy, the static temperature will changebat T, will not. Applying the concept to an adiabatecompresion, the energy equation becomes W = ~efT,-T)-MC}~Ci) = ~6{Toa—Tod) Similarly fora heating proces without work wanser, = efTos— Tor) Tous if stagnation temperatores are employed there is no need 19 tfer xplily tothe kinetic energy term. A practical advantage i that itis easier {o measure the stagnation temperature of a high-veosty steam than the aie emperaure (ce section 62) ‘Whon a gs slowed down and the tomperature rises there i a simul- taneous rs in presure. The stagnation (or total presse py is defined is Similar way to Ty Bat with the added restriction that the gas i imagined ‘bebeought to rest not only adiabatically but also reverse. entropicaly. ‘The stagnation pressure thus defined By “a o* Stagnation pressure, unlike stagnation temperature is constant ina steam flowing without heat or work ranser golf ition is abgot the drop i stagnation pressure ean be used asa measure ofthe fue fiction is worth noting that py isnot identical with the usual pitor pressure Pf defined for incompressible flow by rh proce Substituting equation (27) in 28}, and making use of ey p= pRT, we ba nar(ierye” Ps soon tobe given by the it two terms ofthe binomial expansion, Ths Py approaches pf as the velocity is decreased and compressibility eflts bocome negligible. As an example ofthe diference at high velocities, fo ir ‘moving with sonic velocity (Mach number M = I), pip = F89 whereas Phip = 17. Thus by assuming the flow to be incompresibe the stagnation Dresure would be tinderestimated by ahost II per cont ‘Applying equation (28) oan entropic compression betwen net 1 and ‘outlet 2 we have the stagnation pressure ratio given by’ y= 7Rg—1) and Pos = Deny Pe, Po” Pe Pa Similan i rquired, pea (Tes m ‘Thus and T, can be used in the same way as stale values Stagnation pressure and temperature are properties of the gstream which an be wa ‘vith tate values to determine the combined thermosynamicand mechanical State ofthe team. Such stat points can be represented onthe T-s diagram, 18 shown in Fig 29 which depicis a compresion process between ‘static’ Sates I an 2; the diferences between the constant p and p ines have bees ‘exaggerated for clarity. The ideal stagnation state which woul be reached fcr seatropk: compression to the sume, ctu, ole stagnation presets is indicated by OF. Primes wil be attached Yo symbols to denote soc Meal States throughout this book MET00s OF ACCOUNTING FOR COMPONIN LOSS s 1G 29 Station tater Compressor and turbine efficiencies ‘The eMicency of any machine, the object of which i the absorption oF production of work, i normally expense in terms of the ratio of actual and eal work transfers, Because turbomachines are esenialy adiabatic, the ‘cal proces isentropic and the eficeney i called an serrope eine “Making use of the concept of stagnation enthalpy or temperate to take sccount of any change in kinetic energy of the ux! between inlet and outlet Wwe have, forthe compresor, ne Fora perfect gas ly = eT and this relation is usually sufficiently accurate for rea gazes under conditions encountered in gas turbines ifa meth covet the relevant range of temperature is used~—see under heading ‘Variation of specific hea’ below (p41) for furter discussion ofthis pint Furthermore. Iecaue the ial and actual emperatare changes are not very diferent, the ‘ean ¢ canbe assumed the same for both 0 that the fentropie ficiency ISnoemally defied in terms of temperate as 29) Similarly the urbe sentropieeisioney is dened as 210) When performing cyl calculations, valves of, and wil be assumed and the temperature equivalents ofthe work transfers fora given prosare ‘ati are then founda lows 4 Taxon = A= a e ssa rowan cveuss nd aly Tea Tox = TH em Similarly Taa—Toa = nos] 1 (] en [-Goin)] ‘When the compresior is part of an industrial gs turbine, it usually has shor intake faring which may be regarded as part of the compres. py, ‘nd Ty in equation 211) wil hen be equal op and T; respectively because the velocity of the ambient ati er. This wil be assumed to be the case throughout this chapter. When along inlet duct andor aie ler sneer, 45 in marine applications for example, the inlet pressure loss (Ap} must be edcte. =o, will be Ap. The situation rather diferent when the sompresior i part ofan area propulsion unit beens then there wll be ‘an intake duct of significant length tn which ram compression takes place ‘ue to the forward speed ofthe aircraft In this tution poy and Ty, would “fle from p, and T, eve if there were no Friction losses andi is always Decssary to consider the intake an compressor a separate component 1 dscussion of how intake losses ae then taken into aceon wl be deferod the next chapter in defining, according to (210) and thus taking the ideal work as propor: tional to (Tay Teh we ae implying tha the kinetic energy inthe exhaust. ‘25 going to be ulized, eg in a subsequent turbine ori the propeing nozde ofa jet engine But ifthe turbines part of an industrial plat exhaust ‘ng drety to atmosphere tis Kinetic energy is waste. The seal quantity ‘of turbine work would then seem tobe taken more appropriately 35 that ‘produced by an isentropic expansion fom fos to the state outlet pressure a with p equa tothe ambient pressure p, Thus, would be defined by Ty Tus a Gan) | In practice, even in such a cate the kinetic energy of the gs immediately leaving the turbines largely reovered in an exhaust ifn which nest increase the preasre ratio across the turbine: Fig. 2.10 indiates this for 8 sivas which reduces the final velocity to a nepligile valve 50 tht pos = pe fe The urine pressure ratio is soon to Be incensed fom Poy £0 yolfs The temperate equivalent ofthe turbine work (Tox To 1 sl Even by (Tay~ Tu: beast no work i done in the dius and Tov = Tou but Tay sles than it would be i fer were not fied and p, was equal to pz For ordinary eye calculations there is no nee to consider the turbine ‘expansion 3x and dilsion process x-o4 separately. We ty Pt Poa — he in equation 2.12) and regard max accounting alo forthe feton pressure Jossin the diner (px) We then have equation (213), but must interpret its applying to the turbine and exhaust ifser combined rater than the turbine alone Ia this book, equation (212) with pus put equ 0p, wll be usd for any turbine ethausting direct to atmosphere: for any turbine AT- follows tha 9. < and that the diference wil increase withthe numberof stages. ie with increase of pressure ratio. A physical planation tht the screase in temperature du to friction in one stage ‘ests in more work being required inthe next tage: i might be termed the ‘preheat elec. A similar argument can be used to show t > ne lnthis ase fistional Tee ‘ork the nest. “Thee considerations have lato the concept of polyrope or smal-stge) ficiency nes which i defined asthe entropic eficiency ofan elemental ‘age in the proces such that iti constant throughout the whole process. Fora compression, ar st Tp" = constant for an isentopic process, which in diferetial form is AS ar _eigp eae Snbttnon of 47 fom th previous er nef 7? Integrating betcen nt 1 and outlet 2 with. constant by dition, we ew, ‘This equaton enables tobe cakeulated fom measured valves of pand T inlet and outlet ofa compressor Equation (2.14) ea also be writen in the form Hor “ MeT#00% OF ACCOUNTING 108 COMPONENT Loss a Finally the relation between mc and is given by. eTUT=! ._teupypt- = STM =1~ Ge I Note that if we write (19a a8 (nm equation (2.15) isthe familar relation between pnd T fora polstropic proces, and thus the definition of ‘implies thatthe non-senropic process polytops. This the origin ‘fuhe term poytropiceffeensy Similars. since, 8 OT/ST i can be shown that for an expansion berween inlet and out 4, B-(ey pan ey : ane ~Npsire) 1 show how m, and n, vary with pressie ratio fora Bue salve of aed eer FS pti ok ca ais) eis € 1G.2.12 Variation of erin ant cmreer eto fin) with rere rato foro ice 8, {In practice as with, and nits normal to define he poytropie fcencie in terms of stagnation temperatures and presures Furthermore, when ‘mploying them in eyee calculations the most convenient equations to use willbe shown o be thosecorespondingto(21I)and(2-12). fromequations @syand 217, eae) om where (n=) =~ Ditee (re) where n= IVR = nodW ‘Ané again, fora compressor of an industrial gus turbine we shall tke yu = Pr and Toy = Twi fo utbies el to atmosphere pos will beput equal top. Tata ] om Pressure losses Pressure losis in the intake and exhaust ducting have been deat with in the previous subsection, In the combustion chamber a lows in stagnation pressure (Ap) oevurs duc tothe aerodynamic esitance of ame-stabizing Sind mixing devices and also due to momentum changes produced by the txothermic reaction, These sources of lows are refrod ton dealin Chapter {6 When a heat-exchanger is included athe plan there willl be fristion ‘Pressure lows inthe passages on the air-ide (Ap) aod gueside (Apa AS Shown in Fig 21% the pressions ave the elle of decreasing the turbine FIG. 2.13 Prewnre es Pressure ratio relative to the compestorpresture ratio and ths ede the et work output from the plant. The gas turbine ele very sensitive 0 inreversibiis, because the ot outputs the difereneoftwo args quantities (ie the ‘work ratio’ i low), 40 thatthe pressure loses have significant tfc the cycle performance. Fixed values ofthe losses can be fad into the cycle calultion dicey For example, fora simple cycle with hea-exchango we may determise the urine pressure ato poo fom Des = Poa APs~ AP td os = 7+ APag ‘But again the question arses as to whether it sreavonabletoassume constant ‘ales forthe pressure drops when cys of diferent pressure ratio are being Compared. The ritional pressure loses willbe roughly proportional the local dynamic head of the flow GpC* for incompressibie flow) with ‘ordinary pipe ow, I might therefore be expected thatthe pressure drops ‘Apa py wil increase with eye pressure ratio Because the density of ‘held in the aside ofthe heat-exchanger and inthe combustion chamber is increased. Even though pis not proportional to p because T inceases also, etter approximation might be 0 take Ap, and Apy a xed propor tions ofthe compressor delivery presure The trbine inlet presses then found from pes pn( 14 ‘We aall expres the preeure lous data inthis way in subsequent numerical cxamples. Heatexchanger effectiveness Hea-etchanger for gas turbines can take many forms including counter- ‘ow and eoseow recuperators (where the hot and old seas exchange heat through a separating wall) or regenerator (where the steams ae brousht yclctly nto contac with w matin which alternately absorbs and eects heath. nal ass using the notation of Fip 213 the fuiéamenal process is that the turbine exhaust gases reject beat at the rate of mic (Ta. while the compeessor delivery air receives heat atthe rate of ‘nczs(Ton~ Tosh For conservation of energy, asruming thatthe mass ows mand mare equal, «ps Tou Toa) = cya Tos Tes) ey But both To and Tye are uaknown and a second equation is required for their evaluation. This is provided bythe equation expressing the ebiency ofthe heat-exchanger [Now the maximum possible value of Tis is when the ‘ol ait atians the femperature of the incoming hot B36 Toy. and one posible measur of performance isthe ratio of actual energy vcziied by the cold ai to the ‘maximum posible valu, .. méqedTosTe) neyo Ted ‘Themen spi et ofa will not be vey feet oer he wo tempera ture ranges andi ual o eine the fiency in emf cere Alone and eal it the efectenes (other) the hes-echangr Tae Alectivenes = Tes Toa ez » stir rowan eveuss When 4 value of efectvenes i specif, equation (222) enable the em perature a inlet to the combustion chamber Ty to be determined Equation (221) then side Tyg require. Note tet the mean spec eats ue and ‘3 af¢n04 approximate) equal and cannot be cance besa the former ‘ioe turbine exhaust gs and the ater fora. In general the larger the volume ofthe hest-exchanger the higher can be the eectivenss, But with gas turbines for road or marine transport space sa vital limiting lator Considerations of weight snd space are 50 important in ate applications that heat-exchanger have not yet been ‘employed to any advantage: recent developments with compact surface heat-exchanges of ceramic materials may change the pctte in the fue Modsra eateachangos have values of efletivencss around O90 and can withstand turbine ext temperatures of up to 900 K- Heatexchangers are Subjeced to severe thermal suesss during startup and are aot usd where frequent starts are required eg for peak load ccc generation, Pipeline applications sr well std to eat-enchanges, because the ga arbines may ‘un for very extended periods ata baseload condition. It shuld be noted, however tat many pipeline stations are located in remote aon where ‘tansporation and installation ofa heat-exchanger presen major problens Fortis reason, some moder heat-exchanger are bulk up frm a ores of Meni! modules, Mechanical losses Ina gas turbines, the power necessary to dive the compressor is ransmited Aicetly from the turbine without aay intermediate gearing. Any loss that ‘occurs i therefore due only to bearing friction and winds Tit os very small and iti normal to assume that it amounts to abot 1 per cent ofthe power necessary to drive the compresir. I the transmission efliincy 15 Aenoted by nq. We have the work output required to drive the comprssior ven by W = deilTea— To) in ‘We sal take na so be 99 percent forall numerical examples, ‘Any power tse te drive ancilary component sch fel and cil pumps an often be accounted for simply by subracting i rom the net outpt Of the unit Power absorbed in any gearing Between the ae turbine and the load can be dealt with smi. Except vo say tha such losses ean be signif «ant especially when sal as arbines oflw power are under consideration ‘for road transport, we shall nt conser ther forthe, Their consideration ould not require the method of yee performance estimation to be modified ‘except when the gas turbine has a separate power turbine, Powe for fal end ‘il pumps wil then be taken from the compressor turbine because under Some operating conditions the pow turbin i stationary) in which ase the temperature at alto the power turbine radaced. Variation of specific heat “The propertiss cj and y play an inportant part in the estimation of eee performances andi necessary to take account of variation in values dive {6 changing conditions through the cycle In general for tcl gases over normal working raages of pressure and temperature ci «function of Temperate alone The same is rue of Beaute it lated 10

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