' 304 aa i aw \ gS 193.25 a4 1 | 4 28 n 224 wo lu 125 =z & 2 2 Siss 57 Ce 85 6 é Z a —y sos 27 E 4 A, 299 ba e 180 2I7 = 505 bo 3 — 5 1029 985ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY A PROBLEM ORIENTED APPROACH JOE ROBERTS THE MIT PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS (~ LONDON, ENGLANDcopyright © 1977 by The Massachusetts Instrtute of Technology All rights reserved. No port of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording , or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. this book was printed and bound in the United states of America. Library of Congress catalog card number : 76- 46738 ISBN 0-262 - 68-028-0To Marian, Mark, Katy, Ruth.Table of Contents Preface es cc srr. Special Symbols + + + + 1 The Game of Euclid and the Euclidean algorithm : tthe GoldenMean - se es 0 Prime Factorization and Primes -— - W Square Brackets - + + + V Kronecker Theorems «© = = Mi Beatty ; SkolemTheorems - = = wi The Game of wuthoff soe ee vit, O,P +s se ee 1x Fermat, Wilson , Chevalley oe x Diusibility Crteriq + + ee xi Squares + + se ts xi Sums of Powers oh xi Continued Fractions + + + + XIV More on Primes - 5 8 ee XV Quaternions , Complex Numbers , and Sums of 4 and 2 Squares xm Brun’s Theorem 6 5 et xvi Quadratic Residues + +» +. vyvt 20 27 35 38 46 50 59 4 7 88 o4 147 167 186 192 is 8s 205 305 42s 47s 595 ols ONS 995 ios uss 1955 225 2485 2555xvii Exponents , Primitive Roots, and Power Residues « XIX Special Primes and the Lucas-Lehmer Theorem - Xx Pell Equation - xx1 Weyl's Theorem on Uniform Distribution xx MBbius Functions - xxi Some Analytic Methods + xxiv Numerical Characters and References Thdex the Dirichlet Theorem - au 222 228 236 243 249 280s 3085 35S 3245 33SPreface this book is designed so that iF may be used in several ways : 1 canbe used for self study , asa guide for rutorially directed work, or as a supplementary text or source of problems for an ordinary first or second course in number theory . The aim of the book 1s similar to that of Aufgaben und Lehrsdtze aus der Analysis by Pélya and Szegs A considerable part of the work consists of sets of problems culminating n well known theorems. In +his way much of + ¢ material of an elementary course in number theory 1s covered. Moreover, many, theorems not often metin such elementary courses, but which require little or no greater sophistication, are included. A large part of the book may be read by a student with little orno college mathematics « In the earher parts of the book such a student would only infrequently find it necessary to skip a problem becouse of its dependence on some special mathematics not in his background .Later in the book, especially in the last half of xi and in xvi, xxi, xxl, xxiv the reader will need a fairly good working knowledge of limiting Processes as met in elementary and advanced calculus. Some chapters, such as vi, xv, and xix, are quite technical though not advanced so far as the mathematical techniques used are concerned. Most chapters are inde pendent of one another and even a mathematical beginner should find r+ relatively easy to dip and choose at random. Nevertheless, each chapter 1s written with the thought that most readers will wish to work it through in detaul . The solution section (pp 1$-3565 ) is designed To serve two functions : the first 1s to complete the problem section in a way so asto make of the two sections together a self contained ex~ position of the topics discussed ; the second ts to offer to the student wishing towork on his own an opportunity to (sparingly J use it for hints and ideas. This section should be well thumbed rather than well read. After saying this tt should be added that many of the problems are of considerable difficulty and a reader unable to make any headwayci with a problem should not feel quilty about turning to the solutions for help. Appended to the text 1s a rather extended list of references, most of | which have some direct bearing on at least one problem - Tt must, however, be emphasized that the list 1s not intended to be complete and contains only those references familar to the author and felt to be particularly relevant to the material presented. Further references on virtually every topic may be found in the extraordinarily useful compendium LeVeque £1974]. Symbols such as vil, vi2z, VIIR appearing at the end of a reference indicate, respectively, the reference 1s a general one for much or all of chapter vit, 1s relevant to problem 22 of Chapter Mil, oF is mentioned in the remarks for Chapter vu. Finally a word concerning, the format and style of the book 1s th order. I+ has long been the author's opinion that the format ofa mathematics book 1s of greater importance than 1s generally recognized + Consequently , when the opportunrty arose to have the manuscript hand calliqraphed it was decided to proceed with this even though irwas necessary to beqin before the entire manuscript was completed. This has led to some stylistic disadvantages inthe final text. However , though thar occurrence Is regretable,, they donot seem 40 be a serious deterrent to the general ams of the presentation . Though the author can make no claim to have written a book ona par with rhat by Polya and $zeg8, mentioned above that work has consistently been considered as a model for excellence. + has been an inspiration from the beginning . Great thanks are due to Gregory Maskarinec for undertaking the arduous task of calliqraphing the manuscript from ahand written manuscript of quite different appearance. Throughout, our working relation has been excellert and left nothing to be desired. Thanks also are due to my many students whe, over the ysars, have worked through various versions of parts of this material and to helpful colleagues for thar eriticisms . All comments from readers designed to help in the improvement of the work will be gratefully received. Joe Roberts Portland, Oregon 1975Special Symbols and where 1 used or defined 5 feds 4 Bo eT (a,b)- 2 BA2 se 3 & (number) + 2 MOY + + 08 Un * ' 6 C(4) + + 16 z' 9 Kir), Kor) 132 Fr * + 8 Paes Cx + 7 Nyixy + + 49 (xpos + FA(%) + + 156 A(K)+ + 38 N(n) + 159, 246 S(K)+ 8 Q +. 16 Vin) s+ bo rn) a(n) - + 50 N(X), TUK) + 169 Tim) s+ 60 H,C£,1 + 470 W(x) . . T(x) + + 186 H(n) . - 56 qrsqnr + ig ony. . 87 Gy a aj6 - . 59 Cc X(n) - + sgn . + 207 F 3G (mod p) » 66 T.4,ZyA + 207 F~G(modp) + 66 P(A), Pai) 2 g . 1s HOE), Yin(t) 2 E(Koy)Xn) 4 Mn + + 223 Pm s Jom (INI) + QT Xsix)+ + a6 [dean] + 8 ~“M: + OT Laos J 98 OC F(x) + tg scf 103 L(sy> + 256 BAL 106 x . + 261,262vi other notations used in the text. For integers + a| 6 means there is an integer ¢ such that bza-c 3 az6 (modmy means m]a-6 ; mb ae2eBe 3 obss; 1 (6)*wahrer, osbsa; Z 1s the set of postwe integers ; ged stands for “greatest common divisor ” 3 [4,¥] 1s the least common multiple of uand v ; LHS (RHS) left (right) hand side .ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY1 The Game of Euclid ex the Euclidean Algorithm Consider the sequence of sets (duplicate cluments are permitted ) : {18,35 }> (43,353 [8 35 {8,113 {8,33 {2,33 {2 13 fo}. Each set in the sequence may be obtained from the preceding one by subtracting some, positive integral multiple of onvof its dements fromthe other. When a set {a,b} of non~ negative wotegers arises in this way from another such set {m,n} we say ttisa derwed set of {m,n}. A sequence of sets like the above, in which each set 1s a derived set of the preceding set and in which the last set contains 4 zero will be called a derwed sequence . rf {a,63 1s a dered set of {min} with least value for a+b we callita minimal derwed set of {m,n}. Inthe above sequence {43,35}1s not aminimal derived set of {78,253 while {2,3} 1s a minimal derived set of {8,3}.The passage from any set toa derived set 1s called a move anda move to aset one element of which 15 0 1s called a winning move. Throughout yall integers areto be non-negative and men. Further, T = 145 : 1. Noting that fm,n} = {n,m} for allm,n we seethat : ) {m,n} has t dered sets where t 1s the largest pos itive integer for which tmen 1s true; i) {m,n} has exactly one minimal derwed set whichis {m,n-tm} where t 1s. asin (1); iit) of {0,6} 15.0 derwed set of {m,n} then the greatest common divisor of aand 6 1s equal to the greatest common divisor of m and 1; 1n symbols, (a,6)=(m,n) ;iv) every derived sequence starting with {mn} ends with fo,(m,n)}. 2. Tf two players say A and B, start with {m,n} and alternately make the moves of a derived sequence , A moving first and each desiring to make the winning move of The sequence then we call the play resulting “the game of Euchid ” The following assertions are true of this game : 6) if at any stage of the game a set occurs in which one cement is a positive integral multiple of the other then the player next tomove can win by moving to the minimal derived set 5 ii) rh is not always to a player's advantage to move to a minimal derived set ; di) rf there 1s awinning strategy for A then at each play he must select oneor the other of :the minimal derived set, or , The derived set whose only derived set is the minimal derived set ; #) when 1 5 %) whena game starts with {mn} then player Amay force awinif Tst0r Bot while f nauther of these is true player Bmay force a win. 4. An efficient method of computing the great est common divisor (hereafter denoted ged)of two positive integers a and 6 1s to compute a derived sequence beginning with {a,6} and inwhich each other element of the sequence isthe minimalderived set of the preceding one. Thus fasb andazqb+r,osr{6,r}. Putting a=n%,b=n, 4 Jo T=, Cte. One finds the ged of a and 6 1s m when TT) = oP +72 oo. 4) For N21, Ugnes 210", $0 Usn,, has at least n+1 base 10 digits ; a) if n steps are usedin the Euclidean algorithm determining the ged of r,andr,, T.77, 20, using 7, as the first divisor, then vr, Unsiit) (Lomé fies] the number of divisions needed by the Euclidean algorithm in finding the ged of two numbers does not exceed five times the number of base 10 digits in the smaller of the two numbers ; iv) the maximum number of divisions allowed by (iif) 1s actually used in computing the ged’s of (8,13), (89,144), (987, 1597) by the Euclidean algorithm; note that all numbers involved are in the Fibonace: sequence, 9) if the Euchdean algorithm in computing the ged of a. and 6, a6 , 6 having t base 10 digits, takes st steps thenthe number of base 10 digits of uy, 1s = t ; viy | |< ars Vii) Uns 10U,, for N24; viii) for t 24, Ugg>10° and, therefore, Uz has more than t base 10 digits ;ax) the Euclidean algorithm when applied +o two numbers the smaller of which has at least 4 base 10 dights never takes as many divisions as allowed by Lame's theorem ; ne. Lame’s theorem 1s not “best possible " when applied to numbers the smaller of which ts 210? « Remarks. the game of Euclid 1s dueto Cole e Davie [1969] and has been further analysed by Sprtanagel [1973] The theorem of Lame was first proved by him in 1844, The result in 7e(ix) is far from the best known result of this kind. the interested reader might consult Dubisch [i949], Dixon [1971] , Brown [1967] or Plankenstaner [1970] for further information and references,t The Golden Mean r m the point © divides rs a line segment AB into “extreme and mean ratio” (Euclid , Book IV, Definition 3) when me meer Res met Such a division of a line segment 1s sometimes called a golden section ora golden cut. The ratio # for such a division 1s called the golden mean or the golden ratio.A rectangle whose sides are inthis ratio isa golden rectangle. Th the following we again use & for the irrational number 43% and use &’ for tts “ conjugate” 43 =8 . 3B 1. ifo2 ; ) q(n) = Uner for N21 5 i) the number of strings of & 1’s and n-R 0’s inwhich no two 1’s are consecutive is just F(,R) ; w) the number of ways of placing k 1’s into n-k+1 boxes so that no box has more than 1 clement is exactly fink) ; v) f(n,k)= ("Ee ) when 2kenes and ts o otherwise ; vi) setting (¢) =o when s 8, [o]-[ BJ 1s the number of integers m satisfying Bab-a-6 but does not have a non~ negative solution when zab-a-6 3 ») for exactly a1 6-9 positive values of k does (x) fail to have a non-negative solution. Remarks. 1. There 1s a wide literature on square brackets. The interested reader might consult the following + Bang [1957]; Beatty [1927] 5 Coxeter [1953]; Fraenkel [1909], Fraenkel, Levitt, shimshoni [1972] ; Graham, Pollack [1970] ; Graham{ 1913] ; Skolem [1957] ; Watson [lose],4 2. The result in *32 (0) gees back to Frobenus and schur. Similar results have been sought for the general \inear forms OX tee AK REN but even for R=3 the general solution 1s not known. For an introduction to the literature the reader might consult Brauer, Shockley [ise2], Erdés, Graham [1971], Hofmaster [1966], Lewin [19721973] , Roberts [1956] , Bateman [1958], and Note 1+ by Skolem tn Netto ['927].Vv Kronecker Theorems For x a real number we write (x) for the fractional part of xj 1.0. (x)= x-[x]. 1. Let ox be irrational and put P= (na). then: 1) O0 there isan r such that P.<€ or 1-e0, there are integers n andr such that |B, Pain |<; tii) for o implies arrand B>1. 3. Cay SACS). 4 A(14vE) SACs). 5. A(ax)0A(B) is an infinite set when both a and B are rational .MI 39 6. (Beatty) If ais positive and irrational and £4 % 21 then wrery positive integer 1s 1n exactly one of 3(x), 3(8) and these sequences have no duplicate terms : 7 A(vE)NA(24V2) =o and A(vVE)UA(24y3)= 2. 8. A(TINA(T*) => and - A(T)UA(T*) HB. 9. (Skolem) The three sequences (121) {(tlenl}}, {{ele'm]}}, {(<*n1 } are mutually disjoint and thar unton is Z. 10. If Age A(T) and Ayes {[t?n] |n e Am} for mzo, then the A, are dis jount In pairs and thar union is 2.4o WTF x Is positive and irrational and Arges andif MoeA(O), Anat {[8n] |ne An} for m2o,then the A, are disjoint In pairs and thar union is 2. 2. If A(x) NA(B) 1s finite and A(x) vA(Q) =z then s+ 4, 13, A(X) NA(B) non-empty and finite is incompatible wrth A(ax) VA(B)=z. 14. (Bang) A neccessary and sufficient condition for $(a), $(3) to be complementary (1.0. A(X) MA(B)= oh, ACX)UA(B)=Z) Is that a and 8 be posrtwe irrational numbers such that Says 1.MI 41 15, (Uspensky) Aninteresting result along the lines of #6 and *9 15 the following theorem proved by Uspensky in 1927, There do not exist 3 or more numbers Oi,7,&n such that $(o,) j++) 5(On) are non-empty disjoint sequences which taken together contain each positive integer precisely ance. We prove this following Graham [1963]. Tn fact we shallassume: 123, &,<++- ; wW) if bo andco1 then ax+ bys a+b-1 passes through S. I7. Let &,8,a,b,¢,d,5 be as in *16. Then : i) there are integers wu and v such that a(usd)2-b(v+ 4) ; if woe td(urd)- [aur €)], Kyebw,, Yn = ---Wy then { we, m, wee 3 Is dense in [0,1] while the points (XnsYn) are dense on the line segment jomning (0,0) to ($5) i) if #0 and qisa fixed integer there are integers t,5,U.,v, such that dt+sc=g and au,+bv, =dt j tw) if Xam™ Kyte ut =, Yam? Yn Mav, + + then (XnmsYfnm) 15 always 4 paint on theline ax+byeq;44 v) the points (Rams Yfnm) Ore dense on ax+by = 5 j vi) father 6<0,¢#0 or bx0,¢71 then there are infinitely Many Points (Xam Yfen) nS; vii) if B . 19, (Skolem) Tf o and are posttwe irrational numbers then A(a) A(B)= > fand only f there are positive integers aand 6 such that $45 =.Mi os 20. (Skolem) This special case of Uspensky’s theorem (see *15) was proved by skolem [1957] . There do not exist positive irrational numbers %, 8,8 such that A(a), ACB), ACY) are pairwise disjoint. 21. (Bang) 1f « and are positive irrational numbers then A(a) 0 A(a)# > fand only if the line segment yorning («, 0) and ( 0,8) Passes through a lattice point. Remarks . The material of + his chapter 1s drawn primarily from Skolem [1957] Bang [1957] ,and Graham [1963] . The interested reader might also consult Niven [1963] , Connell [1959 , 1960], Uspensky [1927] , Graham [1973] and the references qven inthe 1 remark at the end of Ww. For #10, 1 see Roberts [1973].vi the Game of wythoff Consider the sequence of sets ( duplicate elements are permitted ) 5 {18,35}—>{ 10,35} —+{ 10,25} [50,5} at Each element inthe sequence may be obtained from the preceding one by subtracting a positive integer from one or the other of the two elements or by subtracting one and the same positive integer from each of the two elements. When a set {a,63 of non-negative integers arises from a set {mn} mone of these three ways We say fa, 63 1s a derwed set of {mn}. A sequence of sets , as above, in which each set is a derived set of the preceding set and which ends with {0,0} ‘Ss called a derwed sequence. The passagefrom any set toa derived set 1s called o move and a move to {9,0} 1s called a winning move . Tf two players, A andB, start with {m,n} and alternately make the moves of a derived sequence, A moving first, and each desiring to make the winning move of the sequence , then we call the play resulting the game of wythoff. We are interested in knowing the conditions under which the player moving first, A for us, can force a win for himself. Noting that {mn} = {n,m} and assuming all integers are non-negative we may prove 3 1, If A can leave any of the following pars toB then regardless of Bs move, A can win: {1.23 {3,5}, {4,73 {6,10}, { 8,133, {5}, {00}, 4748 2. 1f {a,6} Is a set of distinct hon~zero integers not inthe listin #1 and ifthe smaller of a,b is 0, TsyaT(2yeere Tn) = (2) +[4]+--+(4) Wa) * tH, Cal-["}’ . + Corr ayt 10. fF one Ed then O4(n) = TT wet : u. Tf ayo, b>3 then oa), o(ab) 2 o(ayoib) aS a6 4° 6 : 12. If a0, 60 then : 6 a(ayo(bye F doa). 13 O(1)FO(2) FF O(n)s [FP] +2[F]enen [A]. 4. 9 (5186) = P (5187) =P (sissy) = 2592.vin 15. i) For n24, P(ri)=nYP(n) ; i) forn22, P(n)2 we have 1 mma = ENP(N) « igmsn I% Tf P(ny|n then n1s of oneof the forms 1,2%,2%-3F , is. Tf a and 6 are larger than 1 and cis the product of the distinct prime factors of (@,6) then (ab) = 9(a) (6) Ez - is F G(d) =n. \n 20. z 9(¢)[ 4] =tn(ne1). so yx a EAM. oy. 7 net 1-x*s+ 22. The formula for Pn) given in #3 implies that the number of primes is infinite . 23. (schinzel) Let N,, be the number of solutions of the equation (xem, Then the sequence Ni, Na,os is not bounded » as can be seen from the fact that ¥( Pav Pam pipe pa) is independent of j 1848 R. Here por pa are the first & primes in their natural order. P 24, Let n= pe pee and write $(x,n) for the number of positive integers not exceeding x and relatively prime ton. Then : 4) ( Legendre ) Y(x n)= Cx] - FOR 5 Cpa] “+ cuh [pam]; i) the eee for P(n) qiven in F3hy Isa special case of (4) jvil 55 iy T(x), the number of primes not exceeding x, satisfies : T(x) eT (VR) = 44 P(x, prope), where Pass Pe are all the primes not exceeding VE. 25. If o(n)s2n, one calls na perfect number . 4) 6, 28,496, 8128 are perfect ; 4) 2"-1 prime and n prime imply ant(2"es) is perfect 5 ‘ti) ifn Is even and perfect then there 1s ak for which n= a (akey ) and each of h and het 1S prime ; i) m antiguity it was often stated that ewer even perfect number ends in 6 or 8 and that no two consecutive even perfect numbers have the same base 10 final digrt; the a though not the 2° of these assertions is true ;56 ”) ba? 2 if and only fn \s perfect 5 vi) 1f nis odd and has no more than 2 distinct prime factors then nis not perfect : 26. Let H(n) bethe harmonic mean of the dwisors of ny wegigtcty Eo. Then : din 4) (ny ener) and His multiplicative ; fi) H(n) 91 for ny1and Hin)y2 except for n=1,4,6 or n prime ; fy if meat (a"er) is perfect then Himen ; iv) if ne 21 HOO) 1s even then H(2"™Mes Je 2 3 v) (Laborde) ifn 1s even and Hin} na HCHO. 4) then nis perfect. ari) If fsa multi plicatwe arithmetic function shee if F (ab) = F(ayf (by for (a,6)=1, then the function 4 defined by qin) E, f(d) 1s also multiplicative 5vill fi) the multrphicativity of all of the following functions follows from (4) Tin), a(n), Ft (dy, O(n), Fn), where on) 1s the sum of the odd divisors ofn. Remarks. 1. The result in #23 will be found in Sierpinski [19e4a] . 2. As seen in *25 (si) the even perfect numbers are all of the form 272% 1) where 2" 1 prime. Primes of this form are called Mersenne primes and will be discussed IN XIX 6 there are only 24 Mersenne primes known and they are for the following values of n 1 2,3,5,7,13,17,19,31,61, 89, 107, 127, $21, 607, 1279, 2203 , 2281, 3217, 4253, 4423, 9889 , 9941, 11213, 19937, 5758 It 1s interesting to note that until 1952 the largest known prime was 2'*? 4a number of 39 digits, while the largest known prime today 1s 219974, g number of 6012 digits. There are only the 24 even perfect numbers corres ponding to these Mersenne primes known and it Is not known if odd perfect numbers exist. See Mc Carthy [1957] . The result of #25 (vi) may, however , be considerably improved. Also it has been shown that no odd perfect number < so exists (see Haqis [1973] ). 3. The main result in #26 1s due to Laborde [195s] .ik Format, Wilson, Chevalley 4. Let p bea prime. Then : 1) pl (many? -(mPenP) 5 a) FA mem ifand only if pl (mney? (m1) ; ti) (Fermat's “ little” theorem ) p| mP-m or all m21. 2. For p a prime, pl (mrrotme)Pa (mPeeemP) , and Fermat?s little theorem is an immediate consequence of this . 3. When pisan odd prime then: ?| mlenP implies Pp’ mPen?, 4. (Golomb) Let there be given a collection of beads of n different colors from which we wish to make non ~one~color necklaces of60 exactly P, psn, beads . The number ps to bea prime. Then : iy there are n?-n linear p length strings of non~one~color beads ; a) the number of distinguis hable necklaces P. ar ; ti) nPen (med p) ( Fermat's theorem dy; of the desired types w) nPen (mod 2p) for p odd . 5. Let n be an arbitrary integer larger than sand put Ne(nly, Then: 4) every prime factor of N+118 odd and greater than n j ti) Ne1 | N44 for ™ any positive odd integer ; Wi) f p isa uk+3 prime factor of Net then pl nh and this contradicts Fermat's theorem 5 ty there are infinitely many hes primes .6. Let p bea prime and suppose (n,p)=1. of naznb (mod p) then as 6 (med p) ; ay nP*(p-a)t z (p-1)! (mod p) ; i) nPte4 (mod Pp) ( Fermat's theorem ). Te LOT Ay ye) Agimy be relatively primeto m and also be incongruent modulo m in pairs . Further, suppose (n,m)=1, i) if na,ena, (mod m) then sy j 8) 1a, ++ Doin F 9° Agim (mod m) ; HH) (Euler) n®™s 1 (mod m) for (n,m) 4 j i) Fermat's theorem is a special case of (1H). 8. when a 1s an odd integer i) ata1 (mod 8); f) gt "a1 (mod 2%) for wr2.62 9. Define x by: ¥(p%) for pan odd prime *(p%)= and for pe2, 08082; 2 P(p%) for Pr2z, X72, % (pote p28) = lem {*(p.2), 0, Cp. A8}- For my1,modd,(a,m)et : iy a®*™a1 (modm) ; ft) ma prime implies (m)| m1 5 itt) P(m)] m-4 implies X(m)| m4 ; wy) X(m) | mes implies 2™*21(modm) ; ¥) the converses of (iil) and civ) are False as can be seen by taking m= S5e@land m= B41. ( No example of (m)| mas for composite m is known, J 10. rf p is an odd prime then oF at (mod p) or 2b ey (mod p) .1h. 4) Suppose ny6 wnzab with 1casb, then: a) Benes ; by if az 6 then ZASN-335 it) ifn Is composite and 26 then (n-2)! a NS an even integer . 2. Suppose (a,m)e1 and Pp 1S a prime. then: 4) ax z1(modm) has a unique solution modulo m ; it) if, in (4), a 24 (modm) then x #41 (modm) and xa (mod m) ; Hi) 2-3e0(p-2) 4 (mod p) j W) (Wilson's theorem ) (p-3) le-1 (mod p) ; ) for R41, N IS a prime if and only f n|(n-tjler. 13. Wilson's theorem may be used to show that the congruence **+120 (mod p) is solvable when pisay kes prime.o4 14, Let p be an odd prime and mark p pomts uniformly spaced onacircle. Let TandR be the sets of all Ra gens and the regular p- gens respectively. Then: i) the cardinality of T 1s 4(p-1)! ; i) the cardinality of R \s 2(p-4) ; il) the cardinality of T-R 1s divisible by Pi v) (p-ayle-s (mod p) (wilson’s theorem ) . 5. (clement) Let m,n be positive integers. i) (mans)! a (-1)" nb (mer)! (mod men) ; i) (nly? ((m-1)l4a)e(nl-s)(n-1)!me nl ((-1)"(m4n-1)!41) (modm4n) ; ti) if Pp and prk are odd primes then (pk)=1, k 1s even, and (GLY ((petylas)s (Rl-1)(f-1)! p20 (mod p(pek)) ; i) the converse of (iit) may be false even though (p,k)e1 and Ris een ;») the converse of (ii) 1s true when pand prk are primeto k! ; Ni) let n be an odd Integer d45 then 4#((m-a)l41)4n £0 (mod n(ns2)) ifand only fn and nN+2 are odd primes. 16. Let (a,m)=4 and suppose s 1s the smallest integer t for which ate1(modm). then if a"s1(modm), s|n. 17.4) a4 4 (mod m) for alla ,(a,m)=4 does not imply hs as one can see with m= 561 3 it) if a™*z1 (modm) for some a such that at¢1 (mod m) for any t, o3, then nisa pseudoprime 3 ¥) there are infinrtely many odd pseudoprimes, 20. Let Fand G be polynomials inn variables with integral coefficients. We say F 1s congruent to G modulo p , and write F eG (med p), if respective coefficients wn Fand G are congruent modulo pr We say Fis equivalent toG modulop, and write F~G (mod p), if for all integral chorces C1, Cn If 1s true that F (ese On) EG (C1, Cn) (mod p).eT we say that F ts reduced mod p if no variable appears in F toa power larger than p-3. Here p will always bea prime. 4-0) FFG (mod p) mplies FrG (mod p); by the converse of ¢ a )is false ; ¢) every polynomal Fis equivalent med p toa reduced polynomial F*, where dog F*s deg F ; ¢) if F and G are reduced polynomals in one variable then F~g (mod Pp) implies FeG (mod p) 5 e) if Fand G are reduced polynomials in any finite number of variables the implication in (dys valid ;j it) let F be a polynomial inn variables and suppose the congruence F(x, ,++,%n)z0 (mod p) has exactly one solution (,,++,%n) # (iy, An) modulo p (he. the components are taken modulo p).68 Define Hand g by 3 H (Rij Rn) S MT (4-(H,- a)?" ), G (mK, yxn) eae Frwy) Then: a-3) Hay ,an) Bt (mod p) ; 2) if for some j,1sjsn, x84 (mod p) then W(x, 8a) FO (mod p) ; 6) H~G (modp) ; c) H# G™(modp), where G* 1s the reduced form of G 5 d) deq Hen (prt) deg G6*s deg Gg = (deq F\p-1) so ns deg F; iit) ( chevalley ) if Fis a polynomial inn variables with degree smaller than n then the congruence F (%:)")%n) #0 (mod p) may not have exactly one solution; w) if F is a non-constant form innvariables (eee ifall the terms of F are of the same. degree )69 and if deg Fen then F(x.,%,)F0(modp) has a non-trivial solution (ea solution with not all x; FO (mod p))3 v) (Warning) let Fr be a polynomial inn variables of degree rT, where ren, and let p be a prime. Suppose F (x.y, Xn) #0 (modp) has exactly s solutions, say (4,0), 1si¢s. Then: a) if M (Xi) %n) 1 FP een) then the reduced form of H, say H*, 1s HX (xX) £ i (1+ (%; 7 ajO)P) ; 6) the highest degree term in H* 1s (et)"5 xt Pts c) Since ren and degree He r (pet) it must be true that pl sj d) if F Isa polynomial in nvariables with deg Fen then the number of solutions of F(% 4,9) %n) ZO (mod p) 1s divistble by Pp70 wi) By careful examination of (W-a) one may prove, as in ww), the following theorem. If Fisa polynomial inn variables with deq Fsn and (a,%+,a,%) ,1¢¢¢8,areall the solutions of F(x,,+,%n) 70 (mod p) then for each pair jr gk (1s jen, osksp-2) the prime p divides the sum £ (a, . vit) Let Fi jst, Fn be polynomals inn variables with respective degrees eal Tite ty 2) since IN 1907 Wieferich showed that fp 1s a-prime and wurex?, xyz do, then p satisfies this congruence. For more recent information and further references see Brillhart, Tomascia, Wanberger [i971] - 6. For further information on pseudo~ primes see Beeger [i951], LeVeque [1974 vit Ais}, and Rotkiewicz [1972]. 7 Further extensions of the chevalley - Warning theorems, see #20, may be found in Borevich ) Schafarevich [1966]. 3x Divisibslrty Criteria Let Sin) be the base k digit sum of'n : 1.4) 3] n-5,,(n) and, therefore, 3[n if and only if aj Silt) 5 fi) 9[n-S,o(n) and, therefore , g|n if and only f 9f Si0( 1) 5 fi) suppose f|h-35 then P| n-S6(n), and, therefore, d|n if and only if d | Sain). 2. (Alvis) Let pbe 3 prime larger than 7. Then: iy ( 6, S1(p))= 13 it) the smallest p with composite Sx(p) 'S 4801 5 tii) for P< 100 000 the only possible composite value of $4(p) 1s 25. 3. Let Eg(n) (O¢(n)) be the sum of the digits of the even (odd) powers of Rinthe base kexpansion of n. Then: fy 11|n-(£,.(n)-0,,(n)) and , therefore , 1i|n sf and only if 1H] E,.(n)-O,9(n) ; it) suppose d| Ret ; then d]n-(E5(n)-O,(n)) and therefore , ¢|n if and only if L|Eg(n)-O%(n). 4. Gwen n write Qin) ,R(n) forthe quohent and remainder obtained when one divides n by 1000. Thus n= 1000Q(n)+Rin), O OO as n—?oo ; 4 Pn 1 4 ot (1? XH) “dn = %e+ Geq~ Gage? Gd + nade? for nz1; rit) sf all ay are integers and ay ro for jz 1 then: a) i and qore relatway prime integers 5 6) I pul and t tend to infinity with n ; ©) qn 228 forn22 3 ; d) lim [ao,-+,an] exists 5 nil) inthe following all a;,6;, and cj are integers and, for fet are positive integers. a) If a;=6; for o B when 1 Is odd ;102 by if cys ays by for jrothen for x=[a,a,], [:<0B1,¢25 Bs, C4 ybey** Jove [ b.,61,62,s,by cee] 3 cy 1f X=[de,a.,-+] where wary ajis L0r2 , then 448 cae 14v7. 4. If & ts arational real number the Euclidean algorithm may be used to compute integers Ti Gloy***) Ay with 2570 , 424, for which x“ =[ao,° _ 1] = [aeys++, Ana, att] . Further, no continued fraction with integral a, other than these two ts equal to x . 5. Tf « isan arbrtrary irrational real number there exist integers Ao, A1,** with a;>0 ft ) for which o=hm [ao,a.,°+4,an) . Further this sequence 1s unique.xu 103 Remark . Continued fraction expansions of the form [a.,as,d2,-+] (finite or infinite) in which all ay are integers and all aj,j24, are positive integers are, of particular interest. In the following , whenever one refers to the continued fraction expansion of a real number it 1s that simple continued fraction expansion in which all a; are integers and all ay, 423, are positive integers . We shall use the abbreviation scf for “simple continued fraction”. 6. 4) Using the recurrence relations in *3(ii) dense a simple scheme for the rapid computation of the convergent of a continued fraction. fi) Use the scheme of (1) to compute all the convergents to [2,2,1,3,1,1,4,3] . (Note that the last convergent equals this continued fraction.)1o4 i) Use the Euclidean algorithm to find the scf expansions of MBF and 34482 tv) Reduce the fractions in (tit) to lowest terms by using the results of (tH), (4) and’3(xifa), v) Compute a;, 06545, for the sef expan~ sion of T and find the 1# five convergents # , osje4 Then using ft cmc B » show |m-Bejc3-10%, v4) Using the results of (v) for 4 ae compute & by making use of *3 (v1). vit) Find the scf expansion of the Golden mean 445 vik) Compute & in more fomsliarterms if «=[a,a,20,0,20,+-]=[a,2,20] ,ar0. fx) For a a-posrtive integer sxpand x=Var=2 ina simple continued Fraction ; use the result tocompute the sef expansion of J23 . = ( Mnye r) [ats rte] = (a)xu 105 7. ( Sadel’s convergence theorem of 1846 ) Let do,ds,d2,7°* be an infinite sequence of posite real numbers with the possible exception of a,, which may benegate, and ler ft be the typical convergent of the finite continued fraction [40,d4,d2,° J. i) Suppose zo dy converges . then : a) f Ags ather qe< ta or ges tag 3 6) there isa Ry and an A such that qa 4s ( i- ai) s(1-a,) 7A (Ts ay’) when ssko and Re igo > ino Ry 5 <) timel ao, an] does not exist. i) Suppose 2a, diverges. Put c=min {qor93h- Thenia) qgzc for R20 ; 5) qg2 quer oa for R21 ; Y det qe? dos for kz3 ; d) Jaqa-1? $8.4" for kz ; @) Lim [do,-+; an] exists.106 HH) (sedel) lim [ao,+++, an] exists rfand only if £ On diverges 3 #) lim [ao*++,an] always exists when the aj are all integral ,aj > 0 for jz1. 8. (Best approximations of 1% kind) A fraction which is closer to a real number o than every other fraction with equal or smaller denominator ts called a best approx- imation of first Rind tow. If -# 1s a best approximation of first Rind to x we will “ write + isa BAL tox”. 4) Suppose a b,c,d x,y are positive integers . Then a) if $< F< then x2 ~Stes— andy 2 post ; 6) if 2< x <&, be-ad=1 , then atleast one of -¢,-& 1s @ BAL to x and if oneof -#,-¢ 1s closer to x thatone Isa BAL tox .xa ft) Every convergent fox 1s a BAI fox. iit) Find 5 BA1's tom. w) The quotients of consecutive Fibonaccy numbers are convergents and , therefore, BA's to the Golden Mean 14 NF v) If fe and $e are convergents to a real number o and if 4 ) (a,6) =1, hes between them then 6 > 1 ° 9. ( Farey fractions) Let By be the sequence of all irreducible fractions in [0,1], whose denominators do not exceed n, arranged in order of magnitude. this ordered sequence $y IS called the Farey sequence of order n. 4) Write out §, for 1216. 4) The union of the §,, as sets rather than as ordered sets, taken over all positive integers n, 1s precisely the set of rational numbers in [o, 1].108 tit) Let -& bein §, and suppose 41, Then: a) there is a Yo such that ay, = 1 (mod 5 ) and n-bey.sn j 6) for y.asin (t) and x= 24 the fraction next following $n §,, 15 z ; ¢) it 1s easy to find the fraction following S ineach of Be, and $200 ; d)if £ and -$ are reducible fractions in [0,1] with be-ad =1 then and 4 are consecutive elements in $m, where m=max{b,d}. w) If + < 4 and these are naghboring (Me. consecutive) fractions in $, then ay bedon; 6) be -ad =1; c) (b,d¢)=1; d) bd whenno1, v) If x 1s between neaghboring ements of §, then at least one of these neighboring ee~ ments is a BAL tom.xi 109 vi) If +4, are consecutwe elements in $n then: a) be-ad =(a+c,b+d) ; 6) 4 =; (rhe fraction Erg appearing in (by is called the Farey mediant of thefractions -Zand-s. T+ will be noted that the Farey mediant of two fractions always les between them. ) vil) AM fractions in $s G4 are Farey mediants of fractions in $, - vit) Write out $, using (1) ox (vit). w) Let $ and-S be neighboring fractions in §,, and suppose F< a<—& . Then: a) f anelement of §,,,8 9, 1s ABALTOX then that element is equalto —B+&- ; Sif $415 in $s 4, F180 BAL toa ifand only if His closer to x than each of and x) Find all the BAL’s to Tr (approximately equal to 3.14159) wrth denominators notexceeding 25.No 10. 6) Let o% he between neighboring fractions -pand-Fin §, ,n>1. Then at least one of the following mnequalities 1s true . Jx-$]< te, |ax-$|< oe. i) Tf 0 1s a real number and m 1s. a posrtwe integer then there are relatwely prime integers sand t suchthat |x-4]< gang o1 5 fi) Let p be an odd prime and let 1st, where s2[£] . then there are positive integers Ag,+++, a, such that a,>1,a,>1 and + =[a.,*+*, an] — E (dey y) - Edina)?xu iit) Let p ands be asin (if). Then there are exactly s finite sequences ao,+++,a_ with erly Anrh and p= E(do,°**,an). Further, Any" 1, Ae 1S One of these SCYUENCLS When d,* +4, An 155 w) when pe (mod 4) then s is even and, since pe E(p) y there exist doys** Ay A>, Ayrs SuCH that p =E(a,,-++an) and ayaa, for osjen; WW eyt*, An IS palindrome j *) p= E (A, 5277, Amy Amory Amy ***, Ao) IN (W) 1S impossible and , therefore , p = a*+6* for surtable a and 6, when pz (mod4) ; vi) The above proof is constructive. Use tf to represent 13 asa sum of 2 squares. 12.4) Lf in *10 (ff) wetake x=-E (a,b) =1, m =[ VB] thenthe sand ¢ of that result satisfy: a) o<(at-bs)'+t*< 2b; 6) (at -bs,t)=1 when 6 divides a+1 5 c) O -Bis not possible, c) if us strictly between Fetand Fast Pes 4 then Boge, lal =|$-a 2 Badan) A a, ond Jom al < eae 5 d) the supposition in (c) is unrealixable ; e) ewery BA2 tox isa convergent Tox.We w) Ler the below be the convergents to the irrational number a. Then: a) | XG,— Pal <| %Gns— Pal 5 BY qn | qni—Presl* Gril 4n—~Pul =15 c) when -2 # fet then 5 | Xqna-Pn-s| +4u1| xb-al21; d) when 1<6 Gnasy Ont Be) = Andee dest and, therefore, 4n| qn%-Pr| = =e ; 6) 1f aj <2 forall but a finite number of j then , for n sufficiently large, = [any Qnasy LO, ny Gney? 745) £[2,1,2,t,--J+[0,1,2,1,2,-°] Sitva+qhe = v7 and, therefore, v(x) 2 7 3 4 nl{n-Pal c) v(x) cannot lie between # and +t: Remark . The results in problem “16 are by no means exhaustive of those known For further details one may consult Cassels [1957 ] chpt TT. The extreme simplicity of the above arguments 1s dueto Forder [1963] and Wright [1964] . For results likethose in (v-c) and further references see Cusick [1974] .120 17, (Periodic scf 's) When a; =a;.¢ for {>s we say that [@.,4,,:+°] 1s pervodic with period dy, ere and write [a,,0,,++°] =[o,°++, ey Tyan pet] + For purely periodic scf's suchas [45,7 Fa] we conventionally write the above with s =-1. Tf & 18 a periodic sef then x 1s a quadratic irrational 5 iy Net x bea quadratic irrational which 1s a Rero of the integral polynomial f(x) = Ax + Bx 40 where the integers A,B, ¢ have no common factor >15 further, pur K E[ae, diy] and Oy = [bags dnage ee) » Then &) X,IS a quadraticirrational for allnz0 ; B) Hf O, 18 a Xero of the integral polynomial AWX*+ BLS + Cus (AnjBny Ca) =1 , then Be -4A,C,=B-4AC ; ue, all &, hovethe same discriminant ;xi c) in (6) A= G2 F(R) , Coq f (FS) , and this implies that AnCns © ; dy there are only finrtely many distinct triples Any Bn, Cn 5 e)there are positive integers k and n such that o%4,,= &%_, and, therefore, cx is periodic. it) For P,Q, D integers with D.a positive P+ 8 non~square ) the number « = isa quadratic irrational , The Cae x of x 1s gwen by x= PaB ip quadratic irrational & , X71, Satisfying -L? and x = & be irrational .Thenthe scf expan~ sion of x has the form [a.,d,,77*,ag,2de] - vi) Let Dbea positive wteger sucht+hat VD is rational . Then, if a,#[Vvd] , a) eras is reduced ; 6) VD +a, 1s reduced and its scf expansion period isthe reverse of that of ee ae 3 ¢) The sef expansion of vB 1s of the form WB =[a,, 0,0, 4,0, 2a), vit) Let D bea positive integer with Vd irrational . Then we may write VB = [4,07 es, 2] =[d.,a,-~], where Ris the length of the minimum period .124 Further put,as usual , Xm =[Amaydme,e] » Finally, suppose xe -Dy? = f where x_>0,4,90. Then a) F's a convergent to vB, say F2=Ze ; 6) with 5 as in (a): Alf Ayx?+ Box + C,= 0 isthe integral quadratic equation wrth (A5,8;,C,) =1 satisfied by as then Asst, Bem 4(Cy4D) ,C,=p,,-09,55 B) x, =-4+B,+Vd ; ¢) - +B, = 4,5 DY ay=Ayser for f21 5 £E) s = -1(modk); ¢) all posrtie integral solutions of Xe -Dy? = 1 are contained inthe sequence {( pers Gees) 5 (PatnGes) (Pree) sof 5 ¢) vo = [Mo Asyrrry Oech Gave) and , therefore ,xin (25 Pre-1= %Ita-i+Jee-2 , Dath-1= AePee-1 *Pen-2 , Paks Pqe = (-10°* 5 ¢) x*=Dy*=1 has infinitely many positive solutions and the totality of posrtive solutions consists preasely of the terms in the sequence of (c) with odd subscripts 5 Ff) find the least positive integral solutions to: A) w?a22y>=1 ; B) xPaiay?=t ; C) x*-33y7=1 5 9) develop an analogous theory for the equation x-Dy=-1, 18. Suppose a and 6 are positive relatively prime integers with a >band $a [dey an}, @y22. 4) E, 26, where £,,1s the number of sum~ mands in E(x,,°**,%n) 3126 fi) let Te 105 ond noting that t? =14+ deduce T< Enu} it) n< iat or ; w) if 10% te 6 < 10% then n< st ; v) (Lamé) the number of divisions required +o find the ged of two numbers by means of the Euclidean algorithm never exceeds five times the number of base to digits of the smaller of the two numbers 5 vi) investigate the best possible nature of Lamé’s theorem. 19, (The urcle diagram) Corresponding +0 each irreducible fraction -£ in[o,1] construct the arcle, C(-$ of radius sp and with center at (# a). Then C(F) is acrde lying above and tangent to the x-axis at + :x 4) COR) , C($) for Hare ather disjoint or Tangent and are tangent precisely when and -+ are naghboring fractions in some §, (see 79) 5 wy the point of tangency between tangent ardes 1s the rational pot (asst wz) ; th) a vertical line intersecting the x-axis ot & , 1n8 ; 6) A>B when $< +58 15 wyay ABimphes |a-#]< ar v) (Hurwite) for x irrational there are, infinitely many irreducible fractions such that lo-$| < ear . Remarks. the geometrical proofof Hurwita’ theorem which 1s presented in #19, 20 goes back to Ford [1917]. See also Rademacher [1964] for an exposition of the proof. An interesting discussion of these urcles , sometimes refer~ red to as Ford arcles, will be found inziilhg [1928] .130 21. (Klan’s geometrical interpretation of continued fractions ) Let £L be aline through the origin with irrational slope « and suppose x=[40,4,,+-]- 4) Points (x,y) are below (above) £ precisely when yar (Y>XR) 5 tty Consider the points =( ny Pn) ; where 1s a convergent to x ,and show the vector from RB... to P, is a, times the vector from 0 to F., ; td) The triangle ORR, has area > and, therefore, contains no lattice points other than tts vertices 5 #) A thread along L when pulled totheright or left and constrained to stick at lattice points (other than © ) sticks on the lower side of L Precisely on the ewen convergent points and on the upper side of L preaisely onthe odd convergent points .xi 131 22. ( Some expansions due to Euler ex Hurwitz) i) Let F(x) denote the value of Ea, n ~ where an= SSE, whaenthe series con ’ verges . a) fa (*) exists for all x ; 5) f(x )=(4ne2) f(x) = 4x? f(x) for nz 2) 3 2) ES - 2x a 5 df) Hebe LE BEF] fore ao; WH) Let x =[a,,a.,+++} where A,=2, Bn = Vani =l , Asyy= 2n. Thus, «=[2,1,2,1,1,4,1,1 Soh Bite “]. Further, let the convergents of x be # j20.Then: o) {Pana ® (O92) Pest Pos fornz2; Janes =(4N42) Yan Yan-s for n21;132 6) 1f P/Q, isthe n¥ convergentto $+ than Pa= E(Pyass*anes)) n= F( Pyres Gores) i ) ase. iii) a) Set i rl, 3VZ , 5VE, WE WE, **] 5 6) (See +1) =[2,3,10,7,18,11,26,-"°] ts Ura hot periodic ; j c) eo Is irrational . (This proof 1s due to Richard E. Crandall .) 23.(A matrical approach ) Tr. Ler A=(2 5) andwrite K{A)=-2 when o#0,and K,(A) = & , when - K (Ay An) > x, Werte K (Apr) =ax,. Similarly for K,(A,***).1f K (Ars) =k (Ay) =o we write K(Ays) =a. Ta the following : K=[to as]. i) if the 4 are convergents to o then (2 Fon) a (So8\( 8) en. (Mad) 5xi 433 it) [aa = K (88 hy ai) of AH (28) KYA a , ~ cxrdeo, then K AAAs +)= oank oy of RA= (B® i) for R anumber then K, (Ayo) =X implies kK, ((Ky A) RA) EX , for {Rn} an arbitrary numerical sequence ; vif Ky(Ais) = x then Ky((AAAs (Ags) *** (Asn Am Any) =O; vi) let Ayer, = (Pn we) =P, ; ;7 a BA _ | K,( Pa) —K,( Pl = Sal j vit) let PR, be asin (vi), |derA,l=1 forall r, K(imP,)=x, B=(2 8) 5 then ®) qn Sn OO AS —> CO } 5) at+c* eo mplhies K,(P,B) x ; c) B+d*¥o implies K,(B,B) x 5 d) B has no zero column implies K(limP,B) = x 5134 vit) rf all A, have determinant 41 , Bis non~ singular yK(Ass)eo,and C,=B7A,B forallr, then K(BC,C,7**) aX 5 wy let ad-be=t1 o1 arethus rational . A number which 1s irrational but not algebrasc of any degree 1s said tobe transcendental . A simple cardinality argu~ ment may be used to prove the existence of transcendental numbers T. Let o be algebraic of degree n and let Ff be an integral Polynomial of degree n having a as a xero. Then ty there is an integral polynomial 4 such that Fix) = (w-x)g (x) , 4a) #0 5 &) there is a positive § such that if a-Sexsxed then Gx) #O 5 ti) there 1s a constant M and integers a,b with 6 >o such that \o--3|-| 45 |= wrxiii 144 ) (Liouville 1844) Tf «15 algebraic of degree n then there 1s a positive constant ¢ such that |x -4| > $- for all integral a,b with Byo. Diba = 107" 5 irrational ; ft) an irrational number is called a Louville number if for each positive, integer n and constant cro thereis arational number -2 , 6 x0, such that | «-¢]<-& ges Every Liouville number is transcendental; il) x Zags ‘is transcendental when the an are integers satisfying |d,|=M for some M. W ft) ler [toa ye] be an irrational number with convergents 7 ee es then if ea? Ta forall Ret, & 1s transcendental ; ii) using (H) exhibit a transcendental number ; i) VF Og, (2%aye «ag for R21 and yds, are, arbrtrary then [40,4,,22;--] 1s transcendental .42 28. In this problem x ranges over the irrational numbers inthe interval [0,1]. We write = (0, A(X), 42(X),---] sothat each as(x) 15 a positive integer. We denotethe probability that aninr=R by yg and the probability that (4,00), Me()) = (Airy ae) BY Plas, ae)- es Ti) 2 Raat for n=1,2,+% and & P(A e+ dan, RYE Play syd) for nez,3-+5 t) Ree aha 3 An P = 1 ~ _ 1? id) Raw Rak cagyegy® oenl !~ es) , where € 70 as k —+00 ; Wt) Pg2 Pg for R22 but P, HF (1+ Gas)? where it will be noted that the limit isanabsolute constant. For good expositions of ‘this theorem,46 along entirely separate lines , the reader might consult Khinchin [1964] and/or Kac [1959] . the second of these qives a very interesting account of the theorem connecting it with statistical mechanics and the ergodic theorem. 1. The most complete treatment of all aspects of continued fractions will befound yn Perron [1954].xiv More on Primes: 4. (Bonse inequality ) Let p,, pr ,-* be the primes in ther natural order and suppose 11210. Further, let 5 satisfy 2efe Nes and set Nee paepiaet Nee pare preset Noe Spares Pps Nope Pyare pyar Then: i) each of pjy+*s Pp, divides at most one of Nay Noy 5 ii) there sa f, 2¢fen-4, for which Pirmesre if) letting i be the smallest { for which porn-sets there isak, tsk ep, , such that Partspa all fail to divide Rp priest and , therefore, Pans Pare pi ww) the 4 in (tit) exceeds 4 so pictzt and Pee Pes Pas Pn ; v) for nz4, Pruk Pat Pn-48 2, (A property of 30) Suppose fi $V < Pin, Where ps 1s again the R> prime number. Then: 4) fF for some js R, py does not dividen then (#;’,n) =1 and pis n; i) \f no composite integer and <30 which are prime to 30 arethemsdves prime and no integer larger than 30 hasthis property. 3.(A property of 24) The number 24 15 the largest integer which is divisible by wery posrhive integer smaller than rts square root.XIV 4.(Erdds) We write (x) for the number of primes pj 1s of the form mp, pF , Where each €, 1s Cort; 8) Ny(ny 22— ond, therefore, there exists a constant A such that T(x) >A T= forall x22;152 wi) from (iit-b) pen P x, , A (1-€) < TOMO, Bie) ; | it) for n suffiaently large A(1-e)< nin 1. 12, (Bertrand) Let PR, = DanP where Pmt when there are ho primes between n and zn. Then: Ps (ir) <4" for nee ; i) p< 4 for allreal x22 5 iy f 2¢ F< pentheng doesnot divide (*"); i Be < (2B) 5 ( oe for 123; vy Rootif 4" > 8(anyr” vi) Py >t if n> 5003 vi) (Bertrand) sf n22 there is aprime strictly between n and 2n ; it) Press 2Pn fn2zt.154 13, (Finsler) Let PR, be asin 12. Then from H3 *in(w), P, > ee . Setting the right side of this wnequality equal to (an) we have ) x¥< T(2n)-T(n) if n23 5 alnan nny, 4 2n #) xInan = F(In4— if nz 2500 5 it) Sa < Wan)-T(n) tf nz 2500 ; #) Wan)-W(n)< =H if n22; v)(Finsler) 1f n22 then sige Tam) =n) « i vi) T(2n)-T(n) 22 1f n26; v8) PuaS2prn if n24; vit) there is a prime p satisfying nsps2n-2 if n24 5 Though not equiva~ lent to *2¢wi) this 1s sometimes referredto as Bertrand's postulate ; ix) T(2n)-T1(n) is. an unbounded| y increasing functionof n.xv 185 14, Starting with Finsler’s theorem (*13-v) one finds : iy (24) < i R21; iy Tind< 4 7B— if n22; i) ans Wn)-1 of n22;5 wy (Chebyshev's theorem again) eT 4. (These values of the positive constants in Chebyshev’s theorem arefar from “ best possible”, ) 1s. Consider (x) Th(mn) >T(m)+T(n). 4) Using * 14 (w) ( Chebyshev) ris easy to prove (x) for 192T (Pan) for zensm,4sm; DY) PmPr Pman fOr 1S, 15m ; TYP moigPj > Pn for 1g4n; ) Paar SPs --p,)? when n24. 17. (A special case of Dirichlet’s theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions. j Put F(x) = a (x- oy n24. Then: cts ty w=1 =i. F(x) 5 #) Fs) 1s an integral polynomial of degree P(r) ; it) Fx(0) =1 for nai; ) sf p is a prime factor of F, (a), n>1, then (a ,p) =4 5XIV v) Ff P| F(a) and t is the smallest positive n for which p] a” <1 then: a) t|[n; 6) t4 , F(ny pr pe) >1 and F,(nyp, p,) = £(0) 2 1 (mod np, ---p,); thus there isa prime p +P; , 1258 , satisfying pst (modn) 3 vi) for n> 4 there are infinitely many primes inthe arithmetic Progression Lj temy tron, te3nyer, 18, Let F(x) be asin *17 and let p bea prime, Further, suppose n has exactly r distinct prime factors and that Aj, tejer, isthe158 set of products of { of the r primes entering into n. We put Gord = FONT Oe a1), OF a1) FOWd = (0 -1),T) (0 FoI) Ty (1) oo and €m =e F ywith (mynjed. 4) En, 18 a Rere of order fof each we=I for which «|m and is not a xero of all other + ®-4 ; a) iF d>4 and has s distinct prime factors then the highest power of ¥-€,, 19 g(x) (respectively Fix) ) 1s (F) + (S)+($)+e (respectively w4(S)a(F)ae )5 ye x)= ; in = ’ ay* 4) i) f pln then Fp) = F(x?) 5 9) if pyn then F(x?) Tp = Fo | °, MP Ly Pet PH, 4 W) B(x) = se a ee et §XIV ofn=t; vit) FU) = p f nis a power of p ; § sf n has at least 2 distinct prime factors ; wid) h » Where Vv Is wii) F(x) = TT ( xe -1) the number theoretic function defined by M(1)=1, p(n) =o If 1 contains asa factor the square of any prime , y(n) eet)*ifn 13 a product of R distinct primes ; wx) let n= p, ope ywhere t 1s odd and the pi are primes satisfying pis pes Spe and Pitpe> pe (see? 13-1x) ; then Rix)2 seh, (1-6) B (Leber ETN 4 KPH) oe (g- na) (Lag era PONY | Khanh ona) (mod x7#**) ; x) (Schur 1931) for n as in (ix) the cooffiaent of x* in Fy(x) has absolute value t-1 . 159160 19, (Richert) Let 5, be the set of sums of 2 or more of the 180 primes , no repetitions per~ mitted. Then: 7) all integers between i2 and 29 (note 29= 12+, ), inclusive ,arein Se 5 4) fF n27 all integers between 12 and 294P to +P, arein Sy; tiv) all integers 212 are sums of 2 0r more distinct primes 5 w) all integers 27 are uther prime or a sum of two or more distinct primes 5 v) 6 isthe largest positive integer which is nuther a-prime nor the sum of two or more distinct primes and 14 1s the larqest positive integer not the sum of twoor more distinct primes . 20. (Furstenberg) Let S be the set of all integers -Take as a basis for atopoloqy inxv 161 S rhe collection of all two way infinite arithmetic Progressions. Thus a set of S 1s open If this The union of such arithmetic progressions. 1) S$ with the specified basis 1s a topo~ logical SPACe ; A) each arithmetic sprogression Is both open and closed ; iti) each Finite union of arithmetic pro~ gressions 1s closed ; w) f Ap={0,2p,t2p,--} where p isa prime ,andif A= y Ap, then the complement of Ais {-1,13 5 v) that there are infinitely many ‘primes follows from (iv) . 21, (Nicol) For each positive real number x let TT (x) denote the number of twin primes (pypr2) with psx. Then162 T(K)Eet OE sin{ Z(n42y [ste Ysin {En[224}, where [++] ts the largest integer not exceeding see, 22. (Willans [rae] ) Define Fin) by F(ny=[costm 2-32] , then: 1 Tor n prime or nel 5 4) Finye { form p , ° for n composite ; ii) the nib Prime Pn IS given by ported [erm] - Remarks. 1, The Bonse inequality in® 41s not very strong and its main interest is in the simplicity of its proof and its application to problems 72,3. the property of 30 given in #2 qoes back to Schatunovsky who proved it in 1893,XIV 163 Generalizations have been given ~ see e.g. Dickson I [1952] PP. 132, 133,137,138 and Landau T [i909] pp. 229-234. 2. For other work on prime representing functions, 77-9, 0ne might consult Namboodirrpad Cig7J, Willans [1964] , Sato eStraus [1970] Dudley [1969], Mills C1947] ,and the references therein. 3. Problem #4 1s due to Erdés [1938] , "13 to Finsler [1945], *19 To Richert [ig4t] 9720 to Furstenberg [1955], 721 to Nicol [1974] ,*22 to Willans [1964]. For an exposttion of the results in 12-16 see Trost [1968] . Exposrtions of the special case of Dirichlet theorem may be found in Nagel [95'Jand Landau [1909]-A simple, een more dementary, proofs wen in Niven, Powell [1976]. A complete proof of Dirichlet’s theorem is given in xxiv.Ve4 4. Taking n24 *recH) welds Pra pe 5 Th R’ we write 1, if for the elements 1000 ot o100 ° ° ° ° ) a oo or -o o-oowith the usual operations of matrix addition and multiplication : i) CIs anon~commutative field with R'a subfield ; #) Ris isomorphic to € ; wy) C' 5s isomorphic to Ry ®) Ris a 4 dimensional vector space over R ; vy) the set Q of all rational linear com~ binations of 1, 1,4, 8 1s a non- commutative subfield of R" ; vi) multiplication in R’andin Q (see (v)) 1s characterized by the equations Veyreher, yeh, and the fact that 118.4 multiplicative identity. kei, Riz{ Elements of Q are called rational quatermons while cements of R” are called real quaternions :xv 169 2. (Conjugate , Trace, Norm) If x= aribsforkd 1s. quaternion (real or rational) we put & = a-ib-jc-kd, Tas2a,No=a°+b'+c +d “and call these the conjugate , trace and norm of a , respec~ twely. i) 12% if andonly rf becad=0; Ww) NaeN& and TH2aK+® 5 ti) No = 0 if and only if «=o 5 W) AFP = K+B ; ”) xP = e & ; vi) NXe am 5 vi) NCB) = (NaN) 5 vil) each of &, & satisfies the equation R= KTX + NX =O 5 this equation is called the principal equation fora.170 3, (Integral Quaternions) In this problem we deal exclusively with rational quaternions 1.2. with dements of Q (see*s(v)). We use Z for the setof rational integers and call an element of Q integral if iF 1s a Zero Of a monic polynomial with rational integer cooffiaents. We put pet(sri+ jek) and define £,4,T by: Lz {a+ ibs jorkd | a,6,c,d arein 24 ; Helv [pra| aisin £3 : T = set of all integral quaternions . i) x ssin Tf and only if Tx and Na are in Zz ; # CEHEI, th) f Aisuther Lor HandifaeA then &, fx, ja, Ra aren A ; ) T 1s not closed under multiplication, not even under left multyplication by 4;XV v) Land 1 are integral domains while T 1s not ; vi) His a maximal integral domain in I ; vit) H = fap+ibsjcrkd |a,6,c,d arem z}. We call £ the Lipschitz’ and H the Hurwitz’ integral subdomain of Q. Inthe following problems all quaternions unless stated specifically to the contrary areto be taken from H. When noted they may often be even more restricted and be taken from L. We systematically use small Greek letters for quaternions. A quaternion x 1s called aunitif Nas 4. Tf w= BY we call Ba left divisor of a and fF x =38 we call Ba right disor of x. If there are units 9, such that a= PBY we call a and 8 associates .1f P=1 we call Ba left associate of x . ‘71'72 A common left divisor of « and p which 1s left divisible by every common left divisor of «and 8 1s called a loft ged of « and 8. In 74(y) below this shown that left god's always exist. For each a, 3 we let (x, 3) denote one such ged of x and 9. 4, 4) Every element o has a left associate nl; #) qwen mez and we H thereisa EH such that N(x-mB) 4 and n divides Na then (a,n) 1s not a unit, 5, (Primes) An element & in H 1s called composite If + may be written as the product of two dements of H each having norm 71. Non- zero elements of H which are nather units 173mH nor composite are called prume. fain has no rational integer divisor other thant1 then a 1s said to be primitwe . i) All associates of a prime are prime ; i) Ff Nx 1s arational prime then a isa prime in H 5 wy if pisa rational prime dwiding the norm of a primitive & then (ox, p)is prime in H and N((o,p))=p 5 ») every rational prime is the norm ofa prime in H and therefore, ‘Ss not a prime w H; v) No 1s a rational prime rf and only if & 1s prime in H,; vi) if 2 divides Na then ax (141)8 for suitable Pink vi) every element oc in H may be written in the form «= (1+i) may ywhere ymare non-neq- atwe rational integers ,r=0 or 1, Nisaunitin H, and B 1s a primitive dement of £ of odd norm,xv viii) suppose a and ¥ are primitive and Noa #2"N8, NY Prepay where pies ps are odd primes in Z (not necessarily distinct); then there exist primes T+, M15 in such that NT=p, ,retss and Y= MyM, Oe (t4i) Tye Ts 5 ix) for &, Nx asin (viii), 1f x= (141) Tye, where the tare primes in Hand NT, = pe, 1stss, then foreacht, Tand T, are associates ; ») 1f x15 a primitive clement of H and No = 2" py ps ywhere the Ps are odd primes and rzo ort , then there exist unique, upto associates , primes Ty ,-++, 1s in Hsuch that Oe (LAY TT, NT =p) for 19445 ; xi) non primitive elements of H may have distinct primefactorizahons . 5176 6 (Number of quaternions with qiven norm) i) The number of quaternions with norm 21s exactly 24 and they are all in £ ; it) in this part let p be an odd prime in Zand suppose A,B,C,D are integers (mod p) inZ. Then : a) gwen a, 6 in 2 the congruences 3) A'+ BCD 0 (mod p) and 2) A's (-a\4B)'+ (-BA4C)'4+ DZ 0 (mod p) have the same number of solutions A,B,C,D; 6) 4,6 may be chosen sothat p dwides 140746 and (2) of (a) becomes 3) B’+C*+D*= 2A (aB+bC) (mod p) ; c) if in (3), aB+bCZ0 (mod p) then there are p solutions when B# C= 0 (mod p) and 2p(p-1) solutions otherwise ; d) if in (3), aB+6O¥0 (mod p) then there are p(p*-p) solutions ;xv ‘7 e) the number of solutions of (1), and therefore the number (modulo p) of o's in L such that Nx 20 (mod p) 1s (pis\p+s)+ : wi) In this part wewrite t+, 1 |r tay Rees and suppose all subscripts larger than 3 to be reduced modulo 3. Thus iyi, ,a5= a2, Xy=%, ete. Further, pisan odd prime in ZX eA ot ait igdetizds 1s nL, and p divides Nx but does not divide o . a) There isa 9, 14983, such that p does not divide afra,? ; 6) for vas in(ayand x= xo 1%, + Ket 15%, inf define Pea tai, n= xt Ky ty Vea dAyaty Sexe Katy; then 1) XS B+ Vive» KS tyes 5 2) fa, 6,c,d are scalars then a+bi, and c+di, commute ; 3) fF wo is any of 6,8, 1, $ then Shyer byy 5178 c) p divides ax if and only if p divides fry 83 5 d) ax = 0 (mod pyhas , medulop, exactly r solutions in £. 4) 1f Pp isan odd prime in z then , aside from associates , there are exactly prt primes in £ of norm p. 7. ( Jacobs's Theorem) Let m be an odd number with the ordered factorization me pepepeepe pes Pe oO op 2 mice where Pury peare distine+ primes in @ and o1,9,cx%, are positive integers . Then for each ain L with Na=m there is a prime factorization o = Thats Mase Meats Teo such that NTs p, for 1s vet, tensa,. Note that the Primes Tn May bem Hr.xv 4) 1f for a given ¥ there isanty such that Thyerand Ty, are associates then x 1s not primitive ; #) if & 1s Not primitive there existsa par 9,1 such that Tha and Thy are associates ; iii) the number of primitive o tn £ with Noaem is 8 (pitt) port ( pe +1) por 1 = 8m TT, ( Less) 5 #) the number of & in C with No=m ts 8 Fn Oy, (1455) = sa(m) ; ¥) the number of o inLwith Naen, nan even integer in 2, 15 240°(n), where a(n) 1s the sum of the odd divisors of n ; vi) (Jacobr's Theorem) the number of representations of a positive integer nas asum of 4 squares , representations which differ only in order or sign bang counted as distinct, 1s 8 times the sum of the divisors of n which are not divisible by 4. ‘79180 8. Write isis, fet2, kei, and put Ge {arig6 |a,6inz },18¢23. ThenG,cH and, under the induced operations from H, | Is gd Commutative subring of HItis easy to verify that G1,G2,Gs are isomorphic. We write G for any of these and shall call the elements of G Gaussian integers . It 15 clear that f C 1s the set of all complex numbers one can write ( where equality here in~ dicates isomorphism) G= COC, Further, Leforis \o, pin Gils {orp Jo, 81m G2} = {orig | «, Bin G3}. Tf one replaces H by G in #4-7 much of that theory carries over ina simplified way (since we now have commutativity ) +0 G. Carrying out the details leads tothe theorem :w 181 f the canonical prime factorization of the rational integer n contains a uk+3 prime to an odd power then n 1s not expressible as the sum of two rational integer squares ; otherwise the number of representations as such asumis 4(d,(n)-d,(n)), where d;(n) 1s the number of odd divisors of n which are congruent to 7 modulo 4, 9. Let r(n) be the number of represen ~ tations of n as asumofs squares and define f,(n) by f.(n) = (25) '1,(n).Then i) if nzab, (a,6)=1, then a) d,(n)=d,(a)d,(b)+d,(a)d,(b) ; 6) da(n)= d,(ayd,(b) + d,(a) df, (6) ; %) f, 1s multiplicative ; here d, and d, are asin 8 ;182 8a(n) forn odd ; 24o{n) for n een, where 6°(n) 1s the sum of the odd divisors of n; tira) ry (n)= { 5) fy 1s multiplicative ; wha) re(2)= 4(3)5 6) r(3)2 8( 3); c) re (6)= 64( $ )+24( 3 \5 d) F,(6)~fs(2)fs(3) = ibs (s-1)(s-2\s-4)(S-8) ; e) (Bateman [1969]) the only possible positive integers s for which f,(n) 1s multiplicative are 1,2,4,8. Remarks. 1. Clearly f, 15 multiplicative and in view of *9(i wit) each of fi, fy 1s Derren Using the expression fa(n) = (ay ‘ie Et ung? (see Dickson's History Up. 315) it ‘5 easy toXv 183 see that f, 1s multiplicative, Thus f, 1s multiplicative precisely for s=1,2,4,8. 2. If Ais any associative algebra over a field F with basis e1,++-,¢n one can define a function Ni: AF by the equation N (Otte On@n) = Ort ret dye when this function satisfies the equation N(ab)=N(a)N(b) for all a,6 in A one calls the algebra a normed algebra, 1fA 1s a normed algebra with identity 1 (we identify aeF wth aa eA) one may define a a conjugate function a satisfying aeA,ab=ba ,aa=Na for alla,binA. Further, putting Ta =a+G we see that each aeA satisfies its monic second degree equation x*-*-Ta + Na =o. The real numbers the complex numbers ,and the real quater~ nions afford three examples of normed184 algebras with identity over the reals. Suppose ,now,A is an arbitrary normed algebra with identity over the reals and suppose 1s the conjugate of a mentioned above . Put B=A xA and define multiplication in B by (a,6\(c,d)=(ac-db,da+bz ) - Identifying 1,f wth (1,0), (0,1) of B each element (a, 6) of B may be written a+yb c Putting ¥ 2G- (6 when x= a+ {6 (the bar on the right of the expression for * 1s the comugate in A yand defining Nx = xX one can prove ,whenA ts associa ~ twe, that Bis a normed algebra with entity over the reals. Starting wrth A the real numbers , B turns out to be the complex numbers Taking Ato bethe complex numbers , B 1s the set of real quaternions . Finally , starting with A as the real quater- nions one obtains for B the so-calledxv algebra of Cayley numbers. At this point, since the algebra of Cayley numbers is not associative , no new normed algebras over the reals arise, In fact, can be shownthat only the four normed algebras mentioned exist (see Curtis [1963]). Consideration of the norm function in the system of integral Cayley numbers leads to the 8 square theorem (see the Remarks in x1 p. 86, Coxeter [1946], curtis [1963] , and Dickson [1927] ). For the general arithmetic properties of quaternions, not only the above references but also Redes [1967] , Dickson [1919,1923] , MacDuffee [1940], Hurwitz [1896 ,1919] might be consulted, Finally we mention the paper by Jlunwut [1949] and the references therun. 3. An integer isa sum of 3 squares when sts not of the form 4*(at+7), $20, t20. Foran elementary discussion see Weil [1974] - 185xvi Brun’s Theorem Pairs of primes of the form p.pez ore called twin primes. The number of primes p, per, for which pr? is primes denoted by T(x). TH 1s not known if T(x) increases without bound as x increases. Nevertheless , IN 1919 Viggo Brun found an upper bound for TT, (x) which though increasing without bound as X Increases , was sufficiently small to show that the sum £ F) taken over those primes P for which pre's prime converges. Tn this chapter a proof of this result is given. Throughout , x and 4 are positive real numbers with 2<34< Vk, Ris the product of the dis- tinct primes not exceeding 3B, Ane nne2) for aené[x] , and V(n) 1s the number of distinct prime divisors of n.18T 3) 4 Let S= 204. Then T,(x)sm+S. (aa Res 2. Let Sg be the number of n, rens[ x], for which day and suppose 2ksV(R). Then S,as inf 1 satisfies Ss (ay sy . IIR, VSR 3, Putting (5) for the number of nina complete system of residues mod J for which Jd lan then for P any prime divisor of R we have {3 2 for P odd ; Pips for pez, and , therefore, for J any divisor of R od {7 2" for 5 odd ; 154 for J even . 4. For each divisor db of R there is a number &, |S] 21, suchthat 32 (+8) (I), where Sy, pid) are asin #2, %3,188 5, The S of *1 and ¥2 satisfies the inequality Sex(T+T, #7 , where vs) 9 : a) T, = 5 tig! pi ; O) = 4 zee kek 2, ne * rakes do : : JG F ere f ("3") af . Sie ygyece 6. It 1s possible to choose a posite constant Aso that eAln2 91 and EpsAbint, for allt. 2 Taking A asin *6 and putting % = x® x= (6eAlmIn x)” there 1s an x, Royle for 2X, 2[2eAlnlna}+2 of A into A by Za = Ba ) Toa = oa. i} Zy,T. are permutations j ii) Ty isan involution 5.2. Ty = Tp ; HH) ZyF TM 3 wf &y 1s the number of elements kept fixed by To then 2 Disagro ; M%* {: peer iP vy) defining the signature ofa permutation T, sqrt ,to be 1 or-1 depending on whether the permutation 1s even or odd we see that sqn Toe (ayer? , sqnZpe(s) ? j Ni) OX F25 vit) sqn ZpF (3) j208 vii) (Theorem of Zolotareff ) Disa qr of Pp fand only f the least positive residues of D,2D,+-+(p-1)D constitute an wen pee) of yay, P- wy &) noting that A can be any reduced system of residues modulo p we con use the above to qive independent evaluations of (32) and (3). 19. (Quadratic reciprocity theorem from Zolotareff's theorem) Let At = {1s ae ET, Ave {-F%, we 3} y and put A= Svat, Define Zyasin*i8and call a',a" an mversion if a'< a” and Z,a'> Za" . Then: iy if a',a" 18 an inversion so also 1s -a",-a'; 4) inversions occur in pairs except for those of the form “4,0 4 iii) (Lemma of Gauss) sgn 2+ (-1)” where Nis the number of elements in [D,2D, +++, FD} with least absolute remainders modulo Pind ;Xvi ) if » 1s the number of cements in f 4124, PHq } with negatwe least absolute residues modulo Pp and Nis the number of elements in {prpens 3zp } with negative least absolute, residues modulo 4.4.07 odd prime distinct from p, then (ENB)= 9 v) let x,y satisfy tex Per, te ys $505 then each par x.y leads to exactly one of the following four mequal ities ar pysF “Es qe-pyso o< qx-pys 4 Fs qx- j vi) the number of pairs ¥.Yy in (v) leading to the first of the inequalities is the some as the number leading tothe last of the inequalities and the number of pairs satisfying the second (third ) inequalities \s jest p3520 vii) ( the Quadratic reciprocity law y Bea (2X3) cE (The theorem of Zolotareff given in 18 was first proved by Zolotareff [1872]. Trour discussion in * 18 , 19 we have followed Riesz [1953] , Cartier [1970], and Frobenius [1914] (see Gesammelte Abh. 1968 pp ers-e49 ). For other recent treatments of Zolotareff's theorem along other hines see Rademacher, Grosswald [1972] , Brenner [1973], and Roberts [1969] .)xvi Exponents, Primitive Roots , ax Power Residues when a and m are relatively prime positive integers Euler’s theorem assures us of the existence of positive integers t for which ats1(modm), The smallest sucht 1s called the exponent of a mod m and will be denoted by Bla) (or just Pca) when the modulus 1s understood ). the number of mod m solutions of P(x) =t 15 denoted by Y(t) (or just Y(ty). TE Rya) = Pim) one says that ats a primitwe root of m. As we shall see, not all m have primitive roots. Throughout we assume (a,m)=1, 4. In this problem P(a) and Y(t) are used for R,6a), Yn lt)» then: i) aSsa* (modm) ifand only if sit (mod Pay) 322 4) from (4) 3 a) aS (mod m) if and only if $30 (mod P(a)) ; 6) Pa) Pim) ; ¢) a,at-,aare incongruent, modulom, sclutons of 721 (modm) ; tity Pcak ) =e Sant ; ty-a) Y(t) 20 when t{P(m); Y Brmt (E)= PUM) 5 ©) If Pit) Fo then Y(t) £ H(t) 5 y) if m=p, P a prime, then a) If Yp(t}#o then #(t)= Y(t) 5 6) Yo) = H(t) for all t such that t|p-1 ; vi) every prime p has exactly ¥(p-) primrtive roots. 2. Let p be an odd prime and & bea positive integer . then 2 if g 15. a primitive root of p and if a FP Fs (mod ps ) then gisa primitive root of p* 7xvi 23 ity if 4 18. a primitive root of p then one of 91 9*P Isa primitive root of Pp ; dil) every primttive root of pis alsoa primitive root of p* for ~>2 5 tv) if g Isa primitive root of Pp the odd one of 919+ p> Isa primitive root of zp whilethe een one is hot 5 v) wery number of the form Pp or 2p™ has a primrtive root (recall that p here isodd); vi) only 2,4 and the numbers specified in (v) have primitive roots. 3. Let P be an odd prime. Then : 1) every primitive root of any posite integral power of p 5. primitwe root of all smaller positive integral powers of p ; 4) when 4 isa primitive root fp the numbers (245p)q ,98s

0) By 3N41, SN42, 7X43, ee always contains a power of 2 or a number 1 smaller than a power of 23 We. + always