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    ScriptMITNumberTheoryText PDF

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    ' 304 aa i aw \ gS 193.25 a4 1 | 4 28 n 224 wo lu 125 =z & 2 2 Siss 57 Ce 85 6 é Z a —y sos 27 E 4 A, 299 ba e 180 2I7 = 505 bo 3 — 5 1029 985 ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY A PROBLEM ORIENTED APPROACH JOE ROBERTS THE MIT PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS (~ LONDON, ENGLAND copyright © 1977 by The Massachusetts Instrtute of Technology All rights reserved. No port of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording , or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. this book was printed and bound in the United states of America. Library of Congress catalog card number : 76- 46738 ISBN 0-262 - 68-028-0 To Marian, Mark, Katy, Ruth. Table of Contents Preface es cc srr. Special Symbols + + + + 1 The Game of Euclid and the Euclidean algorithm : tthe GoldenMean - se es 0 Prime Factorization and Primes -— - W Square Brackets - + + + V Kronecker Theorems «© = = Mi Beatty ; SkolemTheorems - = = wi The Game of wuthoff soe ee vit, O,P +s se ee 1x Fermat, Wilson , Chevalley oe x Diusibility Crteriq + + ee xi Squares + + se ts xi Sums of Powers oh xi Continued Fractions + + + + XIV More on Primes - 5 8 ee XV Quaternions , Complex Numbers , and Sums of 4 and 2 Squares xm Brun’s Theorem 6 5 et xvi Quadratic Residues + +» +. vyvt 20 27 35 38 46 50 59 4 7 88 o4 147 167 186 192 is 8s 205 305 42s 47s 595 ols ONS 995 ios uss 1955 225 2485 2555 xvii Exponents , Primitive Roots, and Power Residues « XIX Special Primes and the Lucas-Lehmer Theorem - Xx Pell Equation - xx1 Weyl's Theorem on Uniform Distribution xx MBbius Functions - xxi Some Analytic Methods + xxiv Numerical Characters and References Thdex the Dirichlet Theorem - au 222 228 236 243 249 280s 3085 35S 3245 33S Preface this book is designed so that iF may be used in several ways : 1 canbe used for self study , asa guide for rutorially directed work, or as a supplementary text or source of problems for an ordinary first or second course in number theory . The aim of the book 1s similar to that of Aufgaben und Lehrsdtze aus der Analysis by Pélya and Szegs A considerable part of the work consists of sets of problems culminating n well known theorems. In +his way much of + ¢ material of an elementary course in number theory 1s covered. Moreover, many, theorems not often metin such elementary courses, but which require little or no greater sophistication, are included. A large part of the book may be read by a student with little orno college mathematics « In the earher parts of the book such a student would only infrequently find it necessary to skip a problem becouse of its dependence on some special mathematics not in his background . Later in the book, especially in the last half of xi and in xvi, xxi, xxl, xxiv the reader will need a fairly good working knowledge of limiting Processes as met in elementary and advanced calculus. Some chapters, such as vi, xv, and xix, are quite technical though not advanced so far as the mathematical techniques used are concerned. Most chapters are inde pendent of one another and even a mathematical beginner should find r+ relatively easy to dip and choose at random. Nevertheless, each chapter 1s written with the thought that most readers will wish to work it through in detaul . The solution section (pp 1$-3565 ) is designed To serve two functions : the first 1s to complete the problem section in a way so asto make of the two sections together a self contained ex~ position of the topics discussed ; the second ts to offer to the student wishing towork on his own an opportunity to (sparingly J use it for hints and ideas. This section should be well thumbed rather than well read. After saying this tt should be added that many of the problems are of considerable difficulty and a reader unable to make any headway ci with a problem should not feel quilty about turning to the solutions for help. Appended to the text 1s a rather extended list of references, most of | which have some direct bearing on at least one problem - Tt must, however, be emphasized that the list 1s not intended to be complete and contains only those references familar to the author and felt to be particularly relevant to the material presented. Further references on virtually every topic may be found in the extraordinarily useful compendium LeVeque £1974]. Symbols such as vil, vi2z, VIIR appearing at the end of a reference indicate, respectively, the reference 1s a general one for much or all of chapter vit, 1s relevant to problem 22 of Chapter Mil, oF is mentioned in the remarks for Chapter vu. Finally a word concerning, the format and style of the book 1s th order. I+ has long been the author's opinion that the format ofa mathematics book 1s of greater importance than 1s generally recognized + Consequently , when the opportunrty arose to have the manuscript hand calliqraphed it was decided to proceed with this even though ir was necessary to beqin before the entire manuscript was completed. This has led to some stylistic disadvantages inthe final text. However , though thar occurrence Is regretable,, they donot seem 40 be a serious deterrent to the general ams of the presentation . Though the author can make no claim to have written a book ona par with rhat by Polya and $zeg8, mentioned above that work has consistently been considered as a model for excellence. + has been an inspiration from the beginning . Great thanks are due to Gregory Maskarinec for undertaking the arduous task of calliqraphing the manuscript from ahand written manuscript of quite different appearance. Throughout, our working relation has been excellert and left nothing to be desired. Thanks also are due to my many students whe, over the ysars, have worked through various versions of parts of this material and to helpful colleagues for thar eriticisms . All comments from readers designed to help in the improvement of the work will be gratefully received. Joe Roberts Portland, Oregon 1975 Special Symbols and where 1 used or defined 5 feds 4 Bo eT (a,b)- 2 BA2 se 3 & (number) + 2 MOY + + 08 Un * ' 6 C(4) + + 16 z' 9 Kir), Kor) 132 Fr * + 8 Paes Cx + 7 Nyixy + + 49 (xpos + FA(%) + + 156 A(K)+ + 38 N(n) + 159, 246 S(K)+ 8 Q +. 16 Vin) s+ bo rn) a(n) - + 50 N(X), TUK) + 169 Tim) s+ 60 H,C£,1 + 470 W(x) . . T(x) + + 186 H(n) . - 56 qrsqnr + ig ony. . 87 Gy a aj6 - . 59 Cc X(n) - + sgn . + 207 F 3G (mod p) » 66 T.4,ZyA + 207 F~G(modp) + 66 P(A), Pai) 2 g . 1s HOE), Yin(t) 2 E(Koy)Xn) 4 Mn + + 223 Pm s Jom (INI) + QT Xsix)+ + a6 [dean] + 8 ~“M: + OT Laos J 98 OC F(x) + tg scf 103 L(sy> + 256 BAL 106 x . + 261,262 vi other notations used in the text. For integers + a| 6 means there is an integer ¢ such that bza-c 3 az6 (modmy means m]a-6 ; mb ae2eBe 3 obss; 1 (6)*wahrer, osbsa; Z 1s the set of postwe integers ; ged stands for “greatest common divisor ” 3 [4,¥] 1s the least common multiple of uand v ; LHS (RHS) left (right) hand side . ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY 1 The Game of Euclid ex the Euclidean Algorithm Consider the sequence of sets (duplicate cluments are permitted ) : {18,35 }> (43,353 [8 35 {8,113 {8,33 {2,33 {2 13 fo}. Each set in the sequence may be obtained from the preceding one by subtracting some, positive integral multiple of onvof its dements fromthe other. When a set {a,b} of non~ negative wotegers arises in this way from another such set {m,n} we say ttisa derwed set of {m,n}. A sequence of sets like the above, in which each set 1s a derived set of the preceding set and in which the last set contains 4 zero will be called a derwed sequence . rf {a,63 1s a dered set of {min} with least value for a+b we callita minimal derwed set of {m,n}. Inthe above sequence {43,35} 1s not aminimal derived set of {78,253 while {2,3} 1s a minimal derived set of {8,3}.The passage from any set toa derived set 1s called a move anda move to aset one element of which 15 0 1s called a winning move. Throughout yall integers areto be non-negative and men. Further, T = 145 : 1. Noting that fm,n} = {n,m} for allm,n we seethat : ) {m,n} has t dered sets where t 1s the largest pos itive integer for which tmen 1s true; i) {m,n} has exactly one minimal derwed set whichis {m,n-tm} where t 1s. asin (1); iit) of {0,6} 15.0 derwed set of {m,n} then the greatest common divisor of aand 6 1s equal to the greatest common divisor of m and 1; 1n symbols, (a,6)=(m,n) ; iv) every derived sequence starting with {mn} ends with fo,(m,n)}. 2. Tf two players say A and B, start with {m,n} and alternately make the moves of a derived sequence , A moving first and each desiring to make the winning move of The sequence then we call the play resulting “the game of Euchid ” The following assertions are true of this game : 6) if at any stage of the game a set occurs in which one cement is a positive integral multiple of the other then the player next tomove can win by moving to the minimal derived set 5 ii) rh is not always to a player's advantage to move to a minimal derived set ; di) rf there 1s awinning strategy for A then at each play he must select oneor the other of : the minimal derived set, or , The derived set whose only derived set is the minimal derived set ; #) when 1 5 %) whena game starts with {mn} then player Amay force awinif Tst0r Bot while f nauther of these is true player Bmay force a win. 4. An efficient method of computing the great est common divisor (hereafter denoted ged)of two positive integers a and 6 1s to compute a derived sequence beginning with {a,6} and inwhich each other element of the sequence isthe minimal derived set of the preceding one. Thus fasb andazqb+r,osr{6,r}. Putting a=n%,b=n, 4 Jo T=, Cte. One finds the ged of a and 6 1s m when TT) = oP +72 oo. 4) For N21, Ugnes 210", $0 Usn,, has at least n+1 base 10 digits ; a) if n steps are usedin the Euclidean algorithm determining the ged of r,andr,, T.77, 20, using 7, as the first divisor, then vr, Uns iit) (Lomé fies] the number of divisions needed by the Euclidean algorithm in finding the ged of two numbers does not exceed five times the number of base 10 digits in the smaller of the two numbers ; iv) the maximum number of divisions allowed by (iif) 1s actually used in computing the ged’s of (8,13), (89,144), (987, 1597) by the Euclidean algorithm; note that all numbers involved are in the Fibonace: sequence, 9) if the Euchdean algorithm in computing the ged of a. and 6, a6 , 6 having t base 10 digits, takes st steps thenthe number of base 10 digits of uy, 1s = t ; viy | |< ars Vii) Uns 10U,, for N24; viii) for t 24, Ugg>10° and, therefore, Uz has more than t base 10 digits ; ax) the Euclidean algorithm when applied +o two numbers the smaller of which has at least 4 base 10 dights never takes as many divisions as allowed by Lame's theorem ; ne. Lame’s theorem 1s not “best possible " when applied to numbers the smaller of which ts 210? « Remarks. the game of Euclid 1s dueto Cole e Davie [1969] and has been further analysed by Sprtanagel [1973] The theorem of Lame was first proved by him in 1844, The result in 7e(ix) is far from the best known result of this kind. the interested reader might consult Dubisch [i949], Dixon [1971] , Brown [1967] or Plankenstaner [1970] for further information and references, t The Golden Mean r m the point © divides rs a line segment AB into “extreme and mean ratio” (Euclid , Book IV, Definition 3) when me meer Res met Such a division of a line segment 1s sometimes called a golden section ora golden cut. The ratio # for such a division 1s called the golden mean or the golden ratio.A rectangle whose sides are inthis ratio isa golden rectangle. Th the following we again use & for the irrational number 43% and use &’ for tts “ conjugate” 43 =8 . 3B 1. ifo2 ; ) q(n) = Uner for N21 5 i) the number of strings of & 1’s and n-R 0’s inwhich no two 1’s are consecutive is just F(,R) ; w) the number of ways of placing k 1’s into n-k+1 boxes so that no box has more than 1 clement is exactly fink) ; v) f(n,k)= ("Ee ) when 2kenes and ts o otherwise ; vi) setting (¢) =o when s

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