Sedimentary Structures

Introduction
In this laboratory exercise, we will learn the four classes of sedimentary structures: erosional,
depositional, deformational, and biogenic. Erosional structures are formed during the initially high
shear stress before deposition of the bed. Depositional structures form during the waning of flow
and the decreasing shear stress of a depositional event. Deformational structures form by the
deformation of a previously deposited layer of sediment and may occur as the sediment is being
deposited or afterwards. Biogenic structures include a variety of tracks, trails, burrows, and borings
made by organisms.

Erosional Structures
During the early stages of a depositional event, high shear stresses typically cause erosion of the
sediment surface. Often, but not always, this erosion scours down into firm and cohesive mud,
which can be sculpted and eroded by the flow, yet retain its shape. As shear stress begins to decrease,
this scoured surface is filled with sand. As a result, the bottom of a sandy bed forms a cast of the
erosional features; these casts project from the bottom of the sandy bed and are called sole marks. We
will learn eight common erosional structures; the first four are produced by fluid scour, the last four
are produced by bedload.

1) Flute casts are elongate ridges with a bulbous nose

at one end and a flared shallow end at the other.
Flutes range from 5 to 50 cm long, 1 to 20 cm
wide, and up to 10 cm deep. Flutes are formed by
turbulent fluid scour generated by flow detachment
at an initially low point on the bed, such as at an
impact mark or burrow. The nose of the flute
points upstream, and the flared shallow end points
downstream.

2) Longitudinal scours are a series of closely spaced

ridges and furrows that may locally coalesce. The
ridges are spaced 0.5 – 1 cm apart, and are a
fraction of a centimeter deep. The ridges are sharp,
and the erosional furrows between them are broad
and rounded. Longitudinal scours are generally
preserved as casts on the bottom of sandstone
beds. Like flute casts, longitudinal scours are
produced by fluid scour. Longitudinal scours are aligned with the direction of flow, although it is
generally not possible to tell which of the two ends is upstream. Image from Bridge and Demicco, 2008.

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3) Obstacle scours are horseshoe-shaped or crescent-

shaped grooves that are eroded by fluid flowing
around an obstacle, such as a pebble or shell. They
can be centimeters to tens of centimeters wide and
long. Obstacle scours are useful paleocurrent
indicators because the two “tails” point
downstream. In some cases, can remove all
surrounding sediment except for a ridge of sand
on the lee side of the object. Image from Allen, 1982.

4) Rill marks are small-scale dendritic channels

formed by the erosion of non-cohesive sand.
Unlike most erosional structures, they are typically
found on the tops of beds of sand, not as casts on
the sole of sand beds. Rill marks are a few
centimeters to tens of centimeters wide, and they
commonly form on beaches and riverbanks as
water drains across a gently sloping surface. Rills
coalesce in the direction of slope.

5) Prod marks are part of a broad category of tool

marks, all of which form by the impact of an object
on the sediment surface. Prod marks usually have
sharply defined edges, often with one end deeper
than the other. Prod marks range from millimeters
to centimeters wide, and from centimeters to
decimeters long. They are formed by an object
striking the bottom, then lifting off the bed, with
the indentation being subsequently cast on the
bottom of a sandstone bed. The deep end of a
prod mark points downstream, opposite of what is
seen in flute marks. Prod marks are distinguished
from flute marks by their sharply defined edges,
their small size, and their typically parallel, non-
flaring sides. Prod marks made by currents have their deep ends facing in the same direction, and are
said to be unipolar. Bipolar tool marks have their deep ends facing in opposite directions and are
formed by waves.

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6) Gutter casts are isolated elongate ridges on the

soles of sandstone and limestone beds. They are
symmetrically or asymmetrically U or V-shaped in
cross-section. Gutters are often covered with prod
marks and groove casts that run parallel to the
gutter. The bottoms of gutters are often littered
with skeletal fragments. Gutters are usually about
10 cm wide and deep and can extend for several
meters. The formation of gutters is not fully
understood, but they appear to be cut by the
repeated impact of objects such as shells, and the
presence of bipolar tool marks suggests that waves
are necessary for their formation. The long axis is
inferred to be parallel to the direction of flow.
Image from Bridge and Demicco, 2008.

7) Groove casts are narrow, elongate, nearly straight

ridges on the bases of sandstone beds. Although
they can occur in isolation, they are more typically
found in groups. Groove casts are usually only a
few millimeters wide or less, but may be
centimeters to meters long. Rarely, groove casts can
be as large as gutter casts, but are distinguished by
the presence of numerous minute grooves along
their surface, instead of the prod marks that are
more typical of gutter casts. Grooves are cut by
objects dragged along the bottom by flow, and are
subsequently cast on the bottom of sandstone
beds. The axis of a groove casts is parallel to the
direction of flow.

8) Chevron marks are a linear strip of stacked V-

shaped or chevron-shaped marks. Chevron marks
are typically 2 – 3 cm wide, and less than 5 mm
deep. They are formed by an object being dragged
along the bottom, and the deformation of weak
but cohesive mud. Chevron marks are typically
found as casts on the bottom of sandstone beds.
The apex of the chevrons points downstream.

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Depositional Structures
Depositional structures include normal and inverse grading, as well as bedforms and the
stratification that they produce. We will cover bedforms and stratification in lecture, and the table
below summarizes the main types.

Bedform Stratification
2D current ripples tabular (planar) cross-lamination
3D current ripples trough cross-lamination
2D dunes tabular cross-bedding
3D dunes trough cross-bedding
plane bed planar lamination
hummocky cross-stratification hummocky cross-stratification
vortex ripples wave-ripple lamination
post-vortex ripples post-vortex ripple lamination

Other depositional structures that we will cover in class include normal grading, seaward-inclined laminae,
flaser bedding, wavy bedding, lenticular bedding, tidal bundling, herringbone cross-stratification, and compound dunes.
Your lecture notes will include figures depicting these.

Deformational Structures
As a bed of sediment is being deposited, but more commonly afterwards, it can be deformed by a
variety of processes. Some of this deformation is at the exposed sediment surface, such as
desiccation cracks, synaeresis cracks, and raindrop impressions. Other types of deformation affect
some thickness of sediment, and most of these arise from gravitational instability of the layers,
owing to differences in sediment density, viscosity, and fluid content. Disturbance of these layers,
such as through rapid deposition or earthquakes,
can cause them to deform. We will learn nine of
the most common deformational structures.

1) Desiccation cracks are produced by the subaerial

drying of a clay-rich layer of sediment and the
formation of polygonal, vertically tapering cracks,
which may range from a few millimeters to a few
centimeters wide. Desiccation polygons are
commonly five, six, or seven-sided and may be
several centimeters to up to a meter across.
Desiccation cracks are often filled with coarser
sediment.

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2) Synaeresis cracks are doubly-tapering prismatic

cracks that are several millimeters to several
centimeters long. Although some synaeresis cracks
may intersect, they do not form polygonal
networks like desiccation cracks. Synaeresis cracks
form by the subaqueous dewatering and shrinkage
of clay-rich sediment, usually in environments in
which salinity varies. For example, if a layer of mud
is laid down in the presence of fresh water, and is
later covered with salt water, the fresh water within
the mud will be drawn out into the overlying salt
water, causing the mud layer to shrink and crack.

3) Raindrop impressions are formed by rain falling

onto a cohesive sediment surface. Raindrop
impressions are characterized by a shallow pit
surrounded by a slightly elevated rim, and are a few
millimeters in diameter. Raindrop impressions are
typically found on the upper surface of beds.
Raindrop impressions are easily eroded and are
therefore not common. Image from Reineck and Singh,
1980.

4) Wrinkle structures are a series of millimeter-scale

ridges and troughs, sometimes taking on the
appearance of minute ripple marks. They are not
bedforms, as they are formed by the deformation
of microbial mats. Wrinkle marks are typically
found on the upper surface of sandstone beds.

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5) Load casts are irregular, rounded lobes of sand

projecting from the bottom of sand bed into an
underlying bed of shale. Laminae within the sand
bed are deformed upward at the edges of the casts.
Load casts can range in size from a few millimeters
wide up to several meters wide. Load casts are
formed by the sinking of dense sand into an
underlying fluid mud; this gravitational instability is
often triggered by earthquakes, breaking waves, or
rapid deposition of the sand layer.

6) Flame structures are upward pointing fingers of

mud or shale that project between downward
hanging lobes of sand, often load casts. The tips of
flame structures are commonly bent over in the
same direction, indicating the direction of
downslope slippage of the overlying bed. Flame
structures are usually a few millimeters to a couple
centimeters tall, and they are most easily observed
on the side of a bed.

7) Ball and pillow structures are hemispherical to

kidney-shaped masses of sand encased within mud
or shale. Laminations within ball-and-pillow
structures are usually contorted and folded
upwards at the edges of the sand pillows. Ball and
pillow structures are usually several centimeters to
several meters wide. Unlike load casts, ball and
pillow structure commonly results in lobes of sand
detached entirely from the original layer of
sediment in which they were deposited.

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8) Convolute lamination is characterized by pervasive

and often complex folding of laminae bounded
above and below by undisturbed laminae.
Convolute lamination is produced by rapid rates of
deformation or by shocking of the sediment, such
as by earthquakes. In either case, mechanically weak
layers fold and deform, whereas mechanically
strong layers are undisturbed.

8) Synsedimentary folding is similar to convolute

lamination but deforms multiple beds and occurs
on much larger scales, often deforming layers 1–50
m thick. If folding is caused by downslope sliding,
the axes of the synsedimentary folds are largely
perpendicular to the direction of motion. Image
from Bridge and Demicco, 2008.

9) Dish structures are thin, dark colored, concave-

upward clay-rich laminae within siltstone and
sandstone units. Individual dish structures range
from 1–50 cm across. Pillar structures may also be
present (one is at the right) and consist of dark,
near-vertical concentrations of heavy grains that
mark the position of pipes of vertically-escaping
fluid. Dish structures record partial liquefaction of
sediment. Image from Bridge and Demicco, 2008.

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Biogenic structures
Biogenic structures are tracks, trails, burrows, and
borings and are therefore records of the activity of
organisms. Trace fossils can occur on the top of the
bed, inside the bed, or on the bottom. Particularly
common are burrow casts, known as convex
hyporeliefs (see figure at right). Such casts can occur
simply by filling of a groove on the sediment surface,
by the filling of an organism burrowing at the
interface between a lower muddy layer and an upper
sandy layer, or by the erosional exhumation of a
burrow and its subsequent filling with sand.

Trace fossils are given dual names, much like body

fossils or living organisms, but these names do not
refer to particular animals, but to distinctive types of
behavior. There are many hundreds of named trace
fossils, called ichnogenera and ichnospecies, and we
will cover only ten of the most common ichnogenera that all geologists should know. Remember
that ichnogenera should be italicized.

1) Skolithos is a simple unbranched vertical burrow, which

may be lined or unlined. Skolithos commonly occur in great
densities, creating a structure in sandstone called “Pipe
rock”. The burrows are usually a few millimeters wide, but
may be 10 to 20 centimeters long. Image from Basan, 1978.

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2) Thalassinoides is a large branching burrow and

tunnel system. The burrows range from 1 to 7 cm in
diameter, much larger than most burrow systems.
The burrow system is highly complex, with the
burrows branching and intersecting in many places.
The burrow system is commonly sub-horizontal and
can penetrate to depths of over 1 m. Image from
Basan, 1978.

3) Ophiomorpha is a distinctive large burrow characterized by a

thick lining that is nodular to pelleted on the outside, and
smooth on the inside. Ophiomorpha forms large burrow
systems very similar in geometry to Thalassinoides (they are
made by same organism, the ghost shrimp), but Ophiomorpha
has thick burrow linings, Thalassinoides is unlined. Image from
Basan, 1978.

4) Diplocraterion is a U-shaped burrow with spreite

(lines that mark former positions of the burrow)
usually between the uprights of the active burrow,
but sometimes below the bottom of the active
burrow. Diplocraterion range from 3 – 15 cm wide.
Arenicolites is a similar to Diplocraterion, but it lacks
spreite. Rhizocorallium is also similar to Diplocraterion,
but the burrow turns, such that most of the U-
shaped burrow is oriented horizontally. Image from
Basan, 1978.

5) Rusophycus is the resting trace of a trilobite and

consists of a bilobed cast of the impression
excavated by the two sets of legs of the trilobite.
Rusophycus is commonly about 2–3 cm long, but can
be as long as 20 cm. Rusophycus is most common in
the lower Paleozoic and is rare afterwards,
reflecting the mid-Paleozoic drop in trilobite
diversity.

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6) Chondrites is characterized by a downward

branching system of tubes that looks superficially
like plant roots. The tubes are most commonly about
1 mm in diameter, but can be up to 15 mm in
diameter. Vertical cross-sections through Chondrites
may display obvious branching or simply a cluster of
burrows. Sometimes, the burrows of Chondrites fan
out along a particular bedding plane. Image from
Basan, 1978.

7) Planolites is a straight to sinuous,

horizontal, unbranched burrow that can
range from 0.5 to 20 mm in diameter, but
is usually 3–7 mm in diameter. Planolites is
an unlined burrow and has a fill that
differs from the surrounding sediment.
Image from Basan, 1978.

8) Palaeophycus is very similar to Planolites

in size and shape, but Palaeophycus is a lined
burrow and is filled with sediment that is similar to the
surrounding sediment.

9) Zoophycos is characterized by one or more broad,

spreite-filled loops, and most of this trace fossil
consists of spreite, not the active burrow. The
successive spreite often give this trace a distinctive
“rooster-tailed” appearance. The individual loops may
range from 10 – 100 cm across. Image from Basan, 1978.

10) Nereites is a tightly meandering horizontal burrow that never intersects

itself. The Nereites burrow has sharp bends that recurve and parallel other
portions of the burrow. This pattern is repeated such that the entire
sediment surface can be covered by this tightly spiraling and meandering
trace. Image from Häntzschel, 1975.


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References
Allen, John R.L., 1982. Sedimentary Structures: Their Character and Physical Basis, Volume II.
Elsevier Scientific Publishing: Amsterdam, 663 p.

Basan, Paul, 1978. Trace Fossil Concepts. SEPM Short Course No. 5, Oklahoma City, 181 p.

Bridge, John S., and Robert V. Demicco, 2008. Earth Surface Processes, Landforms and Sediment
Deposits. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 815 p.

Collinson, J.D., and D.B. Thompson, 1989. Sedimentary Structures, 2nd edition. Unwin Hyman,
London, UK, 207 p.

Häntzschel, W., 1975. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part W: Miscellanea, Supplement 1,

Trace Fossils and Problematica, 2nd edition. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, 269
p.

Leeder, Mike, 1999. Sedimentology and Sedimentary Basins: From Turbulence to Tectonics.
Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, 592 p.

Reineck, H. E. and I. B. Singh, 1980. Depositional Sedimentary Environments, 2nd edition. Berlin,
Springer-Verlag, 551 p.

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This is a two-week lab exercise., and all of the specimens are listed below. We will not have
completed the cross-bedding lectures by the time of the first week’s lab period, so you will not be
able to work on those samples. The specimens are therefore divided into groups for week one and
week two of the lab.

Specimens - Week one

ZZ-17. Kope Formation. Ordovician. Cincinnati, Ohio.

Sketch and name the two different biogenic structures on the surfaces. One is on the weathered
face, and the other is on the polished face.

Which way is up - A or B? Explain.

ZZ-27. Kope Formation. Ordovician. Cincinnati, Ohio.

Name the sedimentary structure on the bedding plane.

How does it form?

ZZ-62. Oligocene. Malone, Washington.

Carefully sketch this specimen. Name the sedimentary structure in this sample.

Which way is up - A or B? Explain.

ZZ-68. Horizon and locality unknown.

Name this biogenic structure.

ZZ-70. Borden Formation. Mississippian. Kentucky.

Name the biogenic structure in this sample.

ZZ-94. Rose Hill Formation. Early Silurian. Hagan, Virginia.

Name the bulbous structures on the bedding surface of this sample (the side labeled A). How
do these structures form? Are they on the top or the bottom of the bed?

Name the structures on side B.

Name the sedimentary structures on side C.

Draw a shear stress through time plot, indicating the timing of all of the sedimentary structures
and any changes in flow conditions.

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ZZ-95. Horizon and locality unknown.

Draw a simple sketch of the prominent sedimentary structures on this sample. Indicate on your
sketch the direction in which current was flowing. Name the sedimentary structure. What
produces this sedimentary structure?

Which side of the sample is up? Why?

ZZ-121. Pennsylvanian. Oklahoma.

Name the long linear sedimentary structures on the bedding surface. How did this structure
form?

Which side of the sample is up? How do you know?

ZZ-178. Horizon and locality unknown.

Name the sedimentary structure in this specimen.

How does this structure form?

ZZ-244. Borden Group. Mississippian. Vanceburg, Kentucky.

Sketch and name the biogenic structure.

ZZ-265. Preachersville Formation. Ordovician. West Union, Ohio.

Sketch and name the biogenic structure

ZZ-303. Flathead Sandstone. Antelope Butte, Wyoming.

Sketch and name the biogenic structure.

ZZ-336. Gypsum Spring Formation. Jurassic, Greybull, Wyoming.

Name the physical sedimentary structure on the bedding surface.

Describe how this structure formed.

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Specimens - Week two

On any question asking for flow conditions, address (1) whether the flow is unidirectional,
bidirectional, or combined, (2) whether the flow was upper or lower flow regime, (3) whether
sediment load was particularly high or not (i.e., whether there is climbing cross-lamination), and (4)
what the flow direction is (this may require a sketch, or you may give a direction if a north arrow is
provided on the sample).

On any question asking for a shear stress through time plot, show a generalized plot of how shear
stress changed through time for the sample. Indicate all grain sizes and when they were deposited,
including the mudstone overlying and underlying these samples. Also indicate on the plot when any
sedimentary structures present would have formed.

ZZ-18. Kope Formation. Ordovician. Maysville, Kentucky.

Sketch and name the biogenic structure on side C.

Sketch and name the the biogenic structure on the vertical sides.

Name the sedimentary structure on the vertical sides. Under what flow conditions did this form?

Draw a shear stress through time plot for this specimen.

ZZ-71. Brazier Shale. Devonian. Port Matilda, Pennsylvania.

Name the physical sedimentary structure. Under what flow conditions did it form?

Which side is up - A or B? Explain.

ZZ-89. Horizon and locality unkown.

Name the physical sedimentary structure on the vertical sides and flat bedding surface (ignore
the enigmatic bumps on the opposite bedding surface).

Describe the flow conditions under which it formed.

ZZ-96. Horizon and locality unknown.

This sample consists of two lithologies. Before you focus on the sedimentary structures, you
should identify (for yourself) the brownish-looking sandy lithology and the maroon, almost
glossy-appearing, fine-grained lithology.

Looking at the side labeled A, what kind of bedding is this? Hint: your lithologic information is
critical here.

Name the long, intersecting features on the bedding surface. How do these form?

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ZZ-101. Chattanooga Shale. Devonian. Burkesville, Kentucky.

Name the physical sedimentary structure. Given the grain size of this sample, how did this
structure form?

ZZ-122. Red Mountain Formation. Early Silurian. Ringgold Gap, Georgia.

Name the long, linear sedimentary structure present on the bedding surface.

CAREFULLY turn this sample over. What is the sedimentary structure on this bedding surface?

Look on the freshly broken side of this sample. What is this sedimentary structure?

Which side of the sample is up? How do you know?

Draw a shear stress through time plot for this specimen.

ZZ-163. Chilhowee Group. Cambrian. Elizabethton, Tennessee.

Name the physical sedimentary structure.

Describe the flow conditions under which it formed.

Is side A or B the stratigraphic top? Explain.

What is the direction of flow? Use the north arrow on side B to give a compass direction.

ZZ-195. Proterozoic. near Salt Lake City, Utah.

Name the physical sedimentary structure in this specimen. Under what flow conditions does it
form?

What caused the 1-cm light and dark banding?

ZZ-197. Blackhawk Formation. Cretaceous. Soldier Creek Canyon, Utah.

Name the physical sedimentary structure on the bedding surface.

Describe the flow conditions under which it formed.

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ZZ-235. Red Mountain Formation. Silurian. Ringgold, Georgia.

Name the physical sedimentary structure on side A.

Name the dominant physical sedimentary structure on side B

Were these two structures formed by the same process? Explain.

What is the direction of flow? Use the north arrow to give a compass direction.

Draw a shear stress through time plot for this specimen.

ZZ-236. Horizon and locality unknown.

Name the physical sedimentary structure on the vertical sides.

Describe the flow conditions under which it formed.

Is the labelled side the stratigraphic top or bottom? Explain.

What are the ridges on the labelled side?

What to turn in
In this two-week lab, you will work with the specimens listed above. For each specimen, answer the
questions posed.

Your write-up should be typed; any drawings that are asked for can be attached on a separate sheet,
scanned and placed into your write-up, or cut and pasted onto your write-up.

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