AM Modulator and Demodulator Circuit

I. Modulation
For the modulator, a common emitter topology with a general purpose BJT BC548C SI npn
is shown in Figure 1. The gain is driven with the modulating signal (audio at 1 kHz) at the
emitter resistance.
Basic Working Principle
𝑉𝑚 effectively varies the the circuit gain i.e. the modulated signal is an amplified
version of the carrier signal with the amplification factor as a function of the message
signal.
The design specifications applied for this circuit is as follows:
Voltage Supply : 24V
Open circuit voltage gain |𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐶 | = 200
Collector current at saturation 𝐼𝐶𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 5𝑚𝐴

Figure 1. AM Modulator
Design considerations:
● Bias close to the middle of the DC load line (𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 /2 = 12𝑉, 𝐼𝐶𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 10𝑚𝐴)
● For approximations of the current to the base of the transistor to be close to zero,
𝑅3
𝑅2 ≤ 𝛽
10
● The AC resistance of the base emitter junction can be determined from taking the
derivative of Shockley's diode equation. 𝑟𝑒 = 26𝑚𝑉/𝐼𝐸 ≈ 26𝑚𝑉/𝐼𝐶 = 5.2𝛺
● Given that 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐶 = |𝑅𝐶 |/𝑟𝑒 = 200follows that 𝑅𝐶 = 1.04𝑘𝛺
 ● Given the current at saturation and a typical 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑆𝐴𝑇 value of 0.2 V for general purpose
𝑉𝐶𝐶−𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑆𝐴𝑇 24−0.2
transistors, 𝐼𝐶𝑆𝐴𝑇 = = 1040+𝑅 . Rearranging to get emitter resistor, 𝑅𝐸 =
𝑅𝐸 +𝑅𝐶 𝐸
𝑅3 = 1.34𝑘𝛺
● For BC548C transistor of approximate current gain of 100,
𝑅𝐸
𝑅2 ≤ (100) ×
10
𝑅𝐸
𝑅2 = (100) × = 13.4𝑘𝛺
10
● For the resistor network that acts as a voltage divider for the biasing of the base
voltage. From the emitter voltage 𝑉𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 × 𝑅𝐸 = 5𝑚𝐴 × 1.34𝑘𝛺 = 6.7𝑉and a diode
drop of 0.7 𝑉, the base voltage will be at 7.4𝑉. Thus, 𝑉𝑅2 = 7.4𝑉
Simulating the results, we get the modulated signal as shown below:

Figure 2. Modulated Output Signal

II. Demodulation

For the demodulation of the AM output signal, a simple envelope demodulator is used.
The charging time constant of the RC should be much less compared to the carrier signal
period but long enough so that the capacitor may discharge slowly across the load.

1/𝑓𝑚 << 𝑅𝐶 << 1/𝑓𝑐

Choosing a combination of R and C to satisfy the condition 5 𝑢𝑠 << 𝑅𝐶 << 1𝑚𝑠, choosing
𝑅 = 2𝑘𝛺 gives 𝐶 = 0.1𝜇𝐹, with corresponding time constant of 0.2ms. The complete circuit
is shown in Figure 3. The corresponding demodulated output is shown in Figure 4.
 Figure 3. AM Modulation and Demodulation Circuit
Some Notes:
Typical values for the coupling capacitor 𝐶0 at the input and the output capacitor
𝐶1 connected to the collector of the BJT (for decoupling AC and DC signals to preserve the
quiescent point of the circuit i.e. minimal effects from connecting stages) are chosen. The
same goes for the emitter bypass capacitor for providing a low impedance path at AC.

Figure 4. Demodulated Output Signal

Yagi -Uda Antenna
Overview
The Yagi-Uda antenna is a high-gain directional antenna (commonly used as a horizontally
polarized beam) which operates in the frequencies of HF, VHF and UHF bands . The
antenna was invented by Uda, Shintaro of Tohoku Imperial University, Japan and Yagi,
Hidetsugu in 1926.

Theory Behind the Antenna’s Structure

The Yagi-Uda antenna’s structure and function is based on the use of a collection of
elements namely, a single feed (the only element to be excited), and a series of parasitic
elements placed on a perpendicular crossbar (aligned along the center of the elements) also
known as the “boom”. The geometry of the elements (including the spacing from the feed
element and the number of these parasitic elements) play a big role in in its overall
performance and radiation pattern. Below is a figure that illustrates the basic geometry of a
Yagi-Uda antenna.

Figure 1. Yagi-Uda Antenna Configuration

The feed (a dipole) is primarily the only element in the antenna to be driven by a source
(voltage or current). It is connected to either a transmitter or receiver. The performance of
the Yagi-Uda antenna heavily relies on the phases of the induced currents in the elements of
the antenna. These elements reinforce the signal from the driven element to be radiated
towards a certain direction. This direction of radiation is dependent whether the parasitic
element acts either as an inductive element or as a capacitive element.
The parasitic elements are as follows:
Reflector - this element is typically longer than the driven element. The larger its size relative
to the feed element, the higher its capability to reflect more of the energy towards the
transmission direction. This is the element that is made to be inductive (tuning below
resonance) so that the phase of the currents allow reflection of power away from the
parasitic element.

Director - these parasitic elements reflect energy to the intended direction of transmission
(direction of max sensitivity). This element, on the other hand, is made to be capacitive
(tuning above resonance) so that the currents induced will have a phase that allows for
radiation of the power from the driven element to be in the direction of the parasitic
elements.
The tuning of the reflector and director (i.e. making it capacitive or inductive) is dependent
upon their lengths relative to the driven (feed) element. Thus, the reflector is made typically
5% longer than the feed element and the directors are typically 5% shorter.
The magnitude and phase of the induced currents of the parasitic elements are due to their
geometrical design i.e. their length, spacing between adjacent elements and their distance
from the feed element.

These parasitic elements are not electrically connected to the transmitter or receiver unlike
the driven element; these elements’ function is to re-radiate the waves from the feed element
to form a desired radiation pattern in the intended direction of transmission or reception.

Yagi-Uda Antenna Gain and Directivity

The Yagi-Uda antennas are mainly used for applications that require antennas to have high
gain and minimum interference. The structure of additional directors to the antenna allows
for it have higher gain than a simple dipole antenna. The more directors are used, the higher
the overall gain of the antenna is. Typically, an additional director adds approximately 1dB
gain after at least four to five directors after the driven element.

The design of the antenna introduces a tradeoff between gain and beamwidth. Below
illustrates gain vs. beamwidth.
 Figure 2. Gain vs. Beamwidth
The antenna has a directional main forward lobe towards the direction which the waves are
transmitted or received. RF engineers would typically design an optimized solution for
balancing this tradeoff depending on the application and the radiation pattern best suited for
the application.
Application Considerations
Typically, higher gain applications use the Yagi-Uda antenna with more directors
added up to 15-20 elements. The gain of the antenna is determined by the number of these
directors and their spacing from each other. This antenna is useful for applications where the
requirements include a specific gain and directivity. It would then be fairly easy to
manipulate the design and measurement of the antenna before fabrication to meet the
application requirements. Some considerations for the design are deployment constraints
such the size of antenna (which becomes very long) for high gain purposes.