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International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 66 (2014) 74–80

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Biological Macromolecules

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijbiomac

Review

Locust bean gum: Processing, properties and food

applications—A review
Sheweta Barak, Deepak Mudgil ∗
Department of Dairy and Food Technology, Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology, Mehsana 384002, Gujarat, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Locust bean gum or carob gum is a galactomannan obtained from seed endosperm of carob tree i.e.
Received 28 December 2013 Ceratonia siliqua. It is widely utilized as an additive in various industries such as food, pharmaceuticals,
Received in revised form 4 February 2014 paper, textile, oil well drilling and cosmetics. Industrial applications of locust bean gum are due to its
Accepted 9 February 2014
ability to form hydrogen bonding with water molecule. It is also beneficial in the control of many health
Available online 16 February 2014
problems like diabetes, bowel movements, heart disease and colon cancer due to its dietary fiber action.
This article focuses on production, processing, composition, properties, food applications and health
Keywords:
benefits of locust bean gum.
Locust bean gum
Carob bean gum © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Dietary fiber
Properties
Food application

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2. Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3. Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4. Non-food applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5. Composition and chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6. Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.1. Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2. Rheology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.3. Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.4. Hydration rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.5. Synergistic gel formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.6. Water adsorption isotherm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7. Food applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.1. Edible films/coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.2. Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.3. Bakery products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.4. Noodles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.5. Ice cream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.6. Low-fat yoghurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8. Health benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9896672001.

E-mail address: dsmudgil@yahoo.com (D. Mudgil).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.02.017
0141-8130/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 Author's personal copy
S. Barak, D. Mudgil / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 66 (2014) 74–80
1. Introduction
Locust bean gum is a white to creamy white powder obtained
after milling of seed endosperm of fruit pod of the carob tree, a
member of legume family, botanically known as Ceratonia siliqua L.
which is found in Mediterranean regions. Hence, locust bean gum
is also known as carob gum. The carob seed is consists of three parts
i.e. husk, endosperm and germ. The processing of carob gum first
involves the removal of hull from the seed which can be attained
via thermo-mechanical or by chemical treatment [1]. After removal
of the outer layer i.e. the hull, the seeds are split lengthwise and
the germ portion is separated from the endosperm of carob seed.
Further, the isolated endosperms are subjected to grinding, sift-
ing, grading, packaging and finally marketed as locust bean gum or
LBG. All the operations in LBG processing are designed such that
any impurity from husk or germ portion can be avoided which can
ultimately alter the properties of the carob gum. Galactomannans
are linear polysaccharides consists of ␤-(l–4)-mannose backbone
with single d-galactopyranosyl units attached via ␣-(l–6) linkages
as side branch. These side branches are not distributed uniformly in
the main backbone chain [2,3]. There are also present some unsub-
stituted ␤-d-mannopyranosyl chain segments, alternating with
␤-d-mannopyranosyl units substituted with ␣-d-galactopyranosyl
side branches [4–7]. Carob galactomannan is one of the commercial
galactomannans guar gum and tara gum; and among these galac-
tomannans LBG has the lowest galactose content about twenty
percent [8]. Locust bean gum generally has an average mannose
to galactose ratio of about 3.5 which is highest among the com-
mercially available galactomannan such as guar gum (1.8) and
tara gum (3.0). The degree of galactose substitution on mannose
chain affects water solubility of the galactomannan. This is reason
because guar gum is cold water soluble whereas LBG shows low sol-
ubility at ambient temperature and there is a requirement of heat
treatment for maximum solubility to achieve the best water bind-
ing capacity [9]. The molecular size, mannose to galactose ratio,
galactose distribution in the mannose backbone chain influences
solubility and also controls the rheological properties of LBG. Differ-
ent chromatography techniques can be used to characterize carob
galactomannan structure. The molecular weight distributions can
be determined using size exclusion chromatography and mannose
to galactose ratio can be generally determined using gas chro-
matography. LBG is considered as the first galactomannan used as
additive in industries such as paper industry, textile industry, phar-
maceutical industry, cosmetic industry and food industries. The
important characteristic of this gum that make it a useful indus-
trial gum is its ability to form very viscous aqueous solution at
relatively low concentration, to stabilize emulsion and to replace
fat in many food products. Being non-ionic in nature, locust bean
gum solutions are not influenced by pH, salts and heat treatment.
Locust bean gum can be used in combination with other hydrocol-
loids such as carrageenan and xanthan gum as it shows synergistic
action with them and forms a gel with more elasticity and strength
[10]. Locust bean gum is suitable for many food applications as it
provides a creamy mouthfeel. It is typically added in cream-cheese
spreads to impart richness and spreadability. It is especially useful
in preventing syneresis in various food products. LBG also create a
smooth mouthfeel in sauces. LBG’s ability to bind water makes it
an excellent choice for frozen applications, such as ice cream as it
will slow down and reduces the size of ice-crystal formation as the
moisture is retained within the ice cream. LBG also finds applica-
tion in yoghurt manufacture. In yoghurt, it reduces the syneresis
and enhances water holding capacity of yoghurt when used at cer-
tain levels [11]. Recently, LBG is used in edible films and improved
the properties of films such as water vapor permeability, oxygen
permeability, tensile strength and elongation-at-break [12]. In edi-
ble coatings, when locust bean gum is used in combination with
75
other hydrocolloid such as ␬-carrageenan; it improves the prop-
erties of the film due to its synergistic action. LBG is also used
as thickener, stabilizer and gelling agent in various food products
such as baked foods, beverages, dairy products and processed fruit
products. Locust bean gum is classified as GRAS (Generally recog-
nized as safe) by FDA and is used for its stabilizing, thickening and
fat-replacing properties [13].
2. Production
Locust bean gum is extracted from the seed endosperm of the
carob tree plant botanically known as C. siliqua. It belongs to the
subfamily Caesalpinioideae of the Leguminosae family [14]. Carob
plant is typical tree of semiarid environments. It is very abundant in
the Mediterranean region since ancient times and is currently pro-
duced in Spain, Italy, Cyprus and other Mediterranean countries.
Its localization also extends to different regions of North Africa,
South America, and Asia. Other known carob producing countries
are Morocco, Greece, Algeria, Turkey, Israel, India and Pakistan.
Carob plant is long-lived evergreen tree and after germination, it
grows to about 10 m height in 10–15 years. The carob tree may not
be fully grown until it is 50 years old and it starts to bear good
quantities of pods at the age of 15 years. The pods reach to full size
in July but are ripened in October. Hot and dry climatic conditions
are required for good yields. Large trees can yield up to half ton
of pods per annum. Carob tree yields large brown fruits known as
carob pods. These carob pods are sickle shaped and are 10–20 cm
in length and 2–4 cm in width. These sickle shaped pods contain
10–15 oval shaped carob seeds or kernels. The polysaccharide from
seed endosperm of carob tree is also referred in the literature as
carob bean gum, carob seed gum, carob flour, or even ceratonia
[15]. World production of carob seeds is estimated at about 315,000
tons per year, produced from two lakhs hectare. The main produc-
ers include Morocco (38%), Spain (28%), Italy (8%), Portugal (8%),
Greece (6%), Turkey (6%) and Cyprus (2%) [14]. Recently, growing
interest for locust bean gum has been observed due to its various
industrial applications. Locust bean gum is used as a thickening and
stabilizing agent in food, cosmetic and pharmaceuticals industries
[16]. In food industry it is a food additive with E-number E-410
in the European Union [17]. Pharmaceutical applications of locust
bean gum are mainly due to its ability as controlled release excipi-
ent in tablets. Biodegradability, low toxicity and low cost of locust
bean gum contribute for its increasing utilization in various fields.
3. Processing
The carob pods are kibbled to separate the seeds from the pulp
portion. The processing of carob seeds includes dehusking (acid
or thermo-mechanical), splitting, milling, sifting, clarification and
drying. The processing of carob seeds is very difficult due to its
very tough and hard seed coat. The dehusking of carob kernels is
achieved by treatment of carob seeds with dilute sulphuric acid
or with thermo-mechanical treatment known as acid peeling and
thermal peeling, respectively. In acid peeling process, carob seeds
are treated with sulphuric acid at elevated temperature to car-
bonize the seed coat. The remaining portions of the seed coat are
separated and removed from the endosperm portion by efficient
washing and brushing process. The peeled kernels are dried and
cracked and the more friable germ gets crushed. The germ parts
are sifted off from the unbroken endosperm halves known as splits.
The carob bean gum produced from the carob splits by this process
is whitish in color and has higher viscosity. In thermo-mechanical
peeling process, roasting of carob kernels are carried out in rotating
furnace where the seed coat gets pop off from the internal portions
of carob kernels. The endosperm halves or carob splits are obtained
 Author's personal copy
76 S. Barak, D. Mudgil / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 66 (2014) 74–80
Fig. 1. Flow diagram for manufacturing of locust bean gum.
after mechanical processing and are recovered from the roasted
seed coat or husk and the crashed germs. The isolated endosperm
halves are milled and sieved to obtain fine particle size powder of
native carob bean gum or locust bean gum (Fig. 1). The product
obtained from this process is somewhat darker in color due to the
heating or roasting operation. Thermo-mechanical process leads to
no effluent as it do not involve sulphuric acid as processing aid. Clar-
ification of native locust bean gum may be achieved by dispersing it
in water and dissolved by heating. This solution is subjected to fil-
tration to remove insoluble substances and to obtain clear solution.
Locust bean gum is recovered by precipitation with isopropanol or
ethanol, followed by filtering, drying and grinding or milling, to
obtain fine particle size powder of clarified or purified carob bean
gum.
4. Non-food applications
Locust bean pods were utilized as cattle feed for a very long
time but now its seed endosperm powder is utilized as locust bean
gum in various industries such as food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical,
textile, paint, mining, oil drilling and construction industries for
its thickening and stabilizing properties. In pharmaceutical indus-
tries, locust bean gum is used in the production of solid monolithic
matrix systems, films, beads, micro-particles, nano-particles, inhal-
able and injectable systems, as well as in viscous liquid and gel
formulations. In these dosage forms, locust bean gum performs dif-
ferent functions such as binders, viscosity enhancers, stabilizers,
matrix formers, drug release modifiers, coatings, disintegrators,
solubilizers, emulsifiers, suspending agents, gelling agents, and
bioadhesives [18]. Biopharmaceutical applications of locust bean
gum are mainly attributed to its gelling capacity and synergies with
other polysaccharides. The most common application of locust bean
gum is the formulation of oral delivery systems based on tablets,
hydrogels and multiparticulate systems. Apart from the binding
and stabilizing ability, locust bean gum also act as a bioactive
substance which has hypolipidemic effect, decreasing low density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol due to high dietary fiber content [19].
Table 1
Composition of carob seed.
Part Proportion (%)
Husk 30–33
Endosperm 42–46
Germ 23–25
Locust bean gum also reduces or controls diabetes due to its high
gelling ability which on ingestion causes satiety sensation [20].
In textile industry, locust bean gum is used in combination with
starch as sizing agent. Locust bean gum is utilized as a thickener in
paints. Locust bean gum is also used in paper making, pet foods and
cosmetics products.
5. Composition and chemical structure
Locust bean kernel is composed three major components which
are outer husk (30–33%), germ portion (23–25%) and endosperm
portion (42–46%) by seed weight (Table 1). The major portion
of locust bean endosperm is galactomannan, which comprises
approximately 80% weight of the endosperm and the rest corre-
sponding to proteins and impurities. The protein content of locust
bean gum is reported to include albumin and globulin (32%), while
the remaining 68% correspond to glutelin [21]. Impurities mainly
refer to ash and acid-insoluble matter [22]. After seed processing,
crude galactomannan can be further submitted to several processes
to eliminate both the protein content and impurities. Impurities
usually remain insoluble even when heating at temperatures up to
70 ◦ C [23]. Treatment with isopropanol is considered very efficient
in the elimination of proteins as insoluble impurities. The com-
position of commercial locust bean gum is presented in Table 2.
The commercial locust bean gum powder contains approximately
10–12% moisture, 5% protein, 1.0% ash, 1.0% crude fiber, 0.5% fat and
80–85% galactomannan [24,25]. Possible impurities in commercial
locust bean gum powder are husk and germ which are reflected by
acid-insoluble matter and protein content, respectively. Residual
amount of ethanol or isopropanol used during washing or extrac-
tion process also act as impurities in locust bean gum powder.
Locust bean gum is comprised of a high molecular weight
polysaccharide composed of galactomannan. Locust bean galac-
tomannan is composed of two units i.e. galactose and mannose.
Locust galactomannan consists of a linear chain of (1→4)-linked ␤-
d-mannopyranosyl units with (1→6)-linked ␣-d-galactopyranosyl
residues as side chains (Fig. 2). Locust galactomannans are highly
polydispersed like other polysaccharides found in nature. In lit-
erature molecular weight of locust galactomannan is reported as
approximately 310,000. However, recent molecular weight estima-
tion techniques such as gel permeation chromatography suggest
that average molecular weight of locust galactomannan varies sig-
nificantly, typically ranging from 0.3 to 2.0 million, depending on
the seed source, plant growing conditions and manufacturing pro-
cesses. The galactomannan molecule is considered to exhibit an
extended ribbon-like structure at the solid state and a semi flex-
ible coil-like conformation in solution. The galactose to mannose
ratio of locust bean gum is approximately 1:3.1–1:3.9 [25–27]. The
Table 2
Composition of locust bean gum.
Constituent Proportion (%)
Galactomannan 80.0–85.0
Moisture 10.0–12.0
Protein content 5.0–6.0
Fat content 0.5–0.9
Crude fiber 0.8–1.0
Ash 0.5–1.0
 Author's personal copy
S. Barak, D. Mudgil / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 66 (2014) 74–80
Fig. 2. Structure of locust bean gum.
mannose and galactose content has been reported as 77–78% and
21–23%, respectively [25]. The distribution of d-galactosyl residues
or side chains along the mannose backbone chain can be random,
blockwise and ordered.
6. Properties
The functional properties of locust galactomannan like other
polysaccharides are dependent on their behavior in an aque-
ous medium. Locust bean gum is partially soluble in cold water.
Locust galactomannan requires heating for complete solubilization
in water. If galactomannan sol is heated above 80 ◦ C to achieve
complete solubilization, care should be taken, as heating to such
extent may cause oxidative–reductive depolymerization of galac-
tomannan chain and reduction in viscosity of final solution may
observed. In pH range 4–9, The Viscosity of locust bean gum solu-
tion decreases with pH increasing above 9 and decreasing below
4. Locust bean gum is relatively stable against mechanical distor-
tion. The viscosity property of locust bean gum depends on various
factors such as molecular weight, concentration, shear rate and
solubilization method. Locust bean gum is often regarded as less
viscous than guar gum and tara gum.
6.1. Solubility
Locust bean gum is partially soluble in cold water and needs
to be heated to reach maximum solubility. Locust bean gum
shows solubility in water of approximately 70–85% when heated
to 80 ◦ C/30 min [28]. This difference in solubility may be due to
the high molecular weight galactomannan component and galac-
tomannan with lower galactose residues as side chain which can
solubilized at higher temperature. It shows that it is hot water sol-
uble and has lesser solubility in water than other galactomannans
such as guar gum which is cold water soluble gum [5]. Generally, the
solubility of locust bean gum powder does not exceed 90%, which is
further dependent on some factors or variable such as particle size
or granulation and impurities such as husk or germ contamination
[16].
6.2. Rheology
Rheology is the study of flow (in liquids) and deformation (in
solid or semisolids) of material under the effect of applied force.
Locust bean gum in aqueous solutions shows a non-Newtonian
behavior (pseudoplastic steady-flow behavior or shear-thinning
behavior) at high shear rates, but exhibits Newtonian flow behavior
at low shear rates. At lower shear rates, the disruption of molecular
entanglements by the shear may be balanced by the reforma-
tion of new entanglements, so that the viscosity kept constant
and the locust bean gum solutions show Newtonian flow behav-
ior whereas at higher shear rates, disruption of the entanglements
predominated over the reformation of new entanglements,
77
molecules aligns in the direction of flow which leads to decrease
in viscosity and thus explain the non-Newtonian behavior of locust
bean gum solution at higher shear rates [29].
Aqueous solutions of locust bean gum at 0.5–2.0% concentra-
tion shows a typical behavior of macromolecular biopolymer with
dominating loss modulus (G ) over storage modulus (G ) in lower
frequency range whereas storage modulus dominates the loss
modulus in high frequency range. It means that locust bean gum
solutions with concentrations ranging from 0.5% to 2.0%, shows a
liquid behavior at lower frequency (G > G ) and a solid-like behav-
ior at higher frequencies (G > G ). G value of locust bean gum
aqueous solution at same concentration is lower than fenugreek
galactomannan, guar galactomannan and tara galactomannan. In
frequency sweep tests, crossover frequency (where G = G ) of locust
bean gum solution shifts to lower frequency values with increase
in gum concentration [30].
6.3. Viscosity
The most significant property of locust bean gum is its ability
to hydrate in hot water to give viscous solution. The thick-
ening capacity of locust bean gum depends on certain factors
such as particle size, polymer concentration, molecular weight
distribution, shear rate, solubilization methods and impurities.
Locust bean gum is generally less viscous galactomannan than
guar and tara galactomannan. Viscosity values of locust bean
gum solutions in the Newtonian plateau can be used to ana-
lyze molecular characteristics. Intrinsic viscosity of locust bean
gum solution is determined based on concentration dependence
of Newtonian viscosities of dilute solutions. Intrinsic viscosity is
related molecular weight through a power-law equation known
as Mark–Houwink–Sakurada equation. Power-law exponent ‘˛’ for
locust bean gum has been reported as 0.77 when water is used
as solvent. Intrinsic viscosity and molecular weight of locust bean
gum is lower among galactomannans. Viscosity of locust bean gum
solutions is concentration dependent and generally shows increase
with increase in gum concentration.
6.4. Hydration rate
Rate of hydration of commercial locust bean gum varies depend-
ing on the grades. Locust bean gum is generally graded based on the
particle size, gum content and insoluble. Locust bean gum requires
heating at 80 ◦ C for 30 min for its full hydration. Hydration of about
2 h is required in order to reach maximum viscosity for practi-
cal applications [31]. Major controlling factor of hydration rate of
locust bean gum is particle size of locust bean gum powder. Fine
particle size gum powder hydrates easily and more quickly than
relatively coarser particle size gum powder. Commercially, fine par-
ticle size locust bean gum powder is available for quick hydration.
However, a considerable time interval for complete or maximum
hydration of locust bean gum powder is still desired.
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78 S. Barak, D. Mudgil / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 66 (2014) 74–80
6.5. Synergistic gel formation
Locust bean gum do not form gel under normal conditions but
upon freeze–thaw treatment a weak gel can be obtained. Locust
bean gum forms gel in the presence of large amount of sucrose.
Gel strength of locust bean solution in combination with sugar
shows an initial increase and subsequent decrease with increas-
ing concentration of sugar. Initial increase in gel strength may
be attributed to reduction in water content due to increased
concentration of sugar. The subsequent decrease in gel strength
attributed to inhibition of polymer–polymer association by bind-
ing of sugar molecules to polymer chains which leads to decrease
in gel strength arising from decrease in strength of binding. Maxi-
mum gel strength of locust bean gum solutions can be attained at
45% (by weight) fructose, 50% (by weight) sucrose or sorbitol, and
55% (by weight) glucose [32]. Locust bean gum also shows a useful
synergistic increase in gel strength on blending with other gums
such as xanthan gum, ␬-carrageenan etc. X-ray diffraction analysis
of xanthan-locust bean gum blends shows new diffraction patterns
that are absent in xanthan and locust bean when studied separately
which suggest intermolecular binding between xanthan and locust
bean gum. X-ray diffraction studies also indicate random aggre-
gation between galactomannan and ␬-carrageenan which reveals
small degree of intermolecular binding. It is well accepted fact
that by replacement part of carrageenan with locust bean gum,
increases the gel strength indexed by dynamic rigidity modulus
and compressive Young’s modulus. This increase in gel strength
increases with increase in concentration of locust bean gum and
then decreases after a peak point in mixed gel and is generally
known as synergistic effect [33].
6.6. Water adsorption isotherm
Water adsorption isotherm represents the relationship between
equilibrium moisture content vs. water activity. Torres et al. (2012)
studied the water adsorption isotherm of locust bean gum at
different temperatures (20–65 ◦ C) and reported increase in equilib-
rium moisture content with increasing water activity following the
shape corresponding to type II isotherms according to Brunauer’s
classification [34,35]. Torres et al. (2012) also reported that the
equilibrium moisture content of locust bean gum decreased with
increasing temperature at each water activity level [35]. This can
be explained as at high temperatures, the activation of water
molecules changes to higher energy levels and the links become less
stable and break away from the water-binding sites of galactoman-
nan, hence the equilibrium moisture content decreases. Isosteric
sorption heat of locust bean gum decreased with increasing equi-
librium moisture content. Locust bean gum shows high sorption
heat of about 27 kJ mol−1 which exhibits less hygroscopicity of the
gum [35].
7. Food applications
Locust bean gum is used as an additive in food industry due to its
thickening and stabilizing property. Its utilization as stabilizer and
thickener in food products is popular as it is obtained from a natural
source. Its functionality is due to its water phase management in
food products.
7.1. Edible films/coating
The use of edible films or coatings composed of natural poly-
mers and food additives have been constantly increasing in the
food industry to enhance the shelf life of fresh fruits, vegetables
and meat products. These films/coatings can be produced from
biopolymers such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, resins, with
or without the addition of plasticizers and surfactants [12]. Locust
bean gum has been used to form edible films/coatings due to its
edibility and biodegradability and can be used as an alternative
to reduce negative effects of minimal processing on fresh-cut fruits
[36]. Hydrophilic properties of locust bean gum provide a good bar-
rier due to its carbon dioxide permeability, oxygen permeability,
water vapor permeability, tensile strength and elongation-at-break
under certain conditions. Locust bean gum in edible film and
coating may also serve as carrier of additives and bioactive com-
ponents [37]. Edible films formed by mixed systems of locust bean
gum and ␬-carrageenan showed improved properties. The addi-
tion of ␬-carrageenan to locust bean gum improved the barrier
properties of the film which leads to decrease in water vapor per-
meability. Improved values of elongation-at-break of edible films
were also reported when the ratio of ␬-carrageenan and locust
bean gum was mixed in the ratio of 80:20% (w/w). ␬-carrageenan
and locust bean gum blend films enhance the tensile strength
compared to tensile strength of films prepared individually by ␬-
carrageenan and locust bean gum. Improvement in ␬-carrageenan
and locust bean gum film properties are reported due to hydro-
gen bonds interactions between ␬-carrageenan and locust bean
gum observed via Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
analysis [38].
7.2. Beverages
Locust bean gum is very popular as thickening and stabilizing
agent in used in various beverages. Locust bean gum solutions are
stable at wide range of pH which makes it a unique stabilizer and
thickener in most of the beverages. Guar gum is soluble in hot water
and most of the beverages require heat processing which enable
the locust bean gum to use in beverages. It improves the keep-
ing qualities of beverages via resistance to phase separation and
thickening.
7.3. Bakery products
Its application for bakery purposes results in higher baked prod-
uct yields; it improves the final texture and adds viscosity in dough.
Addition of guar gum in cookies dough improves the machinabil-
ity of the dough which helps in the better handling of dough with
minimum requirement of energy and time. Locust bean gum is also
used to increase volume and to retard the aging of bakery products
[39]. The addition of locust bean gum to wheat flour suspension
decreases the pasting temperature and increases the peak viscos-
ity, trough viscosity, breakdown, final viscosity and setback values.
Water absorption capacity and dough development time of wheat
flour dough also increases on addition of locust bean gum [40].
Locust bean gum can also be used as binding agent as a substitute
for gluten in gluten-free bread formulations based on corn starch
with improved loaf volume and crumb structure [41].
7.4. Noodles
Incorporation of locust bean gum in noodles dough improves
the dough rheology as well as the textural characteristics of the
cooked noodles. Improvement in textural properties of noodles is
attributed to the strengthening effect of gum on the gluten network
which results in better textural properties of noodles. Addition of
locust bean gum reduces the cooking loss and swelling index of
noodles [42].
7.5. Ice cream
Locust bean gum alone or in combination with guar gum is
used in frozen dairy products for desired textural properties such
 Author's personal copy
S. Barak, D. Mudgil / International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 66 (2014) 74–80
as viscosity enhancement and ice recrystallization inhibition. But,
milk proteins and locust bean gum systems are incompatible in
solution systems and leads to separation of phases [43]. These
two separated phase consists of water soluble and water insoluble
components. Water insoluble components include colloidal protein
and fat components (opaque); whereas other phase include dis-
solved solutes (transparent). The difference in optical properties
of the two phases makes the product undesirable in appearance
and ultimately for consumption. To solve the problem of phase
separation, carrageenan is used in combination with locust bean
gum which leads to phase stabilization dairy systems via casein
and carrageenan electrostatic interaction [44–46]. The phase sepa-
ration in soft-serve ice cream mixes is undesirable from consumer
point of view. The effect of ␬-carrageenan, locust bean gum and
casein–whey protein ratio on the phase stability of soft-serve ice
cream mixes during storage of 3 weeks at 5 ◦ C is also studied and
reported that ␬-carrageenan 0.015–0.02% (w/w) and locust bean
gum 0.06–0.2% (w/w) is required to stabilize the ice cream mix
against serum or phase separation [47].
7.6. Low-fat yoghurt
Low-fat yoghurt has a texture different from that of full-fat
yoghurt. Fat component in food is mainly responsible for the tex-
ture of that product. There have been many studies reported in the
literature related to improvement of texture and body of non-fat or
low-fat yoghurt. The main examples are use of exopolysaccharides
producing starter cultures [48] and addition of food hydrocol-
loids which provide good stability and desirable texture in low-fat
yoghurt [49,50]. Hydrocolloids and protein concentrations in low-
fat yoghurt need to be optimized to allow for maximum interaction
between the hydrocolloid and protein. If it is not optimized, then
hydrocolloid–hydrocolloid or protein–protein interactions may
predominate and ultimately affects the milk reactivity. The milk
reactivity is highly dependent on gum concentration [51]. Locust
bean gum when added at 0.02% (w/w) to low-fat yoghurt, increases
firmness, viscosity and water-holding capacity and reduces synere-
sis [11].
8. Health benefits
Locust bean gum comes under the category of viscous soluble
fiber. Due to its effect on viscosity and food structure, it can alter
the rate of carbohydrate degradation during digestion. This is likely
to have beneficial effects for the regulation of postprandial blood
sugar and insulin levels, key events in the prevention and treatment
of obesity and diabetes [52]. Viscous soluble fiber such as locust
bean flattens postprandial glycaemia more consistently than wheat
bran and other insoluble fibers [53]. Recent studies on gums as
dietary fiber reported their protective effect on cardiovascular dis-
ease. Incorporation of gums such as guar gum & locust bean gum as
dietary fiber in diet can be beneficial in reducing inflammation and
inflammatory bowel diseases, Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis
[54]. The physiological effects and viscosity property of locust bean
gum is comparable to guar gum and ␤-glucan [55].
9. Conclusions
Locust bean gum is derived from the seed endosperm of C. sili-
qua. It is a hydrocolloid with unique functional properties which
makes it a novel thickener and stabilizer. It gives viscosity when
added to different food products and ultimately improves the
textural and other functional properties through water phase man-
agement. It has wide applications in the sectors such as food, phar-
maceutical, textile, oil, paint, paper and cosmetics. In food sector,
79
it is utilized as thickener and stabilizer in ice cream, sauce, bever-
ages, bakery and meat industry. It is also a source of soluble fiber
and can be utilized for the development of dietary fiber enriched
food products. Its consumption in routine diet reduces the risk of
heart diseases, diabetes and digestive disorders in human beings.
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