Aquacultural Engineering 1 (1982) 275-295

THE PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN OF PACKED COLUMN

AERATION SYSTEMS FOR AQUACULTURE

GARY E. HACKNEY
John Carollo Engineers, 10840 WarnerAvenue, Suite 100, Fountain Valley, California, USA

and
JOHN E. COLT
Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA

A BS TRA CT

The packed column aerator (PCA) is a highly efficient aerator that can be used for
oxygen and nitrogen + argon removal. Standard transfer efficiencies (No) for oxygen
range from 1.5 to 2.0 kg 02~kWh. I f 1-2 m o f hydraulic head is available, No can be as
high as 80 kg 02/kWh. A mass transfer model was developed for design purposes.
Recommended design parameters and procedures are presented for full-scale PCA.

NOMENCLATURE

A area of gas-liquid interface (m 2)

As specific surface area (m -a)
C* saturation concentration of gas in liquid (mg liter -a)
C existing concentration of gas in liquid (mg liter -a)
Ct oxygen concentration in liquid at time t (rag liter -1)
Ci initial or inlet oxygen concentration in liquid (mg liter -a)
Co outlet oxygen concentration of water (mg liter-a).
E overall efficiency of pump and motor
H hydraulic head (m)
K coefficient of diffusion for gas (m h -1)
K' coefficient dependent on surface area (m)
KLa overall mass transfer coefficient (h-l)
M oxygen transfer rate (kg Oz h -1)
275
Aquacultural Engineering 0144-8609]82/0001-0275[$02.75 © Applied Science Publishers Ltd,
England, 1982
Printed in Great Britain
276 G.E. HACKNEY, J. E. COLT

N measured transfer efficiency (kg 02 kwh -1)

No standard transfer efficiency (kg 02 kwh -1)
OR oxygen requirement (kg 02 h -1)
OTE oxygen transfer efficiency
Pai~ blower power (kW)
Ppump pumping power (kW)
Q hydraulic loading rate (m 3 m -2 s-1)
Qw water flow r a t e (106 X liter h -1)
Q' volumetric flow rate (m 3 s-1)
R = gas constant = 0.287
T inlet temperature (K)
Tw= water temperature (°C)
Z depth of column (m)
dC/dt rate of change in gas concentration in the liquid (mg liter -1 h -1)
dm/dt rate of mass transfer of gas into liquid (mg h -I)
e efficiency of air blower and motor
k = 1-4 (for air)
m an exponent dependent on A s
rh mass flow rate air (kg h -1)
n t
an exponent dependent on A s
( k - - 1 ) / k , equal to 0-283
Pl inlet pressure (kPa)
P2 outlet pressure (kPa)
t aeration time (h)
td mean detention time (s)

Pa density of air (kg m -3)

~, = 9-79 kN m -3 at 20°C

INTRODUCTION

The maintenance of adequate dissolved oxygen levels in aquatic culture systems is

a serious problem. Many types of aeration devices have been used to increase produc-
tion or decrease water requirements. The transfer efficiency of conventional aeration
devices such as diffused air or mechanical surface aerators is low due to the shallow
depth of most systems and the requirement to maintain high dissolved oxygen levels
(Colt and Tchobanoglous, 1981). Problems with gas supersaturation will limit the use-
fulness of the highly efficient submerged aerators (Colt and Westers, 1982).
The packed column aerator (PCA) consists of a column filled with a high surface
area packing. Water flows down over the media in a thin film. Because of the large
gas-liquid surface area, this system is highly efficient for oxygen and nitrogen
 PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN OF PACKED COLUMN AERATION SYSTEMS 277

transfer, but will not produce dissolved gas supersaturation. Due to the lack of
information on the design and operation of the PCA, this device has not been widely
used in aquaculture. The work reported here was undertaken to develop performance
and design data for a full scale PCA. This research may be used as a basis for the design
of full-scale installation in existing and planned hatcheries.

GAS TRANSFER T H E O R Y IN T H E P C A

The rate at which a slightly soluble gas, such as oxygen, nitrogen or argon, is trans-
ferred into a liquid is proportional to the area of the gas-liquid interface and the
gradient between the existing and saturation concentration of the gas in the solution
(Lewis and Whitman, 1924). In equation form this can be written as:
dm
-- = KA(C* -- C) (1)
dt
Equation (1) can be rewritten as:
dC
-- = KLa(C* -- C) (2)
dt
The new proportionality constant, K L a , now contains the gas diffusion constant, the
area of the gas-liquid interface and the volume of the liquid film. Therefore, it would
be expected that K L a will vary with the type of gas being transferred, the gas diffusion
area available, the flow rate of water passing through the PCA and the type of packing.
Integrating eqn (2) between the limits of Ci and C t and 0 and t gives:

C * - - C t _ e - (KLa) t (3)
C* -- C i

or

C* - C i 1
In = (KLa) t (4)
\C* -- Ctl

The equation provides a simple method of determining the required aeration time for a
desired dissolved oxygen concentration when the initial concentration and K L a are
known. The left-hand term of eqn (4) is referred to as the log deficit of the dissolved
oxygen concentration.
In packed columns, the K L a value for oxygen is proportional to QO.TS and
increases up to the point where the column floods (Coulson e t al., 1978). Flooding of
a packed column is defined as an inversion of phases so that the liquid phase becomes
continuous within the void space between the media (Norton Co., 1977). The mass
transfer characteristics of PCA change drastically when flooded (i.e. the PCA becomes
278 G . E . HACKNEY, J. E. COLT

a diffused air aerator). Large-scale packed columns are generally not designed from
individual mass transfer coefficients (KLa) because of difficulty in estimating the
effective wetted area.

Aeration time in the PCA

In trickling filters, Eckenfelder and Barnhart (1963) found that the detention time
through test columns was related to the depth of the column, the hydraulic loading
rate, and the specific surface area of the medium in the column. Their findings are
summarized by eqn (5):
K~mz
td-- Qn' (5)

For glass spheres (1.9-2.8 cm in diameter), K ' = 0-70, m = 0-75 and n varied from
0-75 to 0.82. The maximum loading rate used by Eckenfelder and Barnhart (1963)
was 50 m s m -2 h -1. The surface loading rates for packed columns used in aquaculture
may range from 100 to 250 m 3 m -2 h -l (Owsley, 1981).
Substituting eqn (5) into eqn (4) gives:

( C*--Ci t - K'AmZ
ln\c-~_Col-(KLa) Q ~ (6)

where the term Co represents the dissolved oxygen concentration in the water leaving
the PCA. If KLa is absorbed into the detention time coefficient (K'), eqn (6) can be
written as:

In
(C*--Cit=KAr~Z
Qn' (7)
\C* -- Col
where K is now a system coefficient which reflects the oxygen transfer characteristics
of a particular packed column aeration device. The value of C* in eqn (7) is a function
of temperature, pressure, salinity and the gas composition in the column. The design
of packed columns for aquaculture will depend on the evaluation of the system
parameters in eqn (7) under typical aquaculture conditions.

Air flow requirements

As oxygen is transferred into the water, the oxygen level in the gas phase within the
column will decrease and therefore the oxygen transfer rate also decreases.
The required air flow rate can be determined by performing an oxygen mass balance
on the PCA. The only oxygen demand in the aerator is the transfer of oxygen into the
water. Therefore, the maximum amount of oxygen required (OR) can be estimated:
OR = Qw(C* -- Ci) X 10 -6 (8)
 P E R F O R M A N C E AND DESIGN OF PACKED COLUMN A E R A T I O N SYSTEMS 279

and therefore, the mass air flow calculated:

Qw(C* - C i )
rh - x 10 -6 (9)
0.230TE
since on a mass basis air is 23% oxygen.

Aerator performance
The performance of aeration devices is expressed in terms of the mass of oxygen
transferred per unit of energy expended (kg 02 kWh-l). The rate at which oxygen
transfer takes place is simply the product of the liquid flow rate and the change in
oxygen concentration which occurs within the column:
M = Qw(Co - Ci) × 10 -6 (10)
The required power is the sum of the power necessary to pump water (Ppump) up to
the aerator and the power used to supply air (Pair) t o the device.
Ignoring pipe frictional losses pumping power is calculated from the following
equation:

0'711 (11)
Ppump - E

The power requirement for the air blower is calculated using the formula for
adiabatic compression (Yunt, 1979):

Pair ne \\~-~]
The transfer efficiency of the aerator in kg 02 kWh-1 is equal to the mass of oxygen
transferred (eqn (10)) divided by the sum of the power inputs (eqn (11) + eqn (12)).
The results of oxygen transfer tests are reported at standard conditions of 20°C, and
a zero initial dissolved oxygen concentration. Results conducted under other con-
ditions are commonly converted to standard conditions using the following equation
(Metcalf & Eddy Inc., 1979):

N( 9 " 0 7 7 1
No = \C ~ Ci] (1 '024) `20 --Vw (13)

Equation (13) was developed from surface and submerged aeration systems. The
validity of this equation for the PCA needs to be confirmed. The mass transfer coeffi-
cient (K) which appears in eqn (7) can be corrected to 20°C by the following
equation:
K2o = Kr(1.024) 20 -Tx4 (14)
where K2o = transfer coefficient at 20°C and K T = transfer coefficient at Tw.
280 G.E. HACKNEY, J. E. COLT

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The packed column aerator

The PCA used for laboratory testing is shown schematically in Fig. 1. It consists
of five major components: the column, the flow distribution plate, the high surface
area media, the medium support and the flow collector.

Low D O Water - -

Air I A //~A/'r VentStack

PerforatedDistributPlate~.
ion ~ ~ Thinfilm of w~

High SurfaceArea
Packing

' ~ Aerated Water

I-
I I I

Fig. 1. Section through a packed column aerator.

Column: The 0-28 m diameter Plexiglass column was 0-98 m long. Transparent
Plexiglass was used in its construction to allow visual observations to be made during
testing. The column contains two 4-5 cm diameter air vents (or inlets) at its base (see
Fig. 1).

Flow distribution plate." Water was distributed over the top of the media using an
orifice distributor (800 holes m-2). The plate contained two 2.9 cm diameter air vent
stacks which terminated at the top of the flow distribution chamber. These stacks
allowed air ventilation of the PCA.
 PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN OF PACKED COLUMN AERATION SYSTEMS 281

High surface area packing." Norton Actifll ® plastic pall rings were used as the
column packing media. A photograph of the four sizes of media tested is shown in
Fig. 2 and the pertinent characteristics are presented in Table 1.

Fig. 2. Photograph of media used in testing.

TABLE 1
Packing characteristicsa

Product number Diameter (cm) Surface area (m 2/m3)b Pieces (m 3)

02-0160 2.54 207 50 894
02-0200 3-81 128 13 774
02-0240 5.08 102 6 357
02-0370 8.89 85 1 165

a Eckert (1979).
b Surface area of packing medium when randomly placed; values in Norton Co. product information
are sightly different.

Packing support: Large diameter holes were drilled in the support plate to reduce
resistance to water and air flow.

Flow collector: The flow collector was used to collect the aerated water for
dissolved oxygen measurement prior to discharge.
282 6 . E. H A C K N E Y , J. E. C O L T

Equipment
Dissolved oxygen and water temperature measurements were made with a Yellow
Springs Instruments Co. (YSI) Model 54 ABP dissolved oxygen meter. The meter was
equipped with a YSI Model 5739 pressure compensating DO probe and a Model
5791A submersible stirrer.
The dissolved oxygen meter was calibrated before each test run using a YSI 5075
calibration chamber and air saturation tables (Weiss, 1970). Atmospheric pressure
corrections were incorporated into all calibrations with barometer readings taken from
a standard laboratory mercury barometer. Water flows were measured with a point
gauge and V-notch weir.

Data reduction
The power requirements were computed from eqns ( 1 1 ) a n d (12)assuming an
overall efficiency for pumping and compressing equal to 80 and 70%, respectively. No
and K were converted to standard conditions using eqns (13) and (14), respectively.
Water temperatures ranged from 19.0 to 20-5°C.

Test procedures
Four separate tests were performed to determine: 1. minimum air flow require-
ments; 2. overall performance of the laboratory apparatus; 3. the relationship between
the driving force and oxygen transfer rate and 4. the relationship between oxygen
transfer and packing depth. Each of the four tests are described.

Minimum air flow requirements: A qualitative test was developed to determine the
region where air supply began to limit oxygen transfer. Norton 2.54 cm packing was
used. The hydraulic loading rate for the test was arbitrarily set at 111 m 3 m -2 h -1.

Performance of laboratory apparatus: The performance tests were conducted on a

l m PCA. Air flow through the aerator was held constant at the maximum rate of the
blower (0-4 m 3 min-l). The quantity of oxygen transferred by each packing size was
measured at hydraulic loading rates varying from 37 to 222 m 3 m -2 h -I.

Driving force effect: Using a 1 m column, 3-81 cm packing and three different
hydraulic loading rates (40, 111 and 215 m 3 m -2 h-l), the effect of the driving force
on oxygen transfer was determined. Initial DO levels were altered by aerating the
water in the holding tank prior to passing it through the PCA. The initial DO levels
in this test varied between 2-5 rag/liter and 8-3 mg/liter.

Effect of packing depth: Oxygen transfer was determined at depths o f 0-17, 0.27,
0-37, 0.60 and 1-00 m for the four packing sizes. Hydraulic loading varied between
40 and 220 m 3 m -2 h -1.
 PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN OF PACKED COLUMN A E R A T I O N SYSTEMS 283

RESULTS

Minimum air flow measurements

The results of the qualitative test designed to examine the effects of air flow rate
on oxygen transfer are reported in Fig. 3. At low air flows, oxygen transfer is reduced.
As the air flow rate is increased, the oxygen transfer rate increases sharply up to a gas-
liquid ratio (G/L) of 0.9 and then slowly approaches an asymptotic value.

Volumetric G/L Rotio

0 0.9 I.B 2.7 3.6
I 1 I

B -B

-- 7

I I I I 6
0 tO0 200 300 400
Air Flow Rotet t i l e r / m ; n
Fig. 3. Effluent dissolved oxygen level as f u n c t i o n of air flow rate.

Performance of laboratory apparatus

The oxygen transfer performance of the 1 m laboratory PCA as a function of
hydraulic loading is presented graphically in Fig. 4. In the computation o f pumping
power 0.3 m was added to the 1 m column height to account for inlet and outlet
conditions. The standard transfer efficiency (No) ranged from 1 to 2 kg 02 kWh-1. Of
284 G. E. HACKNEY, J. E. COLT

o I00 200 300 40(2

3, J I I 3

~2.54cm

5.08cm
B. 89cm
5. 81 cm

/ -

0 I I I 0
0 I00 2o0 300 4o0
Hydraulic Load/nO Rate, O, rn3/rn2 h

Fig. 4. The effect of hydraulic loading rate on N o.

the four packing sizes tested, the intermediate sizes (3.81 cm and 5.08 cm) had the
best oxygen transfer characteristics. The oxygen transfer rate of the smallest packing
size (2-54 cm) is the highest at low flows but begins to drop off at a hydraulic loading
rate of about 100 m 3 m -2 h -~. The oxygen transfer rate of the largest packing size
remains constant regardless of hydraulic loading but transfers substantially less
oxygen than the two intermediate sizes.

The effect of driving force on performance

The oxygen transfer rate of the PCA is directly proportional to the driving force,
C * - - C i (Fig. 5). At a given C * - - C i , the smaller media had the highest oxygen
transfer rate at the hydraulic loading rate tested (111 m ~ m -2 h-l).

Model tests
The oxygen transfer is a function of packing depth and surface area, hydraulic
loading rate and system coefficients (eqn (7)). The log deficit is presented as a
function Z, and Q for the 3.18 cm packing size in Fig. 6. Oxygen transfer in the PCA
 PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN OF PACKED COLUMN AERATION SYSTEMS 285

0 5 lO

0 O
0 5 IO
( C~- Ci ), mg/llter
Fig. 5. The effect of the driving force on N.

is found to be directly related to packing depth, but does not depend on Q. The same
relationship was found for the other packing sizes.
Because oxygen transfer did not depend on Q, eqn (7) was simplified to:

( C*-Ci I
In \ C ~ _ C o / = b + KZ (15)

where b = a dimensionless constant that depends on incidental aeration that occurs

prior to water entering the PCA and K = a constant representing the gas transfer char-
acteristics of a particular PCA and packing in m -1.
Values of K for each media size are presented in Fig. 7. The values of K shown have
been adjusted to 20°C.
Except for the 2.54 cm packing, the value of K is constant. While b is a function
of Q to a slight extent (Fig. 8) a value of 0.4 can be used for design purposes. K is
a direct function of the specific surface area of the packing tested. The regression
equation is equal to:

K = 0.30 + 0.O109A s regression coefficient = 0.97 (16)

where A s = specific surface area of the medium in m 2 m -3.

286 G . E. H A C K N E Y , J. E. C O L T

~ tN

~5
.g
=
o

~5

~s

I I

I
~5
 P E R F O R M A N C E AND DESIGN OF PACKED COLUMN A E R A T I O N SYSTEMS 287

0 50 1<90 150 200

3 I I I I

2-

o
" o ~r.OScm ~ =
l
\
÷ .~
* 8.89cm
/ -

=~ 2. 54cm
o 3.81 cm
A 5.08cm
--÷-- 8.89cm

0 I I 1 I
0 50 I00 150 20O
Hydraulic Loading Rate O, mJ/m2h
Fig. 7. The effect o f hydraulic loading rate on K.

0 50 I00 150 200

1.0 I I I I 1.0

#=0.29+0.0009030~ o

•~ 0 . 5 o 0.5
o
o o o
o u
o o

0 I I I 1
0 50 I00 150 200
H~,drau/tc Loading R a t e , Q, rrfl/rrflh
Fig. 8. The effect o f hydraulic loading rate on b.
288 G . E . H A C K N E Y , J. E. C O L T

Substituting 0.4 for b and eqn (17) for K in eqn (16) yields:

ln(C*--Cit
\ ~ - - ~ o t = 0-4 + (0.30 + 0.0109As)Z (17)

Equation (17) is based on the packing media tested in this work and should not be
applied to other types of packing directly.

DISCUSSION

The PCA is a highly efficient aerator. The standard oxygen transfer efficiency (No)
ranges from 1-5 to 2.0 kg 02 kWh-a (Fig. 4). If 1-2 m of head is available, No may be
as high as 83 kg 02 kWh-1. In this case, the only power requirement would be for the
fans.

Airflow
Air flow through the column has a significant effect on the performance of the
PCA. Below a G/L ratio of 0.9 (Fig. 3), the PCA performs poorly. Maximum G/L
ratios can be computed from eqns (9) and (10). Assuming that OTE = 0.01, Ci = 0
and T = 20°C, the G/L ratio is equal to 3.3. Because of the low head losses through the
column, fans can be used rather than blowers. In design of the air system, care is neces-
sary to prevent short-circuiting. If an orifice system (Fig. 1) is used, exhaust fans can
be mounted on the upper air vent stack. A counter-current air flow is more desirable
than a co-current flow. A G/L ratio of 3 should be used for design purposes.

Hydraulic loading
As the hydraulic loading rate increases, the air head losses (Ap) increase until at
some point the column floods. The drop in performance of the 2.54 cm packing is
probably the result of air flow restrictions and flooding. For the packing tested, flood-
ing occurs at a gas head loss of APf = 1.63 kPa m-I (2.0 in of water per foot of media)
(Zenz, 1979). In the chemical industry, packed columns are commonly designed for a
maximum loss equal to 0-75 APf. Using the specific pressure drop data presented by
Norton Co. (1977) or generalized pressure drop correlations (Coulson et al., 1978;
Zenz, 1979), the maximum design loading is estimated to range from 150 m 3 m-2 h-1
for the 2.54 cm packing to >340 m 3 m -2 h -1 for the 8-89 cm packing. These loading
rates are based on AP = 0-75 APf and G/L = 3. Hydraulic loading rates above 220 m 3
m -2 h -1 were not tested because of pumping limitations.

Column diameter
The size of the column will depend on the packing size (Norton Co., 1977) and the
type of distribution system. Poor distribution of the liquid and flow down the side-
walls decrease the performance of the PCA. These two effects are reduced in larger
 PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN OF PACKED COLUMN AERATION SYSTEMS 289

columns. Column diameters for full-scale units should be larger than eight times the
packing diameter (Coulson et al., 1978). In the chemical industry, distributors are
designed to apply the liquid to the surface of the packing at a minimum o f 45 points
per m 2 (Eckert, 1979). Because of smaller column diameters and column heights in
aquaculture, more distribution points are desirable. The distribution plate used in this
experiment had 800 points/m 2. Additional information on the design of distributor
and media support plates is presented by Coulson et al. (1978), Eckert (1979) and
Norton Co. (1978).

Verified oxygen transfer rate equation

The driving force tests verified that the oxygen transfer rate is proportional to the
driving force, C * - - C i . Therefore, the performance under field conditions can be
computed from eqn (13) after solving for N:

[ C * -- Ci~
N = N O~ ~ 1"024 (Tw-20) (I 8)

The 1-024 (Tw-2°) correction for eqns (13), (14) and (18) was developed from work on
surface and submerged aerators in the wastewater field (Hunter, 1979). The effects of
temperature on oxygen transfer in the PCA need to be evaluated.
For the three largest packing sizes tested, the following mass transfer equation may
be used:

(C*:Cil=
ln\c,_Co ! 0.4 + KZ (19)

The values of K are listed in Table 2. While the value of K decreases as the size of the
packing increases, the maximum hydraulic loading rate also increases. The relative cost
of the smaller packing sizes is greater than the increase in their performance (Table 2).

TABLE 2
Recommended design parameters for packed column aerators
Media K at 20°C Recommended Maximum Minimum Relative
size (m- ~) loading loading column cost of
(cmJ (m3/m 2h) (m3/m 2hJ diameter {m) pack

2-54 2.50 100 150 0.2 4.0

3-81 1-71 220a 300 0.3 2-4
5.03 1.58 220a > 340 0-4 2.0
8.89 1.05 220a > 340 0.7 1-0
a Highest loading rate tested.
Note: m3/m~h × 0.4090 = gallons/fl ~min.
290 G. E. HACKNEY, J. E. COLT

Except for the 2-54 cm packing, the oxygen transfer characteristics of the PCA
does not depend on Q, the hydraulic loading rate. The log deficit term (eqn (4)) is
equal to (KLa)t. Because KLa ~ QO.VS (Coulson et al., 1978)and t ~ Q-O.vs (Ecken-
felder and Barnhart, 1963), the transfer characteristics o f the PCA should be inde-
pendent of Q up to the point that the column floods.
The PCA has been used for air transfer in dissolved air flotation (Bratby and Marais,
1975) and removal of supersaturated nitrogen gas in hatcheries (Owstey, 1981). For
nitrogen transfer the mass transfer model is modified to:

in \ ~ 1 = 4(0.4 + KZ) (20)

where q5 = (KLa)N2/(KLa)o2.
Experimental values for q5 range from 0.89 to 1.16 (Bilstad and Lightfoot, 1980;
Speece & Humenick, 1973). The values of C* for n i t r o g e n + argon can be obtained
from Weiss (1970). For nitrogen + argon removal a G / L ratio o f 3 will be adequate. If
it is necessary to remove nitrogen + argon and add oxygen, a G / L o f 5 should be used.
Analytical procedures for dissolved gas supersaturation have been reviewed by
D'Aoust and Clark (1980) and Weitkamp and Katz (1980). For degassing applications,
the PCA would have to be designed on a A P or total gas pressure basis (Colt, 1982).

CONCLUSION

The PCA is a highly efficient aerator that has potential in aquaculture for both oxygen
transfer and nitrogen removal. How the devices are used in actual installations is up to
the imagination of the designer. Two alternative design calculations are presented in
the appendix.

REFERENCES

Bilstad, T. & Lightfoot, E. N. (1980). Predicting oxygen and nitrogen adsorption rates from sub-
merged suspensions of gas bubbles. Prog. Water Tech., 12 (6), 23-35.
Bratby, J. & Marais, G. V. R. (1975). Saturator performance in dissolved-air (pressure) flotation.
Water Res., 9, 929-36.
Colt, J. E. (1982). The computation and reporting of dissolved gas levels. War. Res., in press.
Colt, J. & Westers, H. (1982). Production of gas bubble disease by aeration. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.,
111,342-60.
Colt, J. E. & Tchobanoglous, G. (1981). Design of aeration systems for aquaculture. In: Proceed-
ings of the Bioengineering Symposium for Fish Culture, eds L. J. Aliens & E. C. Kinney, Fish
Culture Section of the American Fisheries Society and the Northeast Society of Conservation
Engineers, Bethesda, Maryland, pp. 138-48.
Coulson, J. M., Richardson, J. F., Backhurst, J. R. & Harker, J. H. (1978). ChemicalEngineering,
3rd edn, vol. 2, Pergamon, Oxford.
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D'Aoust, B. G. & Clark, M. J. R. (1980). Analysis of supersaturated air in natural water and reser-
voirs. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 109, 708-24.
Eckenfelder, Jr., W. W. & Barnhardt, E. L. (1963). Performance of a high rate trickling filter using
selected media../. Wat. Poll. Contr. Fed., 35, 1535-51.
Eckert, J. S. (1979). Design of packed columns. In: tlandbook of Separation Techniques for
Chemical Engineers, ed. P. A. Schweitzer, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 1-221-1-253.
Hunter, J. S. III (1979). Accounting for the effects of water temperature in aerator test proce-
dures. In: Proceedings: Workshop Toward an Oxygen Transfer Standard, EPA-600/9-78-021,
ed. W. C. Boyle, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 85-9.
Lewis, W. K. & Whitman, W. C. (1924). Principles of gas adsorption. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 16,
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Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (t979). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal. Reuse, 2nd edn,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Norton Co. (1977). Design informance for packed towers. Bulletin DC-11, Akron, Ohio.
Norton Co. (1978). Packed tower internals. Bulletin TA-8OR, Akron, Ohio.
Owsley, D. E. (1981). Nitrogen gas removal using packed columns. In: Proceedings of the Bio-
engineering Symposium ]or Fish Culture, eds L. J. Allen & E. C. Kinney, Fish Culture Section
of the American Fisheries Society and the Northeast Society of Conservation Engineers,
Bethesda, Maryland, pp. 71-82.
Speece, R. E. & ttumenick, M. J. (1973). Carbon dioxide stripping from oxygen activated sludge
systems. J. Wat. Poll. Contr. Fed., 45,412-23.
Weast, R. C. (ed.) (1974). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio.
Weiss, R. F. (1970). The solubility of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon in water and sea water. Deep-
Sea Res., 17, 721-35.
Weitkamp, D. E. & Katz, M. (1980). A review of dissolved gas supersaturation literature. Trans.
Am. Fish. Sot., 109, 659-702.
Yunt, F. W. (1979). Gas flows and power measurement. In: Proceedings of Workshop Towardan
Oxygen Transfer Standard, EPA-600/9-78-021, ed. W. C. Boyle, US Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 105-27.
Zenz, F. A. (1979). Design of gas absorption towers. In: Handbook of Separation Techniques for
Chemical Engineers, ed. P. A. Schweitzer, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 3-49-3-108.

APPENDIX - DESIGN EXAMPLES

Examples of PCA installation

Two possible full-scale PCA configurations are shown in Figs A1 and A2. Both
examples are intended for a raceway system. Where Fig. A1 illustrates no elevation
between raceway, while Fig. A2 shows a 0-6 m drop between each raceway.

Design data
Average flow rate = 306 m 3 h -1
Influent DO level, C i = 6 mg/liter
Water temperature = 10°C
Air temperature = 20°C
Atmospheric pressure = 1 atm = 101-325 kPa
Desired DO level, Co = 10 mg/liter
Air saturation DO level at 10°C = 11.28 mg/liter
Norton 3.81 cm media is to be used
G/L = 3
292 G . E . HACKNEY, J. E. COLT

Vents 8 Fans
PerforatedDistribut/on
Plate
~ J ~ f - - ~ Fib*rglass Column

IT m,
1.15m0.75m
".JI
/ /
[ ~ Perforated Support Plate

T~
RACE WAY RACE WAY
Pump.SUbmersible

Fig. A1. PCA in horizontalraceway.

~Air Vents8 Fans

/ / sPsrforotedDistribution
Plots

~ 0~ Fiberglass
Column
055m ,,, ~ ,~roT, o

, 1 ~..em j , II
-JaI ~ Perforated
SupportPlate
Pump
T
RACEWAY

/
Fig. A2. PCA in dropped raceway.

Design basis
1. Determine the value of K to be used:
(a) From Table 2, K = 1.71 at 20°C;
(b) Applying eqn (14),Klo = 1-35.
2. Determine Z, the required packing medium depth using eqn (15):

In \ ~ - ~ o / - 0-4 + KZ
 P E R F O R M A N C E A N D DESIGN O F P A C K E D C O L U M N A E R A T I O N SYSTEMS 293

gives:

Z = 0-75m

3. Determine the application area required based on a hydraulic loading rate of

220 m 3 m -2 h -1.

3 0 6 m 3 h -l
Area= =1.39m 2
220 m 3 m -2 h -1

Diameter ~> 1.3 m

4. Determine power requirements for the device.

(a) Hydraulic power:
Note: the amount of lift required to transport water from one raceway to
another is different in the two examples. (See Figs A1 and A2.)
(i) Hydraulic power requirement for horizontal raceways (Fig. A1).

Q'TH
p-
E
H = Z + (inlet and outlet condition)

= 0 . 7 5 m + 0 . 4 m = 1-15m

Therefore:

0.085(m 3 s-1) x 9.80(kN m -3) x 1-15(m)

p=
0-8

= 1.20 kW

(ii) Similarly for dropped raceways (Fig. A2).

P = 0-57 kW

where

H = 0-55 m

(b) Air blower power:

(i) Air requirements using G/L = 3 gives:
G = 918 m 3 h -1

and
(rh ) = Qapa
= 0.31 kg s-1
294 G. E. HACKNEY, J. E. COLT

(ii) Air pressure drop through the column. Allowing for 0.124kPa head
losses at distribution and packing support plate, and using data from
Norton Co. (1977) for pressure drop per metre depth of packing.
Then
A p = 0.490 kPa/m

and therefore

= 0.49 x 0.75
= 0.367 kPa
overall
AP = 0-367 kPa + 0.124 kPa = 0-491 kPa

(iii) Adiabatic compression using eqn (12); with Pl = 101.325kPa and

P2 = 101-816kPa, then air blower power is:
P = 0.18 kW

(c) Total power required

Ptotal = P p u m p nt- Pair

(i) Total power required for horizontal raceways

Ptotal = 1.20 kW + 0.18 kW = 1.38 kW

(ii) Total power required for dropped raceways

Ptotal = 0.57 kW + 0.18 kW = 0.75 kW

5. Using eqn (8), oxygen transfer rate:

M = 1-22 kg O2h -1

6. Determine aerator field performance, N

N = M/P

(a) In horizontal raceways:

N = 0.88 kg 02 kwh -1

(b) In dropped raceways:

N = 1.63 kg O2 kwh -1
7. Determine aerator performance at standard conditions, No, using eqn (14)
(a) In horizontal raceways:
No = 1.95 kg Oz kwh -1
(b) In dropped raceways:
 PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN OF PACKED COLUMN AERATION SYSTEMS 295

No = 3-61 kg O 2 k W h -1

8. Compare the PCA performance with a more conventional aerator to assess its
feasibility.
Standard performance ratings for surface aerators range from 1.2 to 2.4kg
02 kWh-1 (Colt and Tchobanoglous, 1981). The performance of the PCA in the
horizontal raceways is near the upper performance limits of surface aerators but
installed in the dropped raceways, its performance is almost twice that of surface
aerators. If the raceways were constructed with a 1-2 m (4 ft) drop, the transfer
efficiency, No, would be 15 kg 02 kwh -1. Depending on the hydraulic loading
rate (and therefore AP), No may range from 10 to 80 kg OzkWh -1 when an
adequate hydraulic head is available.