10 20 24 244 212 243 22 224 222 223 23 234 232 30 40 4a 42 50 54 52 521 522 523 53 60 64 62 63 70 80 CONTENTS: Introduction Materials used and method of Construction Earth & Gravel Roads Selected soil topping for earth roads Intermediate layer for gravel roads Gravel surfacing Bitumen surfaced roads Subbase and Capping layer Base Surfacing Concrete roads ‘Subbase Pavement Quality Concrete Road Shoulders Drainae Surface drainage Internal Drainage of pervious pavement layers Design paremeters Subgrade strength Traffic General Growth rate Design lite Estimating the cumulative number of standard axles Recommended methods of design Earth and Gravel Roads Flexible roads Pavement Design of Concrete Roads Stage construction Reference PAGE see eee No oe 10 10 " " " 2 12 13 19 19 2FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURES Earth and gravel roads Flexible pavement Rigio pavement ‘Capping layer and three types of subgrades Climatic Zones and provincial boundaries of Sri Lanka Pavement cross-sections of bitumen roads with normal ‘width shoulders (2 1.5m) Design thickness charts for concrete road siabsCHART CHART CHART APPENDIX APPENDIX 1 " CHARTS & APPENDICES Single sized aggregate base/bituminous applications Granular Base/Double Bituminous Surface Treatment and ‘Sand Seal (Surface dressing - SD) Granular Base/Asphait Conerete Surfacing Bitumen Bound Base/Double Bituminous Surface Treatment and Sand Seal (Surface Dressing - SD) Construction of Slurry Seals by manual methods Factors for converting numbers of axles to the equi Number of standard 80 kN(18000 Ib) axles Str gt eenesth PAGE 5 16 7 8 23ee enon hn cE EE A GUIDE TO THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ROADS UNDER SRI LANKAN CONDITIONS. ROAD DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY SRI LANKA 19 INTRODUCTION ‘The design of highway pavements includes a study of soils, paving materials and their behaviour under traffic Hoads for all climatic concitions ‘There are vo types of highway pavements viz, flexible pavement and rigid pavement, A flexible pavement consists of thin surfacing built over a base course and subbase course resting upon a compacted sutygrade with the highest qealty materials at or near the surface. Earth and gravel roads are the most rudimentary forms of flexible ‘pavements. In contrast, the rigid pavement is made of Portland cement concrete and may or may not have a subbase course between the pavement and the subgrade. Almost all roads in Sri Lanka are of flexible type, the only ‘exceptions being a few concrete bus bays and set stone pavements in some towns, and recently a few sections of roller compacted concrete Flexible pavements distribute loads applied on them progressively over large areas as they are transmitted through ‘each course. The concept of the design is to adopt a sufficient thickness of construction so that the load intensity at ‘e subgrade level is less than its bearing capacity. The deterioration of road pavements caused by traffic restlts ‘om mainly the magnitude of the wheel loads and the number of times these loads are applied. Therefore a flexible ‘Bevement roquires a sufficient thickness of construction over the subgrade commensurate with the axle loads, the ‘otal number of passes of these axles and the strength of the subgrade, Design of the pavement structure is worked ‘out based on the volume of heavy vehicular traffic during the design period of life of the pavement and the design ‘strength of the subgrade soil normally indicated by California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Generally, drainage should also beddesigned together with the pavement structure ‘Presently pevement design methods define traffic in terms of the number of SOKN (18,000 Ib) axles called standard sacle to be carried during the “design life” of the road. This enables the current design methods to be used to design evens of widely varying ade load distributions 1 also gives us pester lexibiity in selecting the design ie of pavement Pavement design as practiced in Sri Lanka unl the last few decades has been mainly based on rule-of-thumb ‘Procedures adopting traditional techniques of construction However during the last three decades the then Department of Highways and now the Road Development Authority (RDA) have gradually moved into realistic Pavement design procedures, using selective techniques of construction, based on scientific investigations Particularly on projects where adequate funds have been made available ‘The components of the pavements for () Ean and Gravel roads (i) Flexible (bitumen surfaced) pavements an (ii) ‘Seid pavements (iv) capping layer and three types of subgrades are given in Figures 1, 2,3 & 4 respectively. ‘The design of earth and gravel roads is as given in Mallawaratchie (1993) and as described in this Guide. ‘Til recently flexible (bitumen surfaced) pavement designs under Sri Lankan conditions had been carried Sut using Transport & Road Research Laboratory, United Kingdom Road Note 31 of 1977(RN 31-1977) ‘The present method of design, is based on the present Transport Research Laboratory method (RN31- 4983) but modified to suit I2cal conditions. The method covers roads carrying traffic up to 30 milion Standard axles (msa) during the design period. ‘The design of rigid pavements is carried out as per Millard (1993), ‘The designs are discussed in the ensuing sections. | | |CAMBER = 5% | CROSSFALL A Hy EMBANKMENT FILLING A~ EARTH ROADS SHOULDER ‘SHOULDER: YERSE CARRIAGE WAY YERGG $ -——— ¢ROSSFALL, ae CAMBER * 5% GRAVEL _SURFaciNG INTERMEDIATE LAYER IF REQUIRED te EMBANKMENT FILLING B- GRAVEL ROADS Figure | EARTH AND GRAVEL ROADSSHOULDER SHOULDER VERGE CARRIAGE WAY ERG} PAVEMENT ‘SURFACING ‘CROSSFALL t AMBER FORMATION LEVEL COMPACTEQ SUBGRADE Wz EMBANKMENT FILLING Figure 2. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT SHOULDER ‘SHOULDER MERGE. + _CARRIAGE WAY VERGE [a PAVEMENT | & CROSSFALL * CAMBER oe \ 15% 2 SUBBASE EMBANKMENT FILLING PQC ~ Pavement Quality Concrete Figure 3 RIGID PAVEMENT CUTTING \ CAPPING LAYER (Selected or improved ‘Subgrade) REMOVAL OF TOP SOIL ‘S eeeern eh 3) SUBGRADE (2) SUBGRADE (1) SUBGRADE Figure 4 CAPPING LAYER AND THREE TYPES OF SUBGRADES FILLING2.0 MATERIALS USED AND METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 21 Barth & Gravel Roads ‘The materials used and the method of construction of various layers are briefly described below. 2.1.1 Selected soil topping for earth roads Gravelly and sandy soils with a litle clay, whose maximum dry density when compacted under standard conditions ‘of compaction is not less than 1650 kyyin® and whose Liquid Limit (LL) and Plasticity Index (PI) are 40 and between 4 & 15 respectively for wel and Intermediate zones and LL. and PI are 50 and between 6 & 25 respectively for dry zone may be used as soil topping for earth roads. These climatic 2ones are given in Figure 5. The sol should bbe compacted 10 100% of the maxinmm dry density obtained in the laboratory when compacted under standard conditions of compaction, 2.1.2 Intermediate layer for gravel ronds Gravelly and sandy soils whose California Bearing Ratios (CBR) under 4-day soaked conditions when compacted to 100% maximum dry density under standard conditions of compaction, is not les than 8 with plasticity characteristics as for selected soil topping for earth roads may be used for intermediate layers for gravel roads. The intermediate layer must be compacted to 100% of the maximum dry density obtained in the laboratory when compacted under standard conditions of compacti 213 Gravel surfacing For surfacing: cf gravel roads well graded gravely soil with a litle clay and plasticity characteristics as for selected soil ‘topping for earth roads and CBR. valve not less than 20 at the density and moisture conditions as for the intermediate layer for gravel roads and as specified in section 1708.5 of the RDA Standard Specifications for Construction and ‘Maintenance of Roads and Bridges (SSCM) may be used. The method of construction shall be as givem in section 601 of ‘the standard specifications. (SSCM). 22 Bitumen Surfaced Roads ‘The materials used and the method of construction for various layers are described briefly below. The compaction and ‘other requirements for (1) low to medium trafficked roads carrying less than 6.0 msa (T<6 msa) and (IT) for highly ‘trafficked reads exceeding 6.0 ma (T>6 msa), are given in (D the SSCM (1989) and (HI) the Amendments (1999) tothe 'SSCM (1989) for such trafficked roads, respectively 221 Subbase and Capping Layer Soil and stabilized soil as specified in sections 401 and 402 of the SSCM may be used for subbase. The material ‘eurmecs fox ol aba oe given i eb secon 1796.2 of he SSC ‘Two types of soil subbases, Type I and ‘Twpe II are specified for use. The soil subbase Type I" may Be considered as the soil subbase proper while the soil subbase Typ? Il may be considered as the capping layer. The soil subbase Type should have a minimum CBR of 20% atthe designated conditions of moisture content and density and isto be used for the top layer of the subbase. ‘For the lower layers of the soil subbase (capping layer) Type II may be used which should have a minizwum CBR of 8% at the designated conditions of moisture content and density. It should be noted that a soil subbase Type Il ‘material is specified for the lower layers of subbase (capping layer) as naturally occurring soil conforming to type 1 ssubbase is scarce in most parts of the country. For both types of subbases the liquid limit and plasticity index should not exceed 40 and 15 respectively. ‘The Amendments (1999) to the SSCM(1989) specify 2 soil subbase Type I- Special having a minimum CBR of 30% under the designated conditions of moisture content and density particularly for use in highly trafficked roads exceeding 6. msa for the design life. In this case, soil subbase (capping layer-special) Type II-Special having a ‘minimum CBR of 1S can be used for the lower layer of the subbase In the case of lime and cement stabilized soil subbases the requirements of the soil to be stabilized are given in sections 1708.3 and 1708.4 of the amended standard specifications for construction and maintenance of roads and ‘bridges (SSCM), As regards strength, 2 minimum CBR of 30% for low and medium trafficked roads carrying less ‘than 6.0 msa, is specified and hipher strengths are optional, For T>6msa unconfined| compressive strength of 0.75 t0 1,5Mpa,A8 specified for stabilised subbases in the Amendments (1999) to the SSCM (1989) (6 Wiley Spomded Palas)(ZZ ory Zone g Intermediate © ==] dete Wet Zone ---- Provincial Boundaries North Eastern, (North) L250 eX a rovince , [ y_Provinee 7 Ce MATARA Figure 5 Climatic Zones and Provincial Boundaries of Sri Lanka222 Base ‘The five types of bases, which are given in sections 402-406 of the SSCM. may be adopted for the base, These include (i) rock agerégate bases, 404 Water/Dry Bound Macadam Bases (WBM/DBM) and 405 Dense Graded Aggregate Base (DGAB) 406, (i) Bitumen Bound Bases and (ii) 402 Stabilized Soil Bases. ‘The latter ray be used for roads carrying low to medium volume of traffic not exceeding 6.0 million standard axles ((aisa), The mazerial requirements are given in sub sections 1701.3 (for aggregate) and 1708.3 and 1708.4 (for stabilized soil) of the SCM. For T>6msa compressive strengths of 1.5 to 3.0 and 3.0 to 6 9MPa, are specified for stabilised subbases in the Amendments (1999) to the SSCM (1989) ‘The single sized aggregate base given in section 403 of the SSCM along with a surfacing of Ist coat and 2nd coat hot bitumen applications as given in para 1 of section 2.2.3 is a traditional method of construction adopted in the country over a long period of time but this is recommended only for roads carrying low volunes of traffic not exceeding, 0.3 msa for the design life ‘When emulsion was used for Ist coat and 2nd coat surface applications, it was found that due to lower viscosity of cmulsion when compared to penetration grade bitumen, the ermulsion tended to penetrate through the surface leaving a small amount of binder at the surface for binding causing failures of the base cum surfacing This problem has been solved by using a more closely graded base material called "blended aggregate” produced by rising by volume, 7 parts of 27.5mm (or 4 parts of 37.5mm and 3 parts of 25mm) aggregate and 2.10 parts of 19mm aggregate ard choking the surface interstices with 1.15 parts of 12.Smm aggregate by volume in the same way, as for the construction of single sized aggregate base as given in section 403 of the SSCM. The thickness of cach layer can vary from 75 to 10mm. Blended aggregate bases can be used for traffic levels of 0.7 msa for which up to 175mm thicknesses are required. In these cases, the bottom layer is constructed by mixing all threc aggregates, without using 12.5mm aggregete for choking and the choking is done only in the top layer. Penetration Macadam bases given in section 407 of the SSCM are normally not recommended for use, as these bases are very cosly. ‘The rock aggregate used for tases should have an Aggregate Impact Value not greater than 30% and a Flakiness Index not greater than 35%. The grading requirements of the aggregate forthe different types of bases are given in Tables 1701.4, 1701.5, 1701.6 and 1701.7 of the SSCM. As regards strength of stabilized soil bases a minimum CBR of 80% is specified, for roads carrying less than 6,0 million standard axles. 223 Surfacing For single sized aggregate bases, Ist coat and 2nd coat hot bitumen applications as specified in soction 505 of the SSCM fare to be used as the surfacing. For blended aggregate bases. Cationic Rapid Sesting bitumen emulsion of the (CRS-1) type at the raies of 3 to 4 Um" for the Ist coat and 1 Vim* for the 2nd coat have to be used for the binder applications. For other types of bases, seal coat treatments (surface dressings) locally known as Single or Double Bitumen Surface ‘Treaiments (SBST, DBST) as specified in section 505 of the SSCM or asphaltic concrete as specified in section 506 of the SSCM may be used as the surfacing. For double seal coat treatments the 2nd method using CRS-2 bituminous emulsion and 19.¢ram aggregate for the Ist seal and 9.5mm aggregate for the 2nd seal as given in section $05 of the SSCM are recommended. Seal coat treatments should always be covered with a sand seal as given in section $04 of the SSCM in order to minimize the whip €ff of ageregate chips Allematvely for better surface texture, Single Seal Coat Treatments using CRS-2 emulsion aid 12.5 mm Single Sized aggregate covered by a sand seal and a slurry seal manually constructed as given in Appendix I is recommended as a surfacing, If slurry sealing ‘machines are available, slury seals can be constructed as per ASTM D ~ 3910-84 For rock aggregate used for seal coat treatments and asphaltic concrete, in addition to the strength and shape requiremen's (as specified for bases) the Los Angeles Abrasion Value should not exceed 40% The grading requizemenss of aggregate used for seal coat treatments are given in Table 1701-8 ofthe SSCM. For asphaltic concrete, the Marshall mix design method is adopted. The asphalt concrete surfacings. a8 specified in section 505 of the SSCM, may consist ofa binder course and a wearing course ora wearing course only, and the mix requirements are specified for tree levels of trafic 6or SER SELES es 0 23 Conerete roads 23.1 Subbase ‘The subbases given for bitumen surfaced roads may also be used for subbases for concrete roads, 232 Pavement Quality Conerete Pavement Quality Concrete Pavements of compressive strength 42N/mmi at 28 days, constructed either by using convention! poker and beam. vibrators or by way of roller compactors may be used for such work. For more details please see section 6.3 of this Gui 3.0 ROAD SHOULDERS The road shoulders (Please soe Figure 1.2 & 3) are an important part of the road pavement structure. The road shoulders provide lateral support to the pavement structure and should be able to carry occasional vehicles. The ‘material usod for shoulders should be as cohesive as possible without being too weak when wet. Road shoulders have generally been constructed in the past using soil with @ minimum CBR value of 20 at the designated conditions of moisture content and density, and the grading requirements and plasticity characteristics as given in section 1708.5 ofthe SSCM and also under gravel surfacings in section 2.1.3 ofthis Guide However these gravelly soil shoulders have not performed satisfactorily over the years particularly due to eresion Many other types of road shoulder construction have since been tied out. Primed and sand sealed gravelly road shoulders have performed somesshat satisfactorily. However these too are not suitable if vehicles regularly use the road shoulders and if heavy vehicles are often parked thereon, Regular maintenance of these primed and sand sealed shoulders may help to overcome this problem. Road shoulders consisting of 150mm subbase type 1 SSBI (CBR 20+), and cither a 150mm Single Sized Aggregate Base (SSAB) and Ist and 2nd coat penetration grade bitumen surface application or a 150mm Blended Ageregate Base and Isi and 2nd coat bitumen emulsion surface application, are recommended for adoption. AMtematively a 150mm subbase type I SSBI (CBR 20+), a prime coat. and a tack cat (if found necessary) and a 7Smm cold mix surfacing prepared using either bitumen emulsion or cutback bitumen could also be adopted. If bitumen surfaced shoulders can not be adapted due to budgetary constrains, itis recommended that the shoulders be grassed. However grassed shoulders have certain disadvantages. Skid resistance on grassed shoulders is low especially when wet. Also with time, grassed shoulders end up above the level ofthe carriageway through accumulation of dust and growth of grass causing the formation of erosion gullies at the boundary of the shoulder and the carriageway especially alung curves and stcep slopes. Grassed shoulders if adopted should be maintained regularly to prevent as far as possible the above disadvantages ‘The compaction and other requirements for shoulders on highly trafficked roads carrying greater than 6msa are given inthe mendinents (1999) tothe SSCM (1989) : Pomvely Dost eo spor 6 Hfslt 4.0 DRAINAGE 4.1 Sucface Drainage Proper drainage is one of the most important aspects of a road pavement. Road pavements must be constructed to the required crossfal] and the slioulders properly maintained to ensure min water felling on the road will be shed harmlessly to the side drains. Side drains, cross drainage structures and Jeadaway drains too not only must be property designed to cope with the discharge but also well maintained throughout the year, For the drainage ‘condition to be satisfactory it is generally considered that the normal flood levels should not rise higher than ‘600mm below the road formation levelSted fe tla 9 4.2 Internal Drainage of pervious pavement layers ‘The main cases to be consdered ae as follows: 1, Pervious base - impervious subbase Jn Sri Lanta, almost all roads are constructed with permeable crushed stone bases ia "trencn” type of cross-section where the pavement layers ae confined between impermeable (gravelly soil with clay) shoulders. In these cass iti imperative ‘that pavement drainage should be provided. ‘It would be ideal to extend base and subbase across the shoulders. However, except for nazrow shoulders, this solution is extremely costly (soe pavement cross-section B in Figure 6), IF itis to0 costly to extend the roadbase and subbase material across the shoulder, drainage channels at 3m to Sin {intervals should be cut through the shoulder to a depth of 50mm below subbase level. These channels should be back filled with material of roacbase quality but which is more permeable tham the roadbase itselé Alleratively a continnous drainage layer of pervious matcrial of atleast 75mm thickness cam be laid under the shoulder such thatthe bottom of the drainage leyeris a the level of the top of the subbase. (see pavement cross-section D in Figure 6). The latter is by far the better of the two alternatives. 2. Pervious base pervious subbase Although costly, the only effective solution is to extend the subbase across the shoulders tothe drainage ditches (see pavement cross section C and Ein Figure 6), 3. Impervious base Provided that the shoulders are sufficiently impervious and the joint between base and shoulder is properly sealed, {intemal drainage should not be necessary. (see pavement cross sections A in Figure 6). However, if this can not be assured then drainage must be considered In case (1) and (2) above, it is essential thatthe surfaces ofthe subbase and the drainage layer be given a crossfall of 1 in 10 to ensure the egress of water under any circumstances. In the case of a superclevated section, the drainage layer should be omitted on the upper side Note: Longitudinal pipe-drains may also be used, but their cost is such that they will be justified only along urban sections where the pavement is confined between footpaths. 5.0 DESIGN PARAMETERS ‘The design parameters used inthis method of design are the subgrade strength and traffic volume, SA Subgrade strength ‘The subgrade soil strength is ueasured by its CBR value, Flexibility is available to the designer to carry out the CBR test at the dry density and moisture content of his choice. Usually the dry density is selected to simulate the conditions corresponding to the minimum degree of compaction and the worst moisture content likely in the field. ‘The dry density sclected depends on the compaction specifications adhered to, while the moisture content selected depends on climate and drainage controls adopted, For low to medium trafficked roads or highly trafficked roads the subgrade is generally expected to be compacted to 100% of maximum dry density under ASTM(S.5 Ib rammer) or BS(Light-2 Skg rammer) standard conditions of compaction or 95% of maximum dry density under ASTM (10 Ib raaumer) or BS (Heavy-4.5 kg rammer) Modified conditions of compaction, respectively. Therefore to simulate these conditions itis suggested that the CBR test be carried out on a sample compacted to these densities, As regards drainage, most surfacings provided in Sri Lanka are generally thin and permeable and they do not as rule always seal the pavement against the ingress of water. Also the shoulders are usually not well maintained to the required caraber and level thus leading to pavement edge failure and this results in surface water readily percolating into the subyrade through these damaged edges. {In terms of climate Sri Lanka can be divided into the wet, intermediate and dry zones depending on the rainfall (See Figure 5). The central hill country and the south western sector receive the highest rainfall in excess of 2000 mm per year ‘with a maximum of 000 mm per year. The dry zone normally receives less than about 1250 mm per year with a ‘minimum of about 900 mm per year and the intermediate zone receives between 1250 mm and 2000 mm. The relative 8290-2007 sone sel ey “impervious Bose L impervious snouler _suvvose | TYPE A ~ Impervious Bose and Impervious Shoulder | Heavy Prime “Pervious Bose ‘Impervious $ubbose TYPE B- Extended Pervious Bose and Impervious Subbase 200-390mm cage sect ee i Lperoe ease L impervious shouser \__Pervious Subbase TYPE C- Pervious Base, Extended Pervious Subbose and Impervious Shoulder 200-300 mm e Seal ace oT i OL eo stent rm tb thn thnk solder Othe NS ERE i | LPervious Bose | impervious Shoulder |_ |'5m)‘humidity ia the wet and intermediate zones generelly varies from about 80% during day time to about 9$% in the night. In the dry zone the relative humidity varies from about 60% during daytime and 80% in the night. (Meieorolog.cal Department) In order to determine the appropriate subgrade moisture conditions, the subgrades may be classified into the following types. ‘Type 1 Subgrades in the wet and intermediate zones As stated by Millard (1993), in climates of persistent high humidity and rainfall such asin the wet and intermediate zones, there are doubis regarding the practicability of preventing surface water from penctrating under the road during the rainy season, Under these: conditions it is suggested that the CBR value be determined on a sample soaked for 4 days. ‘Type 2 Subgrades under permeable road payements in the dry zone AS stated above, surfacings such as bituminous applications and sand seals do not asa rule always seal the pavement against the: ingress of water. In such cases controlling the subgrade moisture content during the rainy season is not possible. Here too the + day soaked CBR value is appropriate ‘Type3 Subgrades under impermeable road pavements in the dry zone Asphalt concrete surfacings and well maintained surface treatments on dense graded aggregate bases may be considered as impermeable road pavements provided the shoulders and the surface drainage system are well mainiained. Here the subgrade moisture condition wil depend on the depth ofthe water table Sub Type (A) Subgrades where the highest seasonal water table is sufficiently close to the ground surface to ‘control the subgrade moisture content In this case it may not be possible to prevent the subgrade becoming saturated during the wet season particularly with persisteat high humidity. Here (oo the 4 day soaked CBR value may be adopted. Sub Type (ib) Subgraides with deep water tables When the water table is not near the ground surface, the subgrade moisture condition under an impermeable ‘Pavement will depend on the balance between the water entering the subgrade through the shoulders and the edges of the pavement during wet weather and moisture leaving the ground by evapotranspiration during dry periods. When the rainfall is seasonal and greater than 250 mm pet year the water enering the subgrade exceeds evapotranssiration and this causes significant changes in moisture conditions under the roads. Under these conditions the moisture condition forthe CER test may be taken as the optima moisture content cbtained in the BS (Light-2.5kg ramoner) standard compaction test, (TRL, UK Road Note 31 (1993) 52 Traffic S21 General ‘Cars do not contribute significamty to the structural damage of road pavements by vehicular traffic. Therefore for pavement design, only heavier vehicles (unladen weight exceeding 1.5 tonnes) are considered, For estimation of design trafic, existing traffic or anticipated (new construction) traffic should be taken into account by considering the possible changes in road network and land use of the area, probable growth rate and design life. From the Zoctors derived from the ASSHTO road test which enable the damaging power of axle loads of different ‘magnitudes to be expressed in terms of an equivalent number of "Standard" SOkN (18,000 Tb) axle loads, the mumber of axles of each type of vehicle that will use the road during its design life is equated to an, ecplet nubs of standard axles, The table in Appendix IT gives the equivalence factors to be use for converting the mmber of axTes in different foad categories to the equivalent murnber of standard axles. The table has been derived by Liddle froma AASHTO road tost results and is given in TRRL, UK, Road Note 31 (Third Edition, 1977), and could be used to Convert the axte loads obtained from traffic surveys to equivalent number of standard axles 10tere Sroank | Chrtntyn Presenbasse f Bitvnn g "horton preccah 522 Growth rate Prestse b prevenb cclstee due f ‘An etimnte of growth rate canbe determined by studying the past trends. If adequate data isnot avaiable, itis recommended that following values as given in Table 1 are adopted for design. ‘TABLE I: GROWTH RATES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF VEHICLES VEHICLE TYPE GROWTH RATE | % “Heavy Goods Vehicles ae | ‘Medium Goods Vehicles 4-7 Light Goods Vehicles 2-5 Long buses 3-3 Mini buses i 325 ‘Generally design life of about 10-20 years is considered in counties like Sri Lanka as the growth rates are normally high and itis rarely economical to build a road strong enough to carry traific that will be using it for a period of ‘more than 20 years. Therefore itis advisable to design the road fora peciod of 10 1020 years so that when the traffic ‘warrants it, an overlay can be eonstructed, This stage construction approach can be used for most roads other than urban roads, where thick overlays are not possible due to interference of building approaches and drainage systems. ‘The design life that can be used for typical roads is given below :- S23 Design Life | ‘TABLE 2: DESIGN LIFE WITH RESPECT TO TYPE OF ROAD TYPE OFROAD WD. DESIGN LIFE (Earth & gravel road: 0-150 10 ; | (ii) Low volume bitumen surfaced roads < 300 10 | (iii) Mecium volume bitunien surfaced roads 300-3000 10 ors iv) __igh volume bitumen surfaced reads ‘over 3000) 15 0120 5.3 _ Estimating the cumulative number of standard axles ‘The designer has to estimate the cumulative number of standard axles that will taverse the road in the course ofits design life. For this, it is necessary to obiain the following information = (®) Determine the axle Joads and number of axles of vehicles that will use the road per day for each type of vehicle. Gi) Forecast the annual growth rte for each type of vehicle generally 2 to 7 percent may be used (see Table 1 of section 5.2.2) (iii) Determine the design life. A value of 10 to 20 years could be used for the design work. (see Table 2 of | section 5.2.3), ‘The cumuletive number of standard axles for the design life can be determined by the use of the formula given below = A = stp (tnt. Dr A= cumulative nomber of standard axles for design life P= umber of standard axles per day as au average for the I* year after construction for vehicle type i n = rate of growth of traffic for vehicle type i Bee a m= —-= number of types of vehicles a n= design life in years "could be determined by carrying out an axle load survey and converting the axle loads to equivalent standard axles bby using the Table in Appendix H. fan axle load sivey cannot be done, a suggested method for determining P, is to obtain the traffic data in terms of traffic categories such as heavy goods vehicles, medium goods vehicles, light goods vehicles, long buses, midi buses et., and to assign equivalent standard axle (ESA) values based on average loading derived from studies carried out by the Traffic and Planning division of the RDA. ‘The vehicle type classification adopted by the Traffic and Planning division with very approximate suggested equivalent standard axle values for each category worked out in 1995 from limited data is given in Table 3. More accurate data in 1999 are presently being worked out. TABLE 3; FSA VALUES FOR VARIOUS VEHICLE TYPES ESA AXLES WHEELS Heavy gous vehicles 2226 130245 ‘Medium goods vehicies | 26 065-168 Light goods vekicles 2s 0.01 Long buses 023.037 Mini buses 0.01-0.17 In other oounuties, normally on dual carriagewav roads and on single carriageway roads with more than two lanes, it is assumed thatthe slow traffic lanes will cary all the heavy vehicles and the design thickness required for the slow lane is usually adopied to the whole carriageway width However, the Sri Lankan experience indicates that a significant percentage of heavy vehicles are not confined to the slow lane. Based on local experience, adjustments to the design trafic volume based on lane widths are suggested for use. Recommended factors to be used are given in Table 4 ‘TABLE 4: DESIGN VOLUMES OF TRAFFIC FOR VARIOUS LANE TYPES AND WIDTHS: LANE TYPE DESIGN VOLUME ‘Single Tans ‘ZOOVPD in both directions single laae(intermediate) (1.50.75) x VPD -do- tsvo lane (Single carriageway) (0.75.0.50) x VPD - do- dual two lane 1.0—0.5) VPD in one direction 6.0 RECOMMENDED METHODS OF DESIGN 6.1 Earth and Gravel Roads Pavement designs that have bees successfully adopted in the past are given in Tables 5 & 6. TABLE §: TYPE AND THICKNESS OF PAVEMENT LAYERS THE OF ROAD 2 EARTH —__ GRAVEL Valles 0-50 3-150 Cumulative No. of Su. Axles (CNSA) x 10° | 0.017 0.017-0.05 Type of peving Suitable soi topping | Gravel surfacing with or without an } intermediate layer of soil (see Note 2) “Thiclness of paving (evn) 100-300 3001-150 Note: (1) The design life normally considered is 10 years @) Intermediate layer thickness for gravel roads are given Table 6, 2axles ns of uses, 4 out ta in 3, it lov. the TABLE 6: THICKNESS OF INTERMEDIATE LAYER FOR GRAVEL ROADS, CONDITIGN OF | TYPE OF SOIL IN SUBGRADE ‘SUBGRADE CBR | THICKNESS OF SUBGRADE | e% INTERMEDIATE ae LAYER (ram) ‘Good to fiir Gravelly and sandy soil clayey sands [5 - Poor Silty and sandy clays Bord 6 Very poor Heavy clays and sits Lor? 150 ‘Note: Soils containing more than 50 percent clays and sis and having Pl > 40 are considered as heavy clays and silts 62 Mexible roads Itis recomended that the pavement thickness be designed using the Structural Catalogue given in Chars 1-4. These charts are based on the Key to Structural Catalogue given in Overscas Road Note 31 (TRL, UK - 1993) and modified to ‘ater for local conditions. ‘The main modifications are summarized below. S) to Ss (a), Se(b) and Se as depicted in the previous age to the Chart 1 vo 4. The key to the structural in the paper is based on traffic class, to Ty and subgrade strength Casses, @ @ 6) A separate Chart 1 has been introduced to allow for the traditional road base cum surfacing adopted in Sri Lanka, This construction is been limited for roads carrying low volumes of traffic not exceeding 0.3 msa for the design life “he use of CBR 20 subbase instead of CBR 30 subbase es been allowed for roads caring traffic up to 6 0 nsa for the design life che specifications for the materials (o be used in the various pavement layers will be as specified in the SSCM with the amendments in 1999 for low to medium trafficked (<6.0msa) roads for highly trafficked (©6.0msa) roads, The densities of compaction of embankment layers, subgrades, subbases and shoulders of the SSCM (1989) and Amendments (1999) to the SSCM (1989) are generally specified based on TRRL, UK Road Note 31 (1977) and ASTM (5.5 fo rammer) and BS (Light-2.5kg rammer) standard conditions of compaction, In the case of the Amendments (1999) to te SSCM (1989) for Highly trafficked roads canying more 6.0mst such densities are based on TRRL UK Road Note 31 (1993) and ASTM (10 tb fammer) and BS (Heavy-4.Skg rammer) Modified conditions of compaction AA summary of material 1ypes to be sed for pavement layers in the design charts is given in Table 7 TABLE CHART. SURFACING ‘BASE SUMMARY OF MATERIAL TYPES FOR DESIGN CHARTS. SUBBASE. 1 Ist and 2nd coat bituminous | Single sized aggregate base | Soil subbase (penetration grade or | SSAB type 1 SSB1 cemulsion)surface application | or blended aggregate base ___| BSA BAB 2 Double biturainous surface | Granular bbase | TI-TS use soil subbase type T treatment and sand seal | DGAB/WBM/DEM SSB 1 DBST#SS (aocys or lime/cement stabilised soil Also ip/'1-T6, imeicement | subbase SSSB Stabjfised base SB or in Tle ‘blended aggregate base | 6, use soil subbase type 1 /AB respectively, may be | special SSB 1S d or lime/cement stabilised soil subbase SSSB Granular tase DGAB 7] Granular subbase pe 1 ‘wearing couxge WC and bindef | WM /DBM special SSB 1S course BC Or wearing course WC only = 7 Double 7 bituininous jen bound base BBB | THTS use soil subbase pe 1 ; ssB1 Getremet | Cooten) or limecement stabilised soil feb is dee | subbase S888 “To use sail subbase type | special SSB 1S of limelcement stabilized soil subbase $583 lueatmemt and sand DBST#SSKEY TO STRUCTURAL CATALOGUE oe ais cg oo : Press Troffic classes Subarode strengtff classes (0® esa) (CBR %) Tilo) = Ot Tib) O1- 0-3 sI s 2 T2 = 03-07 s2 = 3,4 1 O7-1:5 s3 = 5-7 - 74 i) 0 & 34 = 8-14 15 ° $5(c) = 15-19 T6 S5(b) = 20-29 m = iOnlr $6 = 30+ 7a 8 17 +80 E==4 | Ll oo ¥ Material Definitions 1 and 2" coat bituminous (penetration grade or emulsion) surface application BSA Double bituminous surface treatment and sand seal DBST + SS (Surface Dressing - SD) Asphalt Concrete Surfacing - a wearing course WC ‘And blinder course BC or a wearing course WC only Bitumen Bound Base BBB Granular Basé DGAB/WBM/DBM Single Sized sabe SSAB~ Blended Aggregate Base BAB - Soil Sub base type 1 ssB1 (CBR 20+) Soil Sub base type 1 - special SSB 1S or Lime/cement Stabilized Sub base SSSB (CBR 30+) Soil Capping layer type 1 (or selected subgrade Fill) SC (CBR 8+) Soil Capping layer type 1 - special SC 18 Selected special subgrade fill) (CBR 15+) 140CHART t: SINGLE SIZED AGGREGATE BASE/RITUMINOUS APPLICATIONS THa) | THb) T2 TS 14 15 16 st BSA BSA 150 75 150 jeer 300 300 | a is a a ee Bsa 150 200 200 83 ee SA es 150, |250 250 $4 BSA ega 150 150 150 7 S50) Bsa SA ess 150 Iso 150 86 Note: | Up to 100mm of sub-base may be substituted with capping layer provided the sub-base is not reduced to less than the base thickness or 200mm whichever is the greater. The substitution ratio of eapping laver type I for sub-base type T or capping layer type I-special for sub-base ype Lspecial is 25mm : 35mm 2 coment or tized sub-baseCHART2: GRANULAR BASE/DOUBLE BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT AND SAND SEAL (SURFACE DRESSING - SD) a T THo,TKb)] — T2 13 14 15 6 7 | sl 75. (75 225 es 250 300 275 325 325 j =£]300 |["]300 ||": ::}300 300]: 300 300 so 2 sp 225 se |ins EBs 200 250 200 200 200 sD So. Ee 225 175 250 275 Hil P25 sD so s4 $0 so 225 ees Pe 175 Fe 200 ||IIH|||250 ia S5iq 80 sD ie so 250 75 228 eo 100 125 150 75 eae sot so 250 so ig 36 so so $0 Eso [BRI eo Note: 1. Up to 100mm of sub-base may be substituted with eapping layer provided the sub-base is not ‘reduced to Jess than the base thickness or 200mm whichever is the greater. The substitution ratio of capping layer type 1 for sub-base type T or eapping layer type F-special for sub-base type T- special is 25mm : 35mm 2 Acement or Hime sailed sub-Dase may aso be use 3. Far tulle wp to 72 oF 16, Bicatied aggre y 30 Se used. 16 fe setentiiag izCHART3: GRANULAR BASE /ASPHALT CONCRETE SURFACING Tieo),THo} 72 3 14 w | we | 7 Note: 1 Up to 100mm of ub-base may be substituted with capping layer provided the sub-base isnot reduced to less than the base thickness or 200nnm whichever is the greater, The substi ratio of eapping layer typeI for sub-base type 1 or capping layer ype Fspecal for sub-base type I-special Smm : 3Smm 2 Acementorfime stabilised sub-base may also be used. r WCHART 4: BITUMEN SOND —RASE/DOUBLE BITUMINOUS — SURFACE TREATMENT AND SAND SEAL (SURFACE DRESSING ~ SD) THe), THb)] T2 3 T4 15 Té 17 sD si 1200 0 200 300 225, “350 350 s2 eo sp 200 200 275 225 {200 200 83 SD SD 80. 75 200 200 250 j250 275 s4 ‘sD SD sD 7s 200 200 7S 200 S5ta) & sD sD =. S5ib) 175 1200 ees : eee Mies | MMs 125 sé sD so ee [50 [SNe [Niz00 Note: 1 Up to 100mm of sub-base may be substituted with capping layer provided the sub-base is not reduced (0 less than the base thickness or 200mm whichever isthe greater. The substitution ratio of capping layer type I for sub-base type I or capping layer type I-special for sub-base {ype H-special is 25mm : 35mm 2 A cement or lime stabilised sub-base may also be used.63 Design of Concrete Roads Based om full scale experimental sections laid in Great Britain over the last 60 years, Croney and Croney (1991), as Stated by Millard (1992) have reviewed this experience. Figure 7 obiained from the latter book depicts the curves for design for slab thickness with cumulative number of standard axles, Although the curves give very thin pavements for ‘ads with low traffic levels, in practice, the minimum thickness of slabs is taken as 125mm. The changes of diurnal and nual temperatures in Sei Lanka are stall and less than 20°C. Consequently unreinforoed concrete paveriens without expansion joints have been found to be satisfactory and therefore recommended for adopiion with the provisien that special measures in slab design should be adopted for roads where axle loads exceed 10 tonnes ‘These measures would include () Strong load transfer devices at joins Gi) Shorter intervals of joint spacing (Git) Using reinforcement meshes in the concrete (¥) Increasing the thickness of the slab 72.0 STAGE CONSTRUCTION Stage Construction consists of planned improvements to the pavement structure at fixed times during its lige ‘Budgetary constraints often make stage construction inevitable particularly in developing countries. However, experience has also shown that budgetary constraints prevent the planned upgrading phase of stage construction from taking place, As a result much ofthe benefit of stage construction policies may be lost. In Sri Lanka the procurement of good quility rock aggregates in large quantities for construction of road bases is sometimes difficult, This factor coupled with budgetary constraints has resuted in a local practice to initially construct the road pavement up to the subbase layer. The subbase is primed and then provided with a surfing of a sand seal ora Slury seal or a single or double bituminous surface treatment and a sind seal. Low volume roads carrying up to 500 Vehicles per day and constructed as above have been successfully sustained for periods of up to 10 years using. a programme of regular maintenance. (See references 12, 19)Sqe[s peor Byex0U09 Foy s}reYO SseuyOTY, UbTSeq + L eaNbTA (sopxe puepueys vont) yen aaneinwng, os ob or x) 100 ooy squawuedxa peos 9129S 11M} THYL JO SyiNser ey Ym [2961] 28 YY Hodey TueL Ul ueAIB ove Sanino ssauyaiy) gejs Jo uosuedWoD o0z paosojuiasup) | 2910, — 004 e TAS i sjuausadxa peos eS aqe9s Ny THLE 1u) 2 $5506 paoi0juIey a 28 M4 WHHL 10 Aunqeqosg \ (ww) SSEUxdI4) GEIS 20