DD Chapter Eight 8-3 Proximity Sensors Proximity sensors are discrete sensors that sense when an object has come neat to the sensor face. There are four fundamental types of proximity sensors—the ind- tive proximity sensor, the capacitive proximity sensor, the ultrasonic prox- imity sensor, and the optical proximity sensor. In order to properly specify and apply proximity sensors itis important to understand how they operate and to which applications each is best suited. 8-4 Inductive Proximity Sensors As with all proximity sensors, inductive proximity sensors are available in various sizes and shapes as shown in Figure 8-8. As the name implies, inductive proxim- ity sensors operate on the principle that the inductance of a coil and the power losses in the coil vary asa metalic (or conductive) object is passed neat it, Because of this operating principle, inductive proximity sensors are only used for sensing, ‘metal objects. They will not work with non-metallic materials. FIGURE 8-8 Samples of Inductive Proximity Sensors (Courtesy of Peppert & Fuchs, Inc) To understand how inductive proximity sensors operate, consider the cutaway block diagram shown in Figure 8-9. Mounted just inside the face of the sen- sor (on the left end) is a coil that is part of the runed circuit of an oscillator. When the oscillator operates, there is an alternating magnetic field (called a sensing field) produced by the coil, This magnetic field radiates through the face of the sensor (which is non-metallic). The oscillator circuit is tuned such that as long as the sensing field senses non-metallic material (such as air) it will continue to oscillate, ic will trigger the trigger circuit, and the ourput switch- ing device (which inverts the output of che trigger circuie) will be off. The sen- riont sia @ sor will therefore send an OFF signal chrough the cable extending from the right side of the sensor in Figure 8-9. FIGURE 8-9 Inductive Prosinity Sensor Internal Components (Corey of Pept Fuchs, Inc.) When a metallic object (steel, iton, aluminum, tin, copper, et.) comes near the face of the sensor, as shown in Figure 8-10, the alternating magnetic field in the ing eddy currents inside the material. To the oscillator, target produces circu: these eddy currents are a power loss. As the target moves nearer, the eddy current loss increases, which loads the output of oscillator. This loading effect causes the ‘output amplitude of the oscillator ro decrease. FIGURE 8-10 Indvetive Proximity Sensor : Sensing Target sing Sensing Target Proximity Sensor py Taaget Object (Courtesy of Pepperl Fao, Inc) As long as the oscillator amplicude does not drop below the threshold level of the trigger circuit, che output of the sensor will remain off, However, as shown in Figure 8-11, if the target object moves closer to the face of the sensor, the eddy current loading will cause the oscillator to stall (cease co oscillate). When this hap- pens, the trigger circuit senses the loss of oscillator ourpur and causes the ourput switching device to switch ON. Tage noacing FIGURE 8-11 Indwetive Proximity Senor Oscitter Signal Sated (Courtesy of ‘Api Pepperl & Fuchs ON Ine.) “Target Abst Output Stage ‘Shown as Normally Open oF‘The sensing range of a proximity sensor is the maximum distance the target ob- ject may be from the face of che sensor in order for the sensor ro detect it. One parameter affecting the sensing range is the size (diameter) of the sensing, col Small diameter sensors (approximately 4" in diamerer) have typical sensing ranges in the area of 1 mm, while large diameter sensors (approximately 3° in diameter) have sensing ranges in che order of 50 mm or more. Additionally, since different metals have different values of resistivity (which limits che eddy currents) and per- ability (which channels che magnetic field through the target), the type of metal being sensed will affec the sensing range. Inductive proximity sensor man tufaceurers derate cheir sensors based on different metals, with stel being ther erence (ie, havinga derating factor of 1.0). Some other approximate derating fac- ors are stainless steel, 0.85; aluminum, 0.40; brass, 0.40; and copper, 0.30, Asan example of how to apply the derating factors, assume you are constructing a machine to automatically count copper pennies as they travel down a chute, and the sensing distance wll be 5 mm. In orderco detect copper (derating factor 0.30), you would need to purchase a sensor with a sensing range of 5 mm 0.30 = 16.7 ‘mm. Lets say you found a sensor instock that hasa sensing range of 10 mm. Ifyou use this co sense the copper pennies, you would need ro mounc it near che chute so that the pennies will pass within (10 mm)(0.30) = 3 mm ofthe face of the sensor. Inductive proximity sensors are available in both de- and ac-powered models. Most require three electrical connections—ground, power, and output. However, there are other variations that require two wires and four wires. Most sensors are available with a built-in LED that indicates when the sensor output is on. One of the first steps a designer should take when using any proximity sensor is t0 ac- ‘quire a manufacturers catalog and investigate the various types, shapes, and out~ put configurations to determine che best choice for the application. Since the parts of machines are generally constructed of some type of metal, there is an enormous number of possible applications for inductive proximity sensors, They are relatively inexpensive (approximately $30 and up), excremely reliable, operace from a wide range of power supply voltages, are rugged, and be- cause they are totaly self contained, they connect directly to the discrete inputs on a PLC with no additional external components. In many cases, inductive proximity sensors make excellenc replacements for mechanical limit switches. Ta ilusteate some of the many possible applications of inductive proximity sen- sors (sometimes called inductive prox), consider these uses: © By placing an inductive prox nex« toa gear the prox can sense the passing gear teeth to give rotating speed information. This application is currently used aba speed feedback device in automorive cruise control systems where the prox is mounted in the transmission, scents BD © All helicopters have an inductive prox mounted in the bottom of the rotor gearbox. Should the gears in the gearbox shed any metal chips (indicating an impending catastrophic ilure ofthe gearbox), the inductive prox senses these chips and activates a warning light on the cockpic instrument panel © Inductive proxes can be mounted on access doors and panels of machines, ‘The PLC can be programmed co shu down the machine ifany of these doots and access panels are opened. © Very large inductive proxes can be mounted in roadbeds to sense passing, automobiles. This technique is currently used to operace traffic lights. 8-5 Capacitive Proximity Sensors Capacitive proximity sensors are available in shapes and sizes similar to the in- dive Proximity seasee (shown in Figure 82). However, beause ofthe principle upon which the capacitive proximity sensor operates, applications for the capacitive sensor are somewhac different. FIGURE 8-12 Exanple of Capacitive Prasimity Sensors Courcesyof Pepper Frcs, tne) To understand how capacitive proximity sensors operate, consider the cutaway block diagram shown in Figure 8-13. The principle of operation of the sensor is ‘hat an internal oscillator will not oscillate uncil a target material is moved close to the sensor face. The target material varies the capacitance of a capacitor in the face of che sensor that is part of the oscillator circuit. There are wo types of ca- pacitive sensor, each with a differene way cha this sensing capacitor is formed. InGD corre the dielectric type capacitive proximity sensor, there are two side-by-side ca- pacicor plates in the sensor face. For this type of sensor, the external target acts as the dielectric. As the tazget is moved closer to the sensor Face, the change in di- electric increases the capacitance of the internal capacitor, making the oscillator amplitude increase, whieh in eurn causes the sensor to ougput an ON signal. The conductive type capacitive proximity sensor operates similarly; however, there is only one capacitor plate in the sensor face, The target becomes the other plate. Therefore, for this type of sensor, ic is best ifthe target isan electrically conduc- tive material (usually metal or water-based) FIGURE 8-13 Capacitive Proximity Sensor Internal Components ? (Courery of Pepper Tage Plate Fuchs, Inc) (eel Asis shown in the waveform diagram in Figure 8-14, asthe target approaches the face ofthe sensor, he oscillaror amplitude increases, which causes the sensor out- put ro switch on FIGURE 8-14 ‘Faget Aopoaction Capacitive To ats a Presinity Serer . Signs ee (Conrteyof Ppp Facts bic) on | SSPE a o Shon es Rermaty Open oF Dielectric capacitive proximity sensors will sense both metallic and non-metallic ‘objects. However, in order for the sensor to work properly, itis best if che mate- rial being sensed has a high density. Low-density materials (foam, bubble wrap, paper et) do noc cause a detectable change in the diclectric and consequently will not tigger the sensor. Conductive capacitive proximity sensors require that the material being sensed be an electrical conductor. These ae ideally suited for sensing metals and conductive liquids. For example, since most disposable liquid containers are made of plastic cor cardboard, these sensors have che unique ability to “look” through the con- tainer and sense the liquid inside. Therefore, they are ideal for liqud-level sensors. viseraion oo QD Capacitive proximiey or8 will sense metal objects justas inductive sensors will. However, capacitive sensors are much more expensive than the inductive types. ‘Therefore, if the material to be sensed is metal, the inductive sensor is the more «economical choice. Some of che potential applications for capacitive proximity sensors include © They can be used as a non-contact, liquid-level sensor. They can be placed outside a container to sense the liquid level inside. This is ideal for milk, juice, oF soda bottling operations. ‘© Capacitive proximity sensors can be used as replacements for pushbuttons and palm switches, They will sense the hand and, because they have no moving parts, chey are more reliable than mechanical switches. © Since they are hermetically sealed, they ean be mounced inside liquid co sense the tank-fill level Aswith the inductive proximity sensors, capacitive proximity sensors are available with a built-in LED indicator co indicate the ouput logical state. Also, because capacitive proximity sensors are used to sense materials with a wide range of den- sites, manufacturers usually provide a sensitivity adjusting screw on the back of the sensor. Then, when the sensor is installed, the sensicivity can be adjusted for bees performance in the particular application. 8-6 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors The ulerasonic proximity sensor operates using the same principle as shipboard sonar. As shown in Figure 8-15, an ultrasonic “ping” is sent from the face of the sensor. IFa target is located in frone of the sensor and is within range, che ping will be reflected by the target and returned to the sensor. When an echo is re turned, the sensor detects that a target is present, and by measuring the time de- lay between the transmitted ping and che returned echo, the sensor ean ealeulate the distance becween the sensor and the target. FIGURE 8-15 Utessonie Prasimity Senor (Coursesy of Pepperl Fuel, ie) Target As with any proximity sensor, the ultrasonic prox has limitations. The sensor is only capable of sensing a target chats within che sensing range. The sensing rangeFIGURE 8-16 Uteasonie Proximity Sensor Useable Sensing Area (Courzry of Peppert Fuels ine) very shore operat the shelf, ultrasonic proxes are available with sensing ranges of 6 meters or {fore They sense dense carger materials such as meas an liquids best. They do not work well with soft material, such as loch, aoe rubber, oF any ma- nee Ants 8 800d absorber of sound waves, and they ‘operate poorly with liq- uid that have surface ripple or waves. Also, for obvigac Feasons, these sensors Mill fot operate in a vacuum. Since the sound waves sean ass through the als the accuracy of these sensors is subject to the scancd Propagation time of the alt. The mose detimental impact of this is thee se sound propagation Seer ORC Tha mer tierra’ temperature in- nor affect Loney StBet will appear 19 move closer to the senahe They are not affected by ambient audio noise, nor by wind, However, because of their ‘slacvely long useful range, the system designer me ake care when using Discrete Poston Ser crore an One ultrasonic sensor ina system because of the potential for crosstalk between sensors. Rie Popular use for the ulrasonic proximity sensor isin sensing liquid level, Figure 8-17 shows such an application, Nove shot ance ultrasonic sensors do not perform well with liquids with surface curbulence stilling tube is used to reduce ‘Be potential eurbulenes onthe susice oF the leis, FIGURE 8-17 Uleaeni Lignid Level Sensor (Cones of Pepperl & Fuchs, tac) Sensor. or interference, There are fundamentally three types oF optical sensors ‘These are the thru-beam, iffuse reflective, and retso-reflective. All dane ‘ypes have discrete outputs, These are generally available in one of thece ‘ypes of light source— incandescent tsht ted LED, and infrared LED, The ed CAD ca IRLED sensors generally bve alight ourpue thacis pulsed ata high frequency and a receiver that is tuned tothe frequency ofthe soutee By dong so, these "ypes have a high degree of im- LED ceo tie Potentially incerfxing light sources, Therefore LED and IR Hap ensor function better than incandescent sensor areas where there is a bigh level of ambien ight (uch as sunligh) or light noise (such as welding). In addition co specifying the sensor type and light source type, the designer also@ wo: needs to specify whether the sensor output will be on or off when no light is re: ceived. Generally, this is specified as the logical condition when there is no light received (ie, the dark condition). For this reason, the choices are specified as dark-on and dark-off Thru-Beam (Interrupted) The thru-beam optical sensor consists of rwo separate units, each mounted on ‘opposite sides of the object o be sensed. As shown in Figure 8-18, one unit (the emitter) is the light source that provides a lens-focused beam of light that is aimed atthe receiver. The other unit, the receiver, also consains a focusing lens and is zimed at che light source, Assuming this isa dark-on sensor, when there is nothing blocking the light beam, the light from the source is detected by the te- ceiver, and there is no ourput from the receiver. However, if an object passes be tween the emitter and receives, the light beam is blocked and che receiver switches on its output. FIGURE 8-18 Thru-Beam OUTPUT ON Optical Sener, Dark-On 7 (Courtesy of Peppert 4 Face In) Enter PUT OFF I fh} i iter Theu-beain sensors are the most common type known to the general public since they appear in action movies in which thieves are attempting to thwart a matrix of optical burglar alarm sensors secup around a valuable museum piece. Thru-beam opto sensors work well a long as the object to be sensed is not erans- parent, They have an excellent (long) maximum operating range. The main dis- advantage with this type of sensor is that because the emieter and teceiver are sep- arate units, this type of sensor system requires wiring on both sides of the transport system (generally a conveyor) that is moving the target object. In some cases, this may be cither inconvenient or impossible. When this occurs, another type of optical sensor should be considered. Disrte Psion Son Diffuse Reflective (Proximity) The diffuse reflective optical sensor, shown in Figure 8-19, has the light emitter and receiver located in the same unit. Assuming itis a dark-off sensor, light from the emitter is reflected from he carget object being sensed and returned t0 the re- ceiver, which, in turn, switches on its output. When a target object is not present, 1no light is reflected to the receiver and the sensor output switches off (dark-off) FIGURE 8-19 OUTPUT ON Diffie Reflective Opie! Sewer ‘My Dek of iy (Connery of Pepe Fuchs, inc) OUTPUT OFF Diffuse reflective optical sensors are more convenient than thru-beam sensors because the emitter and receiver are locaced in the same housing, which simp! fies wiring, However, this type of sensor does not work well with transparent tar- gets or targets thar have a low reflectivity (dull finish, black surface, etc.). Care must also be taken with glossy arger objects chac have multifaceted surfaces (c.g. automobile wheel covers or corrugated roofing material) or objects that have gaps through which light can pass (e.g, toy cars with windows, compact discs). These types of target objects can cause optical sensors ro ourput multiple pulses for each object. Retro-Reflective (Reflex) ‘The recro-reflective optical sensor is che most sophisticated of al of che sensors. Like the diffuse reflective sensor, this type has both the emitter and receiver housed in one unit. As shown in Figure 8-20, the sensor works similar co the thru-beam sensor in that a target object passing in front of the sensor blocks the light being received. However, in this case, che lighe being blocked is light re- turning from a reflector. Therefore, this sensor does not require the addition: wiring forthe remotely located receiver unit@® worn FIGURE 8-20 Retro Reflective Optical Sensor, Dark-On (Courter. Pepperl & Fuchs, Ine) OUTPUT ON Generally, this ype of sensor would nor work well with glossy target objects be- cause they would reflec light back to the receiver just as the remote reflector would, However, this problem is avoided by using polarizing filters. This polar- izing filter scheme is illustrated in Figure 8-21. Notice in our illustration that there is an added polarizing file thae polarizes the exiing light beam. In our il- lustration, this isa horizontal polarization. In Figure 82a, notice that, with no target object present, the specially designed reflector twists the polarization angle by 90° and sends the light back in vertical polarization. At the receiver, there is another polarizing filter; however, his filter is installed with a vertical polatiza- tion co allow the light recurning from the reflector ro pass through and be de. tected by the receiver, In Figure 8-216, notice chat when a rarger object passes between the sensor and the reflector, not only is the light beam disrupted, but if the object has a glossy surface and reflects the light beam, the reflected beam returns with the same horizontal polarization as the emicted beam. Since the receiver filter has a vertical polarization, che receiver does not receive the light so it activates its ourput. Retro-reflective sensors work well with all sypes of rasger objects. However, when purchasing the sensor, itis important to also purchase the tellector specified by the manufacturer, These sensors have a maximum range that is more chan the dif- fase reflective sensor, but less than the chru-heam sensor etaiinse QD HORIZONTAL POLARIZER EMITTER, RECEIVER REFLECTOR VERTICAL POLARIZER po (UGHT PASSES THROUGH) @ REFLECTING HORIZONTAL POLARIZER TARGET (USHT IS BLOCKED) © FIGURE 8-21 Retro-Reflectve Optical Sensor Using Polarizing Filters (Exploded View) Summary Although we have scen the most commonly used discrete postion sensors in this chapter, advanced technologies are providing us with newer types of sensors that are ‘more sensitive, have wider applications, and, in some cases, are intelligent. For ex- ample, the use of video and auidio equipment is providing sensors with the capability toperform go/no-go image and sound recognition. These types ofcnsing equipment can perform automated quality inspection or can assist a machine operator in assur- ing thac a machine is operating properly. ‘The growing base of available sensor types is continuously making che system designer's ask easier, while a the same time giv ing the designer more capabilities to design an effciene and reliable contol system.