Control theory

Kim Mathiassen

15.02.2011
 Control theory
Mass spring damper system
Modeling
Open loop vs. closed loop
Second order system
Stability

PID control
P - Proportional
I - Integral
D - Derivative

Optimal control
LQR
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 Mass spring damper system

From Wikimedia Commons

x = displacement [m] m = mass of the block [kg ]

f = force applied [kg · m/s 2 ] B = damping constant [kg /s]
15.02.2011 k = spring constant [kg /s 2 ] 3
 Mass spring damper system
P
Using Newton’s second law fi = ma. We have three forces
I Spring force: f1 = −kx
δx
I Damping force: f2 = −f δt = −f ẋ
I External force: f3 = u
This gives the equation

mẍ = −kx − f ẋ + u

Differential equation for mass spring damper system

f k 1
ẍ + m ẋ + mx = mu

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 Modeling domains
Frequency domain (Transfer functions)
1
x(s)=h(s)u(s) h(s)= f
m
k
s2+ m s+ m

State space domain

ẋ=Ax + Bu ẋ1 =x2
k f 1
ẋ2 =− m x1 − m x2 + mu

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 Block diagrams

u 1 ẋ2 x2 = ẋ1 x1
m
- -

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 SISO and MIMO
Single-Input Single-Output (SISO)
The system has one input u and one output x
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) Process
The system has multiple input u and multiple
output x
Single-Input Multiple-Output (SIMO)
Process
Can be regarded as several SISO systems
Multiple-Input Single-Output (MISO)
Can be regarded as several SISO systems

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 Open loop vs. closed loop
Open-loop

r u x
Controller Process

Closed-loop

r e u x
Controller Process
-

y
Mesurements

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 Second order systems

1 1
m m
H(s) = f k
=
s2 + ms + m
(s − λ1 )(s − λ2 )

Solution
The generic solution gives three cases depending on pole
placemend. The three cases are called under-damped, over-damped
and critially damped
r !
f km
λ{1,2} = − 1± 1−4 2 (1)
2m f

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 Second order systems
Damping ratio
−(λ1 +λ2 )
ζ= √
2 λ1 λ2

Over-damped, ζ > 1 (λ1 and λ2 real and distinct)

Slow system responce

Critically damped, ζ = 1 (λ1 = λ2 )

Fastes system responce without oscillations

Under-damped, ζ < 1 (λ1 and λ2 complex conjugates)

Fast system responce, but with oscillations
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 Second order system responce

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From Wikimedia Commons

 Stability
Consider the system y (s) = h(s)y0 (s) where y0 (s) has finite length
and amplitude
Asymptotically stable
The system is asymptotically stable if y → 0 when t → ∞

Marginally stable
The system is marginally stable if |y | < ∞ for all t ≥ 0

Unstable
If the system is not stable, it is unstable

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 PID control
We want to make the system stable and controllable with a
controller. The PID controller is a simple controller that may
acheive this goal. The PID controller is often analyzed in the
frequency domain.
PID controller
Z
u = Kp e + Ki e(τ )d τ + Kd ė

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 Proportional
I A pure proportional controller will have a steady-state error
I Adding a integration term will remove the bias
I High gain (Kp ) will produce a fast system
I High gain may cause oscillations and may make the system
unstable
I High gain reduces the steady-state error

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 Proportional

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From Wikimedia Commons

 Integral
I Removes steady-state error
I Increasing Ki accelerates the controller
I High Ki may give oscillations
I Increasing Ki will increase the settling time

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 Integral

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From Wikimedia Commons

 Derivative
I Larger Kd decreases oscillations
I Improves stability for low values of Kd
I May be highly sensitive to noise if one takes the derivative of a
noisy error
I High noise leads to instability

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 Derivative

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From Wikimedia Commons

 PIDstop

From http://www.pidstop.com/demo

PID games
http://www.pidstop.com/demo
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(K1 = -110 K2 = 0.728)
20
 Optimal control
I Optimal controll is another control approach than PID
I The idea is to specify a cost function and then find the
optimal input
I The Dynamics of the system is used to design the controller
I For non-linear system it is not always possible to find the
optimal solution
I A special case is for linear systems with a quadradic cost
function
I The optimal controller must have all states as input
I Most often used with an observer to estimate the states that
are not measured
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 Optimal control

r ê Controller u x
Process
-

ŷ y
Observer Mesurements

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 Linear-quadratic regulator (LQR)
I The feedback is given as u = G 1 x + G 2 r
I r is the reference function
I The matrix G 1 and G 2 is found based on the system dynamics
and the cost function using Pontryagin’s Maximum principle
I When following a trajectory the function r (t) must be known
for all future timesteps in order to find the optimal solution

Cost function
Z ∞
J= 1
2 e T Qe + u T Pudt
t

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 References
J. B. Balchen, T. Andresen, and B. A. Foss.
Reguleringsteknikk.
Institutt for teknisk kybernetikk, 2004.
PID controller.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pid_controller, February 2011.
Damping.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/damping, February 2011.
O.A. Solheim and Norges tekniske høgskole Institutt for teknisk
kybernetikk.
Optimalregulering.
Tapir, 1976.
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