Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing
wf tt f ‘fi or ait 3
t jstones |||"
i Ly i
H {.
E :
er OU nee * ‘a Wha
[ow = aoa eS
Figure 4.21 Grading curve from sieving test on “boulder clay’
4.7 Sedimentation tl
4.7.1 Introduction
The theory of sedimentation is based on the fact that large particles suspended in a liquid
settle more quickly than small particles, assuming that all particles have similar densities
and shapes. The velocity that a falling particle eventually reaches is known as its terminal
velocity. Ifthe particles are approximately spherical, the relationship between terminal
velocity v and particle diameter D is given by Stokes’ Law, named after Sir George Stokes
(1891). This states thatthe terminal velocity is proportional to the square of the particle
diameter, or
ory
veD
Although clay particles are far from spherical (see Section 4.3.1), the application of
‘Stokes’ Law based on diameters of equivalent spheres provides a basis for comparison of the
Particle size distribution in fine soils tha is sufficiently realistic for most practical purposes,
4.7.2 General principles
In a sedimentation test a suspension of a known mass of fine soil particles of various sizes
is prepared in @ known volume of water. The particles are allowed to settle under gravity
and this i the process known as sedimentation. From certain measurements made at known,
intervals of time, the distribution of particle sizes can be assessed.
‘A model that illustrates the sedimentation process is represented diagrammatically in
Figure 4.22. Only four different sizes of particles are represented, their terminal velocities
and approximate equivalent diameters being shown in Table 4.12.
‘Areal soil contains particles of many different sizes, but the principles of sedimentation
ean be understood by considering what happens to each of these four sizes after various
intervals of time as they are allowed to settle out ofa suspension in water in a container just
over 300 mm deep.
206Particle size
‘Table 4.12 Terminal velocities of particles in suspension
Particle Terminal velocity (mis) Approximate diameter (um)
Conse sit 1 33
Medium sit o4 2
Fine silt oot 38
Clay 0.001 12
B cD A BoD A BC
4.04 001 mms
For CO!
100 oe ° :
IE] o °
° q fe
Ge o + + Bo :
| 0 2 °
al 5
wo} Oe + + Oo.
oe ET co Oo
200)| Onion ot Ho:
(@)Timet=0 (0) t= 108 (t= 1008
100 oe s
200 . .
300 erp : [Demat * a
(0) t= 10008 (@)t= 10000 (9t=30 0008
(17 minutes) (2:1 hours) (Bhours)
Times in brackets are approximate
Figure 4.22 Representation of sedimentation process
207Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing
Immediately after the suspension has been shaken up (time ¢ ~ 0), all particles are
uniformly distributed throughout the depth of suspension, asin Figure 4.22(a), I' we assume
that each particle reaches its terminal velocity within a very short time, after 10 s the coarse
silt particles have each fallen 10 mm, the fine silt particles 1 mm and the particles finer than
that have hardly fallen at all (Figure 4.22(b)). After 100 s the situation is as in Figure 4.22(c)
and the coarse silt particles starting at the 200 mm mark have settled to the bottom, After
1000 s (about 17 min) all the coarse silt particles have reached the bottom (Figure 4.22(d).
Al the solid particles now remaining in suspension are smaller than 35 jm, so a sample
taken from anywhere in the suspension would contain only those particles smaller than
that size. At the same instant a sample taken from just above the 100 mm mark would only
‘contain particles smaller than 12 wm (medium sil),
After 10 000 s (about 2 h 45 min) from the start all medium silt particles have reached
the bottom and all fine silt particles are below the 100 mm mark (Figure 4.22(e)), The upper
100 mm, therefore, contains only clay particles in suspension, After 30 000 s (about 8 h)
silt particles of all sizes have reached the bottom, leaving only the clay sizes in suspension
(Figure 4.22(0). The smallest size we are considering, 1.2 jm, will require 300 000 s (about
34% days) to reach the bottom, but smaller particles will take much longer. A suspension
containing an appreciable amount of clay remains cloudy indefinitely,
By applying Stokes” Law to the sedimentation model described above, we can calculate
the maximum diameter of particles remaining above a particular depth after a certain
interval of time from the start. The mass of solid particles present can be determined either
by sampling from a specified depth (asin the pipette test), or by measuring the density of the
suspension with a hydrometer (the hydrometer test),
‘The sampling depth of 100 mm used in the standard pipette testis indicated in Figure
4.22), The region marked ‘Hy zone" in Figure 4.22(b) indicates the range of effective depths
at which the density of suspension is measured during the period of a typical hydrometer
test
4.7.3 Stokes’ Law
According to Stokes” Law, the terminal velocity v of a spherical particle falling freely in a
fluid is given by
Dist
187)
where D = diameter of particle; p,~ mass density ofthe solid particle; e, = mass density of
‘he fluid (Liquid); 7 = dynamic viscosity of the uid; g~ acceleration du to gravity,
The application of Stokes’ Law to the process of sedimentation is based onthe following
simplifying assumptions
1. The condition of viseous flow ina still liquid is maintained.
2. There is no turbulence i.e. the concentration of | particles is such that they do not
interfere with one another.
2) ay
3. The temperature of the liquid remains constant.
4. Particles are small spheres,
5. Their terminal velocity is small
6. All particles have the same density.
7
A uniform distribution of particles of all sizes is formed within the liquid,
208Particle size
Equation (4.1) can be re-written
Deel = 42)
& (-A)
If the particle falls a distance H in time T, its mean velocity = HIT.
Ifthe liquid is water, we may write
Esuton (2) then becomes :
pafita 8 ip
ieccemeae stata:
Using the practical units given in Table 4.13, and writing ¢ (min) for 7, Equation (4.3)
can be written as
D 18x AH Ee
1000 |1000 ¢ 1000x%60(p, — p, )1000
pe a4)
g Pe)
Putting g= 9.807 m/s? and p,,= 1.000 Mg/m?
ie
D = 0.005 531 mm as)
19,-D
Equation (4.5) provides the basis for the derivation of sampling times for the pipette
test (section 4.8.2) and for calculations using the hydrometer method. Values of n and py
‘for water temperatures from 0-40°C are given in Table 4.14. Intermediate values may be
obtained by interpolation, either arithmetically or graphically.
‘Table 4.13 Symbols, units and conversion factors for sedimentation formula
oa fs coe ries
ee
‘Height of fall H m mm we
eG
Densities? Po Pw kg/m? Mgim? 1000
— 8 6 =
i
"The practical SI unit of dynamic viscosity is mPa s (millipascal second) or miN s m* (millinewton
second per square metre), witich is equal to the traditional metric unit cP (centipoise).
"The density of water (p,) may be taken here as 1,000 Mg.
209