[NERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINESINTERNAL-COMB USTION ENGINES THEORY AND DESIGN BY V. L. MALEEV, M.E., Dr. A.M. Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering, Oklahoma A. and M. College; Consulting Engineer—Combustion Engines~Machine Design-—Refrigeration; Registered Professional Engineer— California and | Oklahoma, Fellow A.S.M.E., Member S.A.E. Seconn/Ebrrion INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION McGRAW-HILL KOGAKUSHA, LTD. Tokyo Auckland Beirut Bogota Diisseldorf Johannesburg Lisbon London Lucerne Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama Paris San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore SydneyINTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Ltd., for manufacture and export. This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is consigned by McGraw-Hill. iw CopyricHT, 1933,1945, By THE McGraw-Hitt. Book Company, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, KOSAIDO PRINTING CO.,LTD, TOKYO JAPANPreface to the Second Edition uRING the twelve years that have elapsed since this book was written, the progress in the field of internal-combustion engines has continued, possibly even with an accelerated tempo. The design and construction of existing engines have been improved and changed; new and better designs have appeared on the market, with a very conspicuous trend toward higher speeds and greater power output. Deeper and more correct understanding has been attained in respect to thermo- and hydrodynamical processes and also in respect to the strength and wear of various machine parts. This is justification for a new, entirely revised edition of the book. The author has tried to improve the book for class use by taking into account not only the suggestions which he has received from instructors who have used his book in their classes but also his own teaching experience. As might be expected, the suggestions were of a greatly differing nature. Some wanted more material in respect to theory; others in respect to recent research; and several asked for strengthening the chapters devoted to design. At first the author was afraid that complying with all these suggestions would make the book too bulky as a text for an undergraduate course. However, since the book, even in the first edition, contained slightly more material than could be covered satisfactorily in a one-semester course, the author decided to include all material which seemed to be of interest from various points of view but to present it in such a way that certain chapters could be omitted without harm to the fundamental exposition. This gives a valuable flexibility to the book as a class text: it may be used in undergraduate courses, whether short © or long, by covering only those chapters which the individual instructor considers most essential; the rest of the chapters may be used in a second, advanced course. The book may also be used as a text in a course consisting of classes in theory and in a design laboratory. Finally, the book has enough material for two consecutive courses, the first of a theoretical nature, followed vviii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION same object in view most formulas based on thermodynamics and mechanics are not simply stated in a final form but derived from basic, more familiar equations. The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance given him by engine builders who supplied drawings and data pertaining to their engines, and to mention particularly the Western- Enterprise Engine Company whose diversified lines of internal- combustion engines—gas, oil, and gasoline, stationary, marine, and airplane—allowed the selection of a great number of exam- ples. The name of the manufacturer has not been mentioned every time a drawing was used. References to technical litera- ture are given in the text and in the Appendix. Finally the author acknowledges the assistance received from Professors H. M. Jacklin, C. M. Leonard, and V. W. Young in the form of constructive criticism of the manuscript. V. L. Matery. Houtywoop, CaLirornta, Tune, 1933.abs °APL atm °BE bhp Btu cc efm cu fpm fps fpsps ft-lb gpm hr ihp in. Ib Ib-ft, mep min mip mph psf psi psia psig rpm sec sp gr vib List of Abbreviations absolute degree(s) American Petroleum Institute, specific gravity atmosphere degree(s) Baumé, specific gravity brake horsepower British thermal unit(s) cubic centimeter cubic feet per minute eubie (in. or ft) degree(s) Fahrenheit feet per minute feet per second feet per second per second foot, feet foot-pound(s), work gallon(s) per minute horsepower hour(s) indicated horsepower inch(es) pound(s) pound-foot, moment of force or couple mean effective pressure minute(s) mean indicated pressure mile(s) per hour pound(s) per square foot pound(s) per square inch pounds per square inch absolute pounds per square inch gage degree(s) Rankine, Fahrenheit absolute revolution(s) per minute second(s) specific gravity square (in. or ft) vibration twc et, wieaa Q poe List of Symbols acceleration, linear, fpsps area, sq in. or sq ft diameter, in. specific heat, Btu/Ib-°F specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/lb-°F specific heat at constant volume, Btu /Ib-°F a constant chemical energy, Btu/Ib excess air, Ib /Ib excess scavenge air, Ib /Ib modulus of elasticity, direct, psi coefficient of friction force, Ib acceleration of force of gravity, 32.2 fpsps modulus of elasticity, shear, psi enthalpy, Btu/lb film coefficient, heat trans- fer, Btu/sq ft-°F-hr ratio of specific heats, cp/cy thermal conductivity. Btu/ sq ft-°F-hr length, also stroke, in. mass. Ib molecular weight moment of a force or couple, Ib-in. or Ib-ft exponent of a polytropic curve revolutions per minute horsepower brake horsepower indicated horsepower pressure, psi or psf mean effective pressure, brake, psi mean indicated pressure, psi heat, Btu/Ib total heat, Btu or Btu/hr heat value, Btu/Ib or Btu/ cu ft aw higher heat value, Btu/Ib or Btu/cu ft lower heat value, Btu/Ib or Btu/eu ft compression ratio, volu- metric gas constant, ft-lb /Ib-°F entropy, Btu /lb-°F total entropy, Btu/°F stress, tensile or compres- sive, psi shear stress, psi elastic limit, psi degrees Fahrenheit, °F degrees absolute, Rankine, torque, lb-in. or Ib-ft internal energy, Btu/Ib total internal energy, Btu volume of 1 Ib—specifie volume, cu ft/Ib total volume, cu ft velocity, fps specific weight, Ib/cu ft weight, Ib work, ft-lb contraction coefficient angles specific gravity, compared to water efficiency charge efficiency ideal efficiency mechanical efficiency scavenge efficiency volumetric efficiency discharge coefficient density, mass per unit of volume, Ib/eu in.-in. psps time, sec, min, or hr velocity coefficient angular velocity, per sec radiansContents Prejace to the Second Edition. .. 2... 0.0. “sy Preface to the First Edition. . 2... 0. ee vii List of Abbreviations... ee ix List of Symbols... ee x 1. Introduction. ©. 2 ee 1 2. Principles of Thermodynamics... . 2... 22 3. Fuds. 2.2... ee 4, Combustion. 2... 69 5. Theoretical Engine Cycles... 2... 2... 101 6. Handling of Gas Fuels 2 2 2 2. 2 122 7. Handling of Volatile Liquid Fuels. .. . 2... 129 -8. Combustion in Spark-ignition Engines... . . . 151 9. Handling of Fuel Oils. 2 2 2 2... we 173 10. Combustion in Compression-ignition Engines . . 204 He Combustion Chambers of Compression-ignition Engines. 2 2. ee 214 12. Engine Performance... .......2... 229 48. Four-stroke Spark-ignition Engines. . . 2... 253 a Four-stroke Compression-ignition Engines. . . . 262 15. Two-stroke Engines... 2... 7. 7. 270 16. Engine Efficiencies... ........202., 293 17. Engine Design. . 2... 2 306 18. Four-stroke Intake and Exhaust... .... . 318 19. Supercharging...... wee. 846 20. Two-stroke Exhaust and Scavenging cee 361 21. Cooling... .. te ee ee BTA 22. Cylinders—Cylinder Heads So ee 405 23. Framework. 2. 2. 2 2 1 ee 421xn CONTENTS CHAPTER Pacn 24. Reciprocating-rotary Motion. ....... ~~. 436 25. Vibration and Balancing... . 2... , 446 26. Lubrication. 2 2), 475 27. RunningGear... 2... dd, 498 28. Crankshafts. 2. 526 29. Flywheels and Governors... .. 2... 551 30. Starting—Reversing ... 2. ....2.~~., 569 31. Rating—Testing. 2... 2. 583 82. Gas Turbines. 2... 599 Inde... 617INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-1. General—Internal-combustion engines use the ,same source of energy as steam engines and steam turbines. [There are many reasons why internal-combustion engines are not only competing with other heat engines but in many instances are dominating the field./ The class of service is the principal factor in several cases. The most outstanding application of internal- combustion engines is for transportation—in automobiles, trucks, and airplanes. /In all these cases simplicity of operation and light weight are the deciding factors. In many small and medium-size stationary power plants, on farms and in small industrial enterprises, simplicity and low cost of operation are governing the adoption of gas and oil engines in preference to steam engines or electrical motors. In larger power plants, used for production of electric current or propulsion of boats and ships, and in locomotives, the fuel economy decides the choice in favor of oil enginesy A better utilization of the heat energy of fuel is an important feature of internal-combustion engines. The expansion in the use of internal-combustion engines is also materially assisted by their adaptability to different fuels—gaseous, liquid, and solid. As an introduction to problems encountered in the selection, operation, and design of internal-combustion engines, a classifi- cation and brief discussion of representative engines are given first. The principles of thermodynamics and their application to the theory of internal-combustion engines are reviewed next. Conditions and means of economical utilization of the heat of combustion are considered afterward in connection with the2 INTRODUCTION [Cuap. 1 peculiarities of different fuels. Problems of combustion in actual engines are analyzed next. After that, methods of determination of the main engine dimensions and guiding points in the designing of the principal engine parts are brought out. The closing chapters discuss the main points connected with rating and testing of internal-combustion engines and the principal features of the new form—the gas turbine. 1-2. Classification of Engines.—Internal-combustion engines can be divided into several groups using different features as characteristics: operating cycle, method of charging the cylinder, fuel used, general design; the latter in turn includes method of ignition, position and number of cylinders, rotative speed, etc. These classifications often overlap, since engines in the same class from one point of view belong to different classes from another point of view. Method of Charging.—In regard to the method of charging the cylinder, all engines can be divided into two groups, four- stroke and two-stroke engines, depending upon the number of strokes required for completion of one cycle. Another designa- tion, four-cycle and two-cycle engines, although often used, is incorrect and meaningless. Fuel.—In regard to fuel, engines may be divided into three classes, according to whether they operate on gaseous fuel, liquid fuel, or solid fuel. Liquid-fuel engines may be subdivided into those using volatile fuels, such as gasoline or alcohol, and those using heavy oil; the first vaporize the fuel by a carburetor, and their method of operation is very similar to that of gas engines. In heavy-oil engines the fuel is injected into the air charge toward the end of the compression stroke. These engines may be divided into low-, moderate-, and high-compression engines. In low-compression engines the ignition is obtained by means of a hot surface, such as a hot bulb, or an electric spark. Moder- ate-compression engines run with the ignition produced by the compression but require a special igniter for starting. In high- compression engines the ignition is effected by the compression alone; no outside means are required for starting. The development of mechanical-injection systems showed that the compression-ignition engines are not more expensive, nor do they require more skilled operators than the moderate-com-ate-compression engines and some bullders of low-compression engines changed their designs and raised the compression to obtain ignition by compression under all conditions. The present low-compression engines are chiefly of the cheap two- stroke type often called semi-diesel engines, although this name does not mean anything and is used only as a sales appeal. Engines operating on solid fuel, mostly coal, so far are using it after it has been gasified in gas producers; thus they are simply gas engines. Various forms of gas producers have been devel- oped to make solid fuels available for use. Almost forty years ago Rudolph Diesel tried unsuccessfully to use pulverized coal, injecting it directly into the engine cylinder. However, a German designer, R. Pawlikowsky, has developed an engine, similar to Diesel’s original one, that operates on pulverized coal. The main handicap to the commercial success of this engine is the excessive wear of the cylinder liner, piston, and piston rings, due to the abrasive action of the particles of ash formed during combustion. When and if this wear is reduced to a practical limit, the engine will have a great future because the supply of coal is incomparably greater than the supply of liquid fuels. Ignition —At, present the majority of engines operate with electric ignition and therefore are designated as spark-ignition engines. High-compression oil engines do not need any special ignition mechanism, the fuel being ignited when it comes in contact with the highly compressed and therefore hot air charge; hence their designation as comnpression-ignition engines. Generat Design.—In regard to the general design, engines may be classed as single- and double-acting. The latter design is used only for large engines. Other classifications under this head are horizontal- and vertical-type engines, meaning engines with horizontal or vertical center lines of the cylinders, also single- and maulticylinder engines, with two, three, four, and more cylinders. In V-type engines the cylinder axes are located in two inter- secting planes, which permits the pistons of each pair of cylinders to act upon the same crank. This arrangement shortens con- siderably the length of the crankshaft and of the whole engine. In radial engines this scheme is carried to its logical hmit, the crankshaft having only one crank, upon which act five, seven, or nine pistons,4 INTRODUCTION (Cuar. 1 1-3, Four-stroke Spark-ignition Engines.—Such an engine and its cycle of operation are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1-la-1d. During the first, or compression, stroke, Fig. 1-la, the piston moves toward the cylinder head, compressing the charge and thus: preparing it for ignition, which occurs through an electric spark from the spark plug sp near the end of the stroke. The ignition is followed by an almost instantaneous combustion, accompanied by a considerable pressure rise. During the second, working, or expansion, stroke, Fig. 1-1b, the piston is pushed by the gases Fia. 1-1.—Events in a four-stroke cycle. toward the opposite cylinder end; slightly before dead center the exhaust valve ¢ begins to open, releasing the burned gases to the atmosphere. During the third, or exhaust, stroke, the piston moves back toward the cylinder head and pushes the burned gases out, Fig. 1-lc, through the valve e. At the beginning of the fourth, intake, or suction, stroke, Fig. 1-1d, the exhaust valve e is closed and the intake valve i is opened. During this stroke the piston moves away from the cylinder head, creating a vacuum which causes the cylinder to be filled with a fresh charge consisting of a mixture of air and fuel, gas or gasoline vapor, through the valve 1.four-stroke engine: 1-2 corresponds to the compression stroke; 2-3 is combustion at nearly constant volume, often termed explosion; 3-4 is the expansion on the power stroke; 4-5 is the exhaust; and 5-1 is the suction stroke. Figure 1-3 shows a modern six-cylinder gasoline-truck engine with the names of all main engine parts. Figures 1-4 and 1-5 show a typical modern passenger-car engine. It has six L-head cylinders with a 3)4-in. bore and 4Yj-in. stroke; the crankshaft is of rigid construction and is supported on four main bearings having a 234-in. diameter. The connecting rods are drilled for pressure lubrication of the 3 5 4 Fra. 1-2.—-Four-stroke gas engine diagram. full-floating wristpins. The pistons are of aluminum with split skirts. Instead of a section through the sixth cylinder, Fig. 1-5 gives a section through the valves, showing the spark plug, the exhaust valve under it, and the slightly larger intake valve. However, in many automobile engines the intake and exhaust valves are made of the same size. Figure 1-4 shows the crank- shaft and one of the valves with its mechanism, the shape of the combustion space, and two sections of the pressure-oil gear pump. The engine has a compression ratio of 6.71:1 and develops 73 and 105 hp at 2000 and 3600 rpm, respectively. These speeds correspond to a, car speed of 37.2 and 66.9 mph. Figure 1-6 shows a typical double-acting tandem gas engine arranged for direct coupling to a compressor or blower. When this engine is used for driving an electric generator or other rotary machinery, the tie rods a,a and the auxiliary crosshead b are omitted and the bedplate is shortened, as shown by dotted linas r(Car. 1 INTRODUCTION “eanqejousuIOU jaud-oursUS YRTA aUWBUE oTIGoWOINE sopuNso-Ig—g-T “org cmehe aeccne ste: € ONV Z “SON SONIBV3 LIVHSINVED, Z"ON ONRIVad LIVHSWYD i LON ONRIVIE LIVHSYNVED SONRIVIS OY ONILDNNOD ~q. ¥3AOD 3SVD NIVHD O¥ ONUDINNOD ONS JAIVA OOTP WANIIAD:- Ni GBNIHD¥W __£°ON ~~ ONRWVEG “LAVHSWVD YAO ONS SATYA.FOUR-STROKE SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES | Sec. 1-3] (huvduiog 199 4070, omg fo fieaqinog) i. 2 0 ska Teocbuasowd feeyoeA GHB JO LORDS TeUPNA!FUO| Pus ToT SOI) —ET PUR “HT “PE(Caap. 1 INTRODUCTION ‘oudiue seB wepue; Sapov-oqnop dy-oge uowuryII0M—g-T “OL e 2 OEE EEE TTI adSzc. 1-4 TWO-STROKE SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES 9 The largest gas engines built in this country, which develop 10,000 bhp, are made as double-tandem engines, each side resembling the general design of Fig. 1-6. 1-4, Two-stroke Spark-ignition Engines.—In such an engine the cycle is completed in two strokes, or one revolution of the crankshaft, as against two revolutions in a four-stroke-cycle engine. Thus, all other factors being equal, a two-stroke engine will develop, at least theoretically, twice the horsepower of a four-stroke engine having the same piston displacement. The difference between two-stroke and four-stroke engines is in the method of removing the burned gases and filling the cylinder * with a fresh charge. In a four-stroke engine these operations are performed by the engine piston during the exhaust and suction strokes. In a two- stroke engine these operations are performed near the dead center, after the expansion 2' stroke, by a stream of air or air-fuel mixture admitted under 5 pressure and delivered by a Fic. 1-7—Two-stroke gas-engine dia- separate pump. gram. Figure 1-7 represents a typical two-stroke-engine indicator diagram. Compression line 1-2, combustion 2-3, and expansion 3-4 do not differ from the corresponding parts of a four-stroke diagram. At point 4 the engine piston begins to uncover special exhaust ports, and the bulk of the burned gases escapes to the atmosphere. After the pressure has dropped almost to atmos- pherie, air, slightly compressed by a so-called scavenge pump, is admitted into the cylinder, scavenges the latter, and expels most of the remaining burned gases. The scavenging usually lasts until point 1, when the piston, moving toward the cylinder head, covers the scavenge and exhaust ports and compression starts. In gas engines a separate pump delivers the gas into the cylinder either slightly before point 1 or, in the newest construc- tions, after point 1, thus avoiding any escape of gas into the exhaust. Figure 1-8 shows diagrammatically a two-stroke spark-ignition engine: Toward the end of the expansion stroke the piston first uncovers the exhaust ports e, the gases begin to flow out, and the10 INTRODUCTION Cuap. 1 pressure drops; soon after that the piston uncovers the so-called scavenge ports s, and the lightly compressed air-fuel mixture is admitted to the cylin- der, expelling the remaining burned gases. On the return stroke the piston covers first the scavenge ports s, then the exhaust ports e, and the compression starts. Near the upper dead center the charge is ignited by a spark from the spark plug sp. Figure 1-9 shows a horizontal two- stroke gas engine of the so-called crank- case scavenging type. Thescavenging air enters the crankcase through a check valve » while the piston is moving to the left, and on the return stroke is com- pressed until the scavenge ports s are uncovered by the piston. The flow of F scavenge air continues until on the return 1G. 1-8.—Crankcase ‘i scavenge spark-ignition stroke the piston covers the scavenge engine. ports. The exhaust gases escape through the exhaust portse. This scheme has the advantage of simplicity Fic. 1, — Weber two-stroke gas engine. and is used extensively. However, the volumetric efficiency of the crankcase pump is rather low, and not enough air isSzc, 1-5 COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES 11 furnished for a good scavenging. Owing to the limited amount of air admitted to the cylinder, a correspondingly small amount of fuel can be burned and the engine, in proportion to its piston displacement, develops a relatively small power. By using a separate pump to furnish the scavenging air the engine output can be increased. 1-5. Compression-ignition Engines.—The first commercially successful compression-ignition engine was developed by Diesel. The modern compression-ignition engines differ in so many respects from the original diesel engine that it is more correct to 3n4 T Fic. 1-10.—Diagram of a four-stroke compression-ignition vil engine. divorce them from the name of Diesel and simply to call them compression-ignition engines. They operate on either the four- stroke or the two-stroke cycle. The main differences between a spark-ignition and a com- pression-ignition-engine cycle are as follows: In the former the combustible mixture of fuel and air is introduced into the engine cylinder either before the compression stroke begins or shortly after. A low compression ratio must be used, to prevent the temperature at the end of the eompression from rising to the ignition temperature of the charge; also, in this type, ignition is started by an electrical spark. In a compression-ignition engine, on the other hand, only air (with a small amount of residue gases) is compressed, and the fuel, as a finely atomized liquid, is injected shortly before the piston reaches the dead center. The tempera- ture of the compressed air is higher than the ignition temperature of the fuel, and the latter begins to burn without any outside means of igniting it.12 INTRODUCTION [Cuar. 1 An indicator diagram, Fig. 1-10, explains the operation of a mechanical-injection four-stroke compression-ignition engine. During the compression stroke 1-2, the pressure and with it the temperature of the air within the engine cylinder are raised sufficiently high to ignite the fuel oil when it is injected slightly before the dead center. The burning of the fuel at first. raises the pressure, line 2-3, and then for a short period maintains an approximately constant pressure, line 3-4, while the piston begins the power stroke. The expan- sion line 4-5, exhaust 5-6, and intake 6-1 do not differ from the corresponding events in a spark- ignition engine. In a two-stroke compre ignition engine, the compression and power strokes are identical with those of a four-stroke engine, Fig. 1-10, and the scavenging procedure does not differ from that of a spark-ignition engine, as illustrated by Fig. 1-7. A few drawings with a corre- sponding description will explain more in detail the operation of these engines. Figure 1-11 gives a cross sec- tion of a low-speed air-injection diesel engine as used in large motor ships. The intake and exhaust valves are operated by the camshaft c, with cams actuating the rocker arms a of the fuel valve and b of the intake valve. Air is admitted through silencers s, and the exhaust gases are discharged into the exhaust mani- fold e; g is the three-stage air compressor. Figure 1-12 shows a medium-speed mechanical-injection oil engine of the so-called constant-pressure type. The top of the trunk piston p is so turned as to form a ring-shaped open com- bustion chamber. The fuel is pumped into the fuel-piping engine,Sze. 1-5 COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES 13 system, from which it is admitted to the fuel valve f. The latter is lifted by a rocker-arm mechanism actuated by means of a cam and push rod. The engine is started by compressed air admitted to the cylinder through the starting valve m, which is SECTION THRt INLET VALVE OPERATING GEAR Fig. 1-12.—Mechanical-injection oil engine. Courtesy of Worthington Manu- Sacturing Company. actuated mechanically, and the check valve n in the cylinder head. To clear the inlet valve i and the symmetrically located exhaust valve not shown in the drawing, the top of the piston is recessed; j is the spring which closes the inlet valve. Figure 1-13 shows another medium-speed mechanical-injection oil engine with a so-called turbulence head. During the com-14 INTRODUCTION \ lp ¢| Fig. 1-13.—Price-Rathbun airless injection oil engine. [Crar. 1(uorppsod.i0 esojo py saynos04 fo ‘ouyBua yon1} Yo uoHTUsy Avayinog) -auy#uo yon [lo UOTYTUAT-uorssosduTOD ¥ Jo MOA Zed PUB VO!oe JeUIPNyBUO—gT-T ‘Oly -woyssarduIOO W JO VOOR SEOIQ—FI-L “OLY16 INTRODUCTION Cuar. 1 pression stroke the flat-top piston pushes the air through a restriction r into the combustion chamber, creating a turbulence that assists the burning of the fuel. The two fuel nozzles f, f also help to distribute the fuel through the combustion space. In this construction the center lines of the intake and exhaust valves are located in a plane normal to the crankshaft center line and therefore are visible on the cross-sectional drawing. Figures 1-14 and 1-15 show a compression-ignition truck engine with a turbulence chamber. The fuel is injected by the pump p through the fuel injector f into the spherical chamber c, in which the piston during the compression stroke produces a strong turbu- lence; g is a glow plug to facilitate starting in cold weather. Finally, Fig. 1-16 shows a small high-speed compression-ignition oil engine with a so-called energy cell. The fuel pump pdeliversthe fuel to the fuel nozzle f, which injects it into the combustion space c, where part of the fuel starts to burn; the core of the spray, however, enters the energy cell e, which consists of a pear- shaped space connected through a Fic. 1-16.—Oil engine with an restriction with a spherical part. eneray cell. Some of the fuel which enters the energy cell ignites there, and the ensuing rapid combustion produces a stream of gases back into the main combustion chamber, creating a turbulence there and thus accelerating the combustion. Some of the two-stroke compression-ignition oil engines are built along the same lines as two-stroke gas engines. In fact the engine shown in Fig. 1-9 is a convertible engine: by putting on a new cylinder head, which gives a higher compression ratio, removing the spark plug and magneto and inserting a fuel nozzle, and by attaching a fuel pump, the gas engine is converted into a compression-ignition oil engine.Sec. 1-5] COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES 17 Figure 1-17 shows the upper part of a modern two-stroke high- speed compression-ignition oil engine. The exhaust is released and pushed out through two symmetrically located poppet valves in the cylinder head; the air for scavenging is furnished by a built-in three-lobe rotary blower and is admitted through two rows of round-hole ports controlled by the piston edge. The fuel injector is located in the center of the cylinder head between the two exhaust valves. ae we Fie. 1-17.—Uniflow scavenge system of a General Motors compression-ignition oil engine. Figure 1-18 shows a large medium-speed two-stroke-cycle engine in which both the exhaust and the scavenging are accom- plished through ports uncovered by the piston edge. In very large units the scavenge air is furnished by a separate small oil engine. Figure 1-19 shows another large medium-speed engine with a different type of scavenging scheme. The engine is used in many stationary power plants and in motor ships. Finally, Fig. 1-20 shows a large double-acting mechanical- injection engine built primarily for marine use, but also used in18 INTRODUCTION [Cuar. 1 stationary power plants and as stand-by for peak loads in steam- turbine power plants. F A Fic. 1-18.—Busch-Sulzer two-stroke oil engine, 300 hp per cylinder. (Courtesy of Busch-Sulzer Bros. Diesel Engine Co.) ‘Suc. 1-5] COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES 19 _ 4} i = i\ | \ 1 \ || | nS SX Fre. 1-19.—Nordberg two-stroke oil engine, 425 hp per cylinder. (Courtesy of Nordbera Manufacturing Company.)20 INTRODUCTION [Cnar. 1 1-6. Subject Matter and Problems..—The subject matter of the book covers a wide range of questions in the fields of thermo- dynamics; chemistry, including combustion processes; mechanics of motion, including vibrations; strength of materials; and design Fie. 1-20.—Double-acting mechanical-injection two-stroke oil engine. of machine parts. All these questions are related to and often complicated by their application to internal-combustion engines. Therefore, it is well to bear in mind that proper familiarity with the subject matter is not easily attained and certainly cannot be acquired through mere reading of the text without working out @ certain minimum of typical and illustrative problems. 1 The following remarks belong rather to the preface to the book. How- ever, the author’s experience as a college instructor has taught him that many students do not read the preface; hence, he decided to put these remarks where they are more likely to be read and remembered.Szc. 1-6 SUBJECT MATTER AND PROBLEMS 21 As in practically all fields of engineering, the subject matter, while important in itself, is to a great extent only a background for the proper approach to various problems which may be encountered in practice. Therefore, the working of the problems given in the book is very important. However, very little will be accomplished if a person glances through the problem, takes a formula which looks more or less suitable, picks out data to substitute in the formula, often not even paying attention to the units or dimensions which are required by the formula, runs a string of calculations on the slide rule, and gets some answer. The chances are that in about every other case the answer will not be right, and in most cases the person who went through such manipulations will have gained nothing, A problem, in order to be of value, must be analyzed step by step and solved on its merits, not mechanically. The following procedure is recommended: ” 1. Read the problem attentively. 2. Write down the given data, with their dimensions, in a logical order. 3. List questions or results asked for. 4. Whenever practicable, draw a sketch to illustrate the problem. 5. Insert given data on the sketch. 6. Analyze the problem and note the kind of process or proc- esses involved. 7. Note the principle which applies to each type of process. 8. Indicate the logical step-by-step solution, either by formulas given in the book or by setting up proper equations. 9. Calculate the results asked for. If the analysis was correct and sufficient data are available, the solving of the problem should not present any difficulty. If a problem is handled in the outlined manner, it will help the student to understand the underlying principles and the subject matter in general. A habit of working the problems in this manner will be a great asset for both classwork and future engineering practice at large.CHAPTER 2 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS 2-1, Perfect Gases.—The application of the principles of thermodynamics to engine problems is considerably simplified if at first the working substances are considered to be perfect gases. The three main variables of a gas are absolute pressure p, in pounds per square foot, volume V, in cubic feet, and temperature T, in degrees Fahrenheit absolute, more conveniently called Rankine degrees. If ¢ is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, T =t+ 460 (21) Characteristic Equation.—For a perfect gas, which obeys the two fundamental laws of Boyle and Charles, the relation of the three variables can be given in the form of the characteristic equation pV = WRT (2-2) where W is the weight in pounds and R is the gas constant in foot-pounds per pound per degree Rankine. For 1 Ib of gas the characteristic equation becomes po= RT (2-3) Mol System.—Computations where both weights and volumes of different substances are involved are considerably simplified by introducing the term mol. A mol means M lb of a substance where MM is its molecular weight. For instance, 1 mol 0; means 32 lb oxygen, 1 mol CyHe (benzene) means 78 lb of this liquid. The specific volumes of solids and liquids are so small compared with the specific volumes of gases that in most technical compu- tations they can be neglected. Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of any gases having the same pressure and temperature contain equal numbers of molecules. Therefore the ratio of weights of equal volumes of any two gases at the same pressure and temperature is equal to the ratio of their molecular weights. 22Suc, 2-1 PERFECT GASES 23 Consequently, at a given pressure and temperature the volumes of 1 mol of all gases are the same. In technical measurements of gases a pressure of 14.7 psi and a temperature of 60 F as adopted by the SAE are used as standard conditions. For these standard conditions the volume of 1 mol of any gas is 379 cu ft and the specific volume », or the volume of 1 Ib, is v = 379/M (2-4) This value is obtained by using the corresponding values for p and T' and for the gas constant the expression R = 1545/M (2-5) 1545(= MR) is called the universal gas constant. Thus the characteristic equation for n mols becomes pV = 1545nT (2-6) Specific weight is the weight of 1 unit of volume. For gases and vapors the specific weight is expressed in pounds per cubic foot. Specific weight w is the reciprocal of the specific volume v and in accordance with equation (2-4) is proportional to the molecular weight M. Thus for any two gases the following rela- tions exist: Wi/wW2 = v2/r1 = M1/M2 (2-7) Specific Heat.—The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of a substance 1 degree under certain external conditions is called the thermal capacity of the substance. The average thermal capacity per degree Fahrenheit of 1 lb water between 32 and 212F is called 1 British thermal unit (Btu), and the thermal capacity expressed in Btu per pound per degree Fahren- heit is called specific heat. The two very important conditions at which temperature changes of gases occur are constant pressure and constant volume, and the respective specific heats are designated c, andc,. The ratio of these specific heats is designated = C/ep (2-8) and their difference is Cp — Ce = AR (2-9) where A = 147s is the heat equivalent of work.24 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS [Cuap. 2 In computations where only comparative figures are sought, or at low temperatures, specific heats may be assumed to be con- stant. When greater accuracy is required or in dealing with higher temperatures, the influence of temperature must be taken into consideration. For 1 mol the specific heats, also called molar heat capacities, are Ye = Me, and yw = Me (2-10) Table 2-1 gives equations for finding instantaneous molar specific heats 7p for various gases at constant pressure. The molar heat at constant volume is, substituting in equation (2-9) expression (2-5) for R and using the designations (2-10), Ye = Ye — 1.986 (2-11) This means that the ratio of specific heats k also changes with temperature. The specific heats per pound of gas are found by dividing yp and 7. by the molecular weight of the gas. Gas Mizxtures—If several gases or vapors are contained in a closed space, then the pressures which the constituents would have, if each occupied the total space alone, are called partial pressures. If the partial pressures of the constituent gases are Pi, P2, ps - . . and the total pressure of the mixture is p, then, according to Dalton’s law, p=pmtptps::- (2-12) This law holds true if the gases or vapors in a mixture have no chemical affinity. If the parts of the constituents by volume are 1,1, Tv2, Tes . «+ and the parts by weight are rui, Tus, Tws - - - , Where Tatra ttes 7 = 1; tort tee tts = 1 then the partial pressures can be expressed as Pi = Pres; P2 = Pier; Ps = Dros (2-13) On the other hand, if the specific volume of the mixture is v and the temperature is 7, then, from equation (2-2), pi = twiRiT/v; P2 =To2hsT/v; ps = twsRsT/v (2-14) ‘The sum of equations (2-14) gives in connection with equation (2-12) P= X(reR)T/v (2-15)3pc. 2-2 FORMS OF ENERGY 25 Comparing expression (2-15) with the characteristic equation ‘or 1 lb of mixture, po =R,T zives for the gas constant of the mixture Ry = 2(rwR) (2-16) Similarly the specific heats of 2 mixture may be expressed as Cpm = Z(TuCp) (2-17) Com = E(Twty) (2-18) Gas analysis is usually given in volumetric percentages or ‘ractions. The change to fractions oy weight, or vice versa, can be made ising the evident relationships Toi = TiM;/Z(rxM) (2-19) and To = (Toi/Mi)/EZ(ru/M) (2-20) 2-2. Forms of Energy.—Of the fic. 2-1—Pressure-volume many forms in which energy can diagram. appear, only those encountered in internal-combustion engines will be mentioned. 1. Mechanical Work.—When a gas expands, it is capable of doing work equal to the product of pressure and change of volume dW. = pav (2-21) If a gas expands from condition 1 to condition 2, Fig. 2-1, the work W;, is represented by the area 1-2-2’-1’/-1, and We= [?pav (2-22) If dV is positive, the gas is expanding and work is positive or is done by the gas; if dV is negative, the gas is being compressed and the negative work is done on the gas by an outside source. Mechanical-work values are absolute values of energy which is actually transferred from a working fluid to an engine, or vice versa. 2. Flow Work.—Energy entering or leaving a process owing to the flow of the working fluid to or from the process is called26 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS Cuar. 2 flow work. Numerically it is equivalent to the work required of a piston mechanism in moving the fluid past a given section in a pipe. This work is equal to pV, the product of the pressure and of the volume of the fluid at the given section. Flow work is not energy in the fluid but energy transferred into and out of the process by the fluid. Flow work represents an absolute value of energy. Ezample 2-1.—Determine the flow work per mol of exhaust gases flowing through an exhaust pipe; the back pressure is 1.5 psi and the gas temperature is 1300 F. The flow work is pV, which is equal to the left side of equation (2-6); therefore pV = 1545(1300 + 460) = 2,720,000 ft-Ib/mol In heat units ApV = 2,720,000/778 = 3495 Btu/mol 3. Heat Q is energy transferred to or from a substance owing to temperature difference. Heat transfer may be evaluated from the specific heat c and the temperature change Q= fe Wear (2-28) where, for the most common changes, at constant volume or at constant pressure, c is a function of T as given in Table 2-1. Heat represents an absolute value of energy. If the specific heat is assumed constant, integrating equation (2-28) gives Q = We(T2 — T:) = Wells — ty) (2-24) 4. Kinetic energy K; is energy of a substance due to its motion and is expressed as K; = Wo2/2g (2-25) where W/g = m is mass, lb-sec?/ft, v is velocity, fps. Kinetic energy is a relative value, usually referred to the velocity of the earth surface as representing zero velocity. Ezample 2-2.—Determine the kinetic energy per mol of exhaust gases in an exhaust line. The gas velocity is 600 fps; the apparent molecular weight of the gases is 28.7. K; = 28.7 X 6002/2 x 32.2 = 160,500 ft-Ib/mol or 206 Btu/mol2? 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IHT'S « E9E°OR cose | sige 162‘0z | 46e°8t | seater | TtO'ST | ge6'es | OLT*se : 189"8T core, SHEL o19'6r ggo'et | ogetzt | trz'Fe ; eRo'9s | eZ0"6I eoge - net's | 1g6°8t ZIF'ST | BOLT | ASFEE = 490"Ss | OeE"ST woge + 186°9 92°81 FRLTLE EFL‘OT . 282°2E | L80"FS , C6Q"LT | B20'2T ” OZg'ST _ TS8'GE - ig0'eT _ OeO" LT FIFE - 1G8HT | OSs"6S . 990'tT FELST GIETHT STS"SS - B9DTS A8O'ST ETLET | 18S"ET «ALTOS | EFT fETeT oc0"9s | OOT Gt FEE*RT30 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS Cuap. 2 which is only about 0.1 per cent of the energy liberated during combustion of 1 mol of fuel. 5. Internal Energy.—The energy of gas due to its molecular motion is called internal energy U. For a perfect gas, U depends only upon its temperature. The infinitesimal change of internal energy per mol of gas is dU =4¢dT or dU = Mc,aT (226) Usually only the change of internal energy during a process is of interest. Integrating expression (2-26) from T', to T: gives this ghange as U-Ui=M [ear (2-27) The zero of internal energy is taken arbitrarily at a certain temperature. For sake of convenience, values of U, computed from the standard temperature of 60 F or 520R by equation (2-27) and using data from Table 2-1 for the molar specific heats, are given in Table 2-2. Internal energy thus computed represents a relative value. Example 2-3.—Determine the value of the internal energy of 1 mol of methane, CH,, at a temperature of 77 F. In equation (2-27), T.=520R and 7; = 460 +77 =537R From Table 2-1, for CH,, with equation (2-11) fe = 4.22 + 0.008211 — 1.986 = 2.234 + 0.0082117 by equation (2-27) Vow = e (2.234 + 0.008211) aT = 2.234(537 — 520) + 0.5 X 0.008211(5372 — 520%) = 112 Btu/mol 6. Enthalpy—An infinitesimal quantity of heat added to 1 mol of a gas at constant pressure can be presented as dH = Mc, dT (2-28) Expression (2-28) integrated from T, to T: gives Hi- Hi=M |" c,aT (2-29)Seo, 23 AVAILABILITY OF ENERGY 31 The change of enthalpy H represents the amount of heat which must: be added to raise the temperature of the gas from T.to Ts and also to do the work of expansion, because the volume of a gas at constant pressure increases with the increase of temperature. Another definition states that enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy and of the term pV, which represents flow work if the substance is flowing, expressed in Btu, H=U+ApV (2-30) where with equations (2-6), (2-9), and (2-11) for 1 mol, n = 1, H=U+1.986T (2-31) Since U has a relative value, enthalpy also represents a relative value. * 7. Chemical energy C is energy stored in the electron and the bonding arrangement of the atoms of a molecule. Changes in this arrangement due to combination with other atoms or dis- sociation result in the liberation or absorption of energy. Chemi- cal energy is computed from the heats of reaction of combustion and from values of internal energy, or enthalpy, of the substance before and after the reaction. Therefore chemical energy repre sents a relative value. Difference of Energy Terms.—Work and heat transfer depend upon the path of the process, and the plotting of the path is possible only when the working fluid is in a state of equilibrium throughout the process. Changes of other forms of energy, kinetic energy, internal energy, enthalpy, and chemical energy, can be computed from the knowledge of initial and final conditions. Some of the energy forms, W:, pV, and Q, are absolute in value, while others, K., U, H, and C, are relative and in some instances may be based upon different reference planes. These differences must be taken into account. For processes in which the amount of working substance does not change, the differences of values of energy at the beginning and at the end of the process, such as given by equation (2-27) or (2-29), eliminate the reference-plane values and give absolute energy changes. 2-3. Availability of Energy. Fundamental Equation.—Accord- ing to the first law of thermodynamics, in a nonflow process heat added or rejected is equal to the sum of the change of internal