24 QUANTUM PHYSICS Topic 24.1. Photons 24.2 Wave-particle duality 24.3 Atomic structure @ ® © © ® a) oO oO ® @™ @ © Learning Outcome describe the important observations in photoelectric experiments; recognise the features of the photoelectric effect that cannot be explained by wave theory, and explain these features using the concept of quantisation of light; use the equation E = hf for a photon; explain the meaning of work function and threshold frequency, use Einstein's equation for the photoelectric effet if = +m explain the meaning of stopping potential, and use eV, = —nm2,,; 2 state de Broglie’s hypothesis; use the relation 4 =”. to calculate de Broglie P wavelength; interpret the electron diffraction pattem as an evidence of the wave nature of electrons; explain the advantages of an electron microscope as compared to an optical microscope; state Bohr’s postulates for a hydrogen atom; derive an expression for the radii of the orbits in Bohr’s model; Ze derive the Sorel E, =——= +. Be, h Bohr’s model; explain the production of emission line spectra with reference to the transitions between energy levels; explain the concepts of excitation energy and ionisation energy;244 X-rays 24.5 Nanoscience ® @ ® © o @w o interpret X-ray spectra obtained from X-ray tubes; explain the characteristic line spectrum and continuous spectrum including A... in X-rays; Q he derive and use the equation Za = al describe X-ray diffraction by two parallel adjacent atomic planes; derive and use Bragg’s law 2d sin 9 =m2; explain the basic concept of nanoscience; state the applications of nanoscience in electronics devices.24.1 Photons 2, of 7 500506 © B°0°o 0! Photoelectric effect is the observation that metals emit electrous when light shines upon their surface. Electrons emitted in this manner can be celled photoelectrons In 1916 Milliken cerried out the photoelectric effect experiment using the experimental setup as shown in the diagem below. Cathode ‘Anode ‘Tube B is highly evacusted, end a potential difference of sbout 10 V is applied between anode end cathode. The cathotle consists of « smell zine plete, end a quastz window is errenged in the side of the tube such thet the cathotle may be illumineted with ulteviolet light. The current measured by the micro-emmeter gives @ dixect meesure of the munber of electrons emitted atthe cathode. When the tube is derk no electrons are emitted atthe cathotle and therefore no current is recorded. When ultraviolet light is allowed to fall onthe cathode electrons are ejected and traverse the tube to the anotle, under the influence of the anode-cethode potential. A smell cuxrent is recorded by the micro-ammeter. PE. current light intensity‘The graph above shows « plot of photoclectic cuent against light intensty for @ constent anode-cethode potential. As youwould expect, the graph is a srsight ine and doubling the light intensity doubles the mumber of electrons ejected atthe cathode. From the expesiment, he obteined the following important observations: 1. Photoclectrons are emittetlimmediately when the cethode is illuminated with ultraviolet radiation. 2. ‘The sate of emission of the photoelectrons is directly proportional tothe intensity ofthe radketion. 3. There is frequency of light below which no electrons ere emitted This frequency is called the threshold frequency. 4. ‘The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons increases when the frequency of the incident ight isincreased. (© Explanation by Quantum Theory According to quantum theary, light consists of discrete packages of energy known as photons. The energy of each photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some material absorbs the energy of one photon end acquires more energy then the work funetion (the minimum work done to free an electron from the metal suface) of the material, itis ejected instantly without any delay. Therefore, there is a minimum frequency for emission of photoelectrons ‘An increase in the intensity of light will increase the mumber of photons sent over a given interval of time, this change in intensity will increase the rate of emission of photoelectrons, As a result, the photoelectsic current is directly proportional to the intensity of the light. All of the energy from one photon must be absorbed and used to liberate one electron from stomic binding or clse the energy is re-emitted If the photon energy is ebsarbed, some of the energy liberates the electron from the stom, and the rest contsibutes to the electron's kinetic energy as a fiee particle. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam, keeping the sumber of incident photons fixed (this would remuilt in « proportionste increase in enetgy) increases the maximum kinetic energy of the photoslectrons emitted (©) Differences between explanation given by wave theory and quantum theery Inwave theory, 1. the kinetic energy of the electrons depends on the intensity of the light 2. there is atime lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron. In quantum theory, 1. the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons depends on the frequency of the incident light 2. the emission of electrons is instantaneous.(@ Einstein's Equation for photoelectric effect ‘The energy for a photonis h= Plank’s constant 6.63 x 10°"J "= frequency of radiation Work function W is the minimum energy required to eject an electron from the metal surface. W=Mfs Work function of a metal is @ constent. It is independent of the frequency of the incident light ‘When e metal isilluminsted by a radiation of frequency the photon energy is ured to escepe the electron fiom the metal surface end supply the maximum kinetic energy Kau of the electron. According to Einstein's equation Mf=W+ Knas or Mf =W+ 4 nw as where isthe Planck constant fis the frequency of the incident photon Wis the work function of the metal (LV graph for photoelectric effect Pl arent Higher intensity ‘Ssturton Cur Lower intensity mee sxipping vorage Potent ‘The graph ebove shows the variation of the photoelectric current with the potential difference ‘between the eathode end anode. Ifthe frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric cusent increases gradually with en increase in the positive potential on the collector clectrode until all the photoelectrons emitted are collected The photoslectsic cwxent atteins « seturetion value end does not increase fusther for any increase in the postive potentiel The ssturstion current increases with the increase of the light intensity. If we apply a negetive potential to the collector plate with respect to the anode plate and gradually increase it, the photoelectric current decreases, becoming zero at a certein negative potential, The negative potential on the collector at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called the stopping potential or cut off potential. Needless to say, Stopping Potential is the mininuun potential to stop ‘the most energetic photoelectron from reaching the anode.