The interrogation

In the pulse pattern radiated by the transmitter, the interval between Pl

and P2 is two microseconds but the position of P3 is variable, this being the
method by which the type of information required from the transponder is
indicated. Four 'modes', or types, of reply are at present allocated for civil
use, designated A,B,C and D. The pulse spacing corresponding to these
modes and their current applications are:
(a)
side lobes
(b)
-...
'
main lobe radiating P1. P3
\
\
\
I
I
I
I
/ control
£---transmission
( radiating P2
\
/
.......... ___ _....,"""'
------- --- + 9 dB
P1 P2 P3
0 dB
,' _:'
:2(J,S:. I
~ mode --.i
, determined by I
spacing
Fig. 35 SSR radiated (a) horizontal polar diagrams (b) interrogate pulse pattern
5.2 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR) 157
Mode Pl to P3 spacing(μ s) Application
A 8 ±.0.2 ATC
B 17 ±.0.2 ATC
C 21 ±.0.2 Pressure altitude
D 25 ±.0.2 Unassigned
On receiving a valid interrogation the aircraft transponder will radiate two
framing pulses spaced 20.3 microseconds between which, at 1.45 microsecond
increments after the first framing pulse, are the information pulses.
Between the framing pulses up to thirteen information pulses may exist.
These are divided into four groups of three. plus an additional position,
designated X, which is at present unused and is specified only as a technical
standard for possible future use.
Three pulses in each group corresponding to 1, 2 and 4, enable the numbers
0 to 7 to be coded in binary notation, thus with four groups the numbers 0000
to 7777 may be coded in BCO (Binary Coded Octal). This corresponds to
0-4096 in the more common decimal notation. The meanings of these codes
is entirely dependent on the SSR mode in operation. The mode A reply
represents the aircraft control identification, having been allocated by Air
Traffic Control and entered into the aircraft equipment by the aircrew. The
mode C (height) reply is completely automatic, operating from a pressure
capsule within the equipment.
C>

C: ·e
! C1 A 1 C2 A2 C4 A4
1.45
f,LS I
II
1 ____ - - - - - - 20.3 f,LS
I
Fig. 36 SSR reply pulse patterns
C>

C: ·e
B1 D1 B2 D2 B4 D4 !
I
I
C:
0 C:
·.;::. 0 ·u,-.:;
0"' o..!=

-:t: "' .... ·(-J aC:,

a, "O
0.·-
11)

- - - - - - - - --1-4.35f.Ls-l
II
In addition to the information and framing pulses previously described, the
standard SSR format also allows for a Special Position Identification (SPI)
pulse. This may be transmitted in combination, with any other information
and is 'keyed' by the aircrew at the request of the air traffic control authority.
The pulse is situated at an interval of 4.35 microseconds following the second
framing pulse.
158 MANUAL OF AVIONICS
All secondary surveillance radar systems operate on the same frequencies,
interrogation being at 1030 MHz and transponder replies being at 1090 MHz.
This commonality gives rise to further difficulties. Although ground based
interrogators may be geographically separated by over 200 nm, some aircraft
may be within range of two or more stations and cause non-synchronous
interference to one station by replying synchronously to. another. This
interference is termed 'fruit'. Although the ground receiver incorporates
circuitry for separating synchronous from no!].-synchronous returns,
'defruiters', interference difficulties still arise. The probability of obtaining a
reply free of 'fruit' decreases at a greater rate than the increase of
transponders in use.
A further problem arising is that of 'synchronous garbling' which results
from the overlapping replies of two or more aircraft in close proximity within
the same aerial beam width. Typically, this occurs with overtaking, aircraft
on airways and in holding or stacking patterns. .
It is reasonable to surmise that although these problems are not
.insurmountable at present, air traffic level forecasts for the future envisage
that air traffic increase in certain areas will be such that the present SSR
system will, in time, become saturated by a proliferation of garbling and
'fruit'. It was with this situation in mind that the UK and the USA each
commenced a development programme of improvements to the SSR system.
In 1974 a series of discussions between the United States Federal Aviation
Administration and the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority resulted in
a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to bring compatibility to their
respective systems. Furthermore, the MOU allowed for future developments
of these systems to take place on a co-operative basis.
ModeS
The deficiencies of the present SSR will be largely overcome by the use of
Mode S.
The requirements for the successor to the present SSR system may be
summarised broadly as follows:
(a) elimination of synchronous garbling.
(b) increased capacity in terms of traffic numbers.
(c) improved surveillance accuracy to meet future demands of automated air
traffic control systems.
(d) compatibility with existing ICAO SSR as described in Annex 10.
(e) minimal costs to aircraft operators through evolutionary developments.
The Mode S ground equipment operates on the same frequencies as SSR
and comprises an interrogator and a receiver. Monopulse techniques are
invariably used and this results in the off-boresight azimuth (OBA) of the
interrogated aircraft being within five minutes of arc. Furthermore, range
measurement is predicted to have an accuracy of approx I 00 ft due to
improved transponder design.
(a)
(b)
5.2 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR)
O.Sμs
I
P1 P2 )
I
2.0μs
synchro-:
nising :
pulses ,
56 or 11 2 data bits
3.5 μs ---..-.i-----15or29μ s ~

rL J II I

I I I III :o II
IQ 1 0 1 0 1 1 11 0 0
0.0 1.0 3.5 4.5 8.0 9.0
159

I 0I I
0.5 IO I 0 I I O I 1 I 0
Fig. 37 Mode S (a) interrogation (b) reply
pulse position modulation
56μsor112μs
160 MANUAL OF AVIONICS
In addition to Mode S functions, the ground station will also radiate
standard SSR modes and will therefore be capable of operating in
conjunction with aircraft carrying standard SSR equipment. In the same way
the Mode S transponders will be compatible with SSR ground stations.
The Mode S transpol}der is based generally on the type of unit in commercial
airline operation. However, the characteristic which in an SSR transmission
mutes the receiver is the one that identifies a Mode S transmission to a
suitably equipped aircraft. The necessary relationship between the received
levels of the Pl and P2 pulses for an SSR transponder to reply has already
been described. In contrast Mode S interrogations are prefaced by a Pl, P2
signal in which P2 is of greater amplitude than Pl. This is followed by a one
microsecond phase reversal synchronising signal and a message ofup to 112
data bits (bit= Binary digIT). As this message includes the aircraft address,
only the relevant aircraft will reply. The allocation of twenty-four bits for
aircraft address perinits over sixteen million discret~ addresses-sufficient for
individual registration of all aircraft throughout the world! Non Mode S
equipped aircraft will recognise the Pl/P2 relationship as a standard SLS
(Side Lobe Suppression) transmission and consequently be muted.
The aircraft reply begins with a synchronising preamble consisting of two
pairs of 0.5 microsecond pulses. This is follqwed by a block of data bits over a
period of 56 or 112 microseconds depending on whether 56 or 112 bits of data
are to be transmitted. These data are transmitted using pulse position
modulation at a rate of one megabit per second. In this system each data bit
occupies one microsecond which is divided into two intervals. If a 0.5
microsecond bit occurs in the first interval, a binary 'l' is indicated; if it is in
the second interval then the information transmitted ·is binary 'O'.
In order to acquire further Mode S equipped aircraft a special roll call
interrogation known as the SSR/Mode S ALL CALL is broadcast at
intervals. Normal SSR transponders will reply using normal mode A or C
codes, ignoring a P4 pulse which follows the leading edge of P3 by 1.5
microseconds. Mode S transponders, whilst capable of replying to normal SSR
interrogation will recognise the P4 pulse as a roll call request and will reply
with an 'all call' response consisting of the aircraft identity plus the capability
of the onboard equipment.
Other interrogation messages are:
(a) Surveillance interrogation-sixteen control bits, sixteen altitude-echo*
bits, twenty-four bits for address and parity used for position up-date.
(b) Comm-A interrogation-as above plus fifty-six bits of ground-to-air data
interchange message. Longer messages may be accommodated by
successive cycles of interrogation-response.
(c) Comm-C Interrogation. 112 bits for more efficient transmission of long
ground-to-air data interchange messages. Eighty bits are used for data
* Altitude-echo is a means of informing a pilot of the flight level which his transponder is
indicating
5.2 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR) 161
purposes in each interrogation and up to sixteen Comm-C interrogations
may be acknowledged with a single transponder reply.
On receiving these interrogations the transponder will reply with either:
(a) All Call reply which uses 56 bits which includes the aircraft discrete
address to enable ground processors to include it in the aircraft file.
(b) Surveillance reply which uses fifty-six bits and is the normal reply when
no air to ground interchange message is needed. It consists of thirteen
bits for SSR identity and altitude, nineteen bits for control purposes and
twenty-four bits for address and parity.
(c) Comm-B reply u_sing 112 bits. As for surveillance reply plus fifty-six bit
air to ground message.
(d) Comm-D reply uses 112 bits for transmission of long air-to-ground
messages. Includes an eighty bit message and up to sixteen Comm-D
replies can be sent as a single long response and acknowledged with a
single interrogation. Comm-D cannot be used for position updating
because it does not include aircraft Flight Level.
Plate 28 The Plessey ACR 430 X-band radar which has been designed specifically to
provide approach guidance and general surveillance at the smaller civil and military
airfields. The single antenna reflector is illuminated by twin horns fed from dual
transmitters to provide two-beam coverage. (Photo: Plessey)
162 MANUAL OF AVIONICS
Plate 29 The Telefunken 23 cm
radar aerial which, in conjunction
with Signaal electronics, will form
the backbone of the UK civil air
traffic control network for the
1980s and 1990s. It is
surmounted by a 'hog-trough' SSR
aerial. (Photo: Author)
Plate 30 The Marconi Radar
Systems S512 airfield surveillance
radar. This equipment operates on
10 cm wavelength. (Photo:
Marconi Radar Systems Ltd)
5.2 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR)
Plate 31 The aerial system for the Racal AR1 Bx Airfield Surface Movement Indicator at
Manchester Airport. (Photo: Racal) ·
Plate 32 An off-screen photograph of the AR1 Bx display at Gatwick Airport. Note the
video map overlay, blanking of unwanted areas and the aircraft on the runway. (Photo:
Racal)
163
164 MANUAL OF AVIONICS
Secondary radar plot extraction
Fruit and defruiters
i
The defruiter is usr<f to inhibit unwanted non-synchronous replies present in
the raw secondary radar returns: This process effectively minimises the
display of spurious retμrns (fruit) and leaves a clear presentation of valid
aircraft replies on the operator's display.
The basis of the defruiting process is a pulse to pulse comparison of
relevant radar returns on consecutive scans utilising the same mode. If
synchronous and therefore valid, a radar return appears at sensibly the same
range for each range scan. After a few returns a pattern is established. The
defruiter enables a selection to be made for returns to be compared from two,
three or four consecutive range scans. Similarly, a selection can be made to
define the number of these returns (two, three or four) that shall positively
compare in order to indicate a valid SSR reply. This could be two positive
comparisons out of two consecutive range scans, two or three out of three,
two, three or four out of four. In practice, the criterion frequently employed
is any two positive comparisons out of four range scans, i.e. if a return
appears at a consistent range and is of the same code content for any two
from a maximum of four consecutive range scans ..
Within the defruiter the SSR mode is first detected to enable valid
comparisons and the video is converted into digital form and fed sequentially
into a computer-type store. This store operates on a read/write cycle and
thus, on the fourth consecutive range scan, starting (rom any one instant of
time, three stored words can be compared with the fourth word about to enter
the store. This comparison is effected by correlation logic circuitry where the
number .of positive comparisons (agreements) are detected.
If the desired criterion has been met or exceeded as defined by the
correlation logic, then the incoming video signal is allowed to pass to the
decode unit.
The decode unit
The SSR inputs to the decode unit are fed directly to pulse threshold
detectors, which establish the amplitude at which an input pulse is recognised
as a valid input signal. Mode pulses identified here are transmitted through
the decoding system as a binary code. The video, after threshold detection, is
passed to the video conversion unit which standardises the amplitude of the
video and processes it for entry into a twenty microsecond delay line. After
leaving the delay line the pulses are reconstituted.
Framing pulse identification
The leading edges of both incident, F2, and delayed Fl, pulses are used to
initiate framing pulse identification. The framing pulse identifier uses the
5.2 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR) 165
delayed Fl pulse, from the delay line, to generate a gate with an accurately
controlled characteristic. This gating signal, F2 gate, is used to establish the
presence of framing pulses, Fl and F2, whose leading edges are 20.3
microseconds apart. The gating signal and the leading edges of the incident
pulses are fed to a coincidence gate where an output signal indicates a valid
SSR return. The advent of a 'Framing Pulse Identified' (FPI) signal sets the
busy logic and initiates code train timing.