Forensic Medicine

The noun forensic medicine has one meaning the branch of medicine that
interprets and establishes the medical facts in civil or criminal law cases.
Also called legal medicine or medical jurisprudence.

The branch of medicine that interprets or establishes the facts in civil or

criminal law cases also called medical jurisprudence.

Medical jurisprudence is a science of applying medical facts to legal

problems. Routine tasks include filling out birth and death certificates,
deciding insurance eligibility, and reporting infectious disease. Perhaps
more significant is medical testimony in court. When merely relating
observations, doctors are ordinary witnesses; interpreting facts based on
medical knowledge makes them expert witnesses, required to present their
opinions without bias toward the side that called them. Conflicts between
medicine and law can occur, usually over medical confidentiality.
Forensic medicine is one of the largest and most important areas of
forensic science. Also called legal medicine or medical jurisprudence, it
applies medical knowledge to criminal and civil law. Areas of medicine that
are commonly involved in forensic medicine are anatomy, pathology, and
psychiatry.
Medical jurisprudence or forensic medicine, the application of medical
science to legal problems. It is typically involved in cases concerning blood
relationship, mental illness, injury, or death resulting from violence. Autopsy
(see post-mortem examination) is often used to determine the cause of
death, particularly in cases where foul play is suspected. Post-mortem
examination can determine not only the immediate agent of death (e.g.
gunshot wound, poison), but may also yield important contextual
information, such as how long the person has been dead, which can help
trace the killing. Forensic medicine has also become increasingly important
in cases involving rape. Modern techniques use such specimens as semen,
blood, and hair samples of the criminal found in the victim's bodies, which
can be compared to the defendant's genetic makeup through a technique
known as DNA fingerprinting; this technique may also be used to identify
the body of a victim. The establishment of serious mental illness by a
licensed psychologist can be used in demonstrating incompetency to stand
trial, a technique which may be used in the insanity defense (see insanity),
albeit infrequently. The synonym of forensic medicine is forensic pathology.

Forensic pathology

Forensic pathology is the legal branch of pathology concerned with

determining cause of death (such as bullet wound to head, exsanguiation,
strangulation, etc.) and manner of death (including murder, accident,
natural, or suicide). Examination of some wounds and injuries due to crime
or negligence Examination of tissue specimens that may be relevant to
rape, or other crimes. Forensic pathologists work closely with the coroner
(England and Wales) or medical examiner (United States). The examination
of dead bodies (autopsy or post mortem) is a subset of anatomical
pathology. Often times, a coroner or medical examiner has a background in
pathology.
Forensic medicine is often used in civil cases. The cause of death or injury
is considered in settling insurance claims or medical malpractice suits, and
blood tests often contribute to a court's decision in cases attempting to
determine the paternity of a child.
.

Autopsy
(post mortem examination or an obduction)

How is an autopsy performed? The extent of an autopsy can vary from a single organ
such as the heart or brain to a very extensive examination. Examination of the chest,
abdomen, and brain is probably considered by most as the standard autopsy and one
technique is briefly described below. The autopsy begins with a complete external
examination. The body weight and height are recorded, and identifying marks such as
scars and tattoos are documented.
The internal examination begins with the creation of a Y or U-shaped incision from
both shoulders joining over the sternum and continuing down to the pubic bone. The
skin and underlying tissues are then separated to expose the rib cage and abdominal
cavity. The front of the rib cage is removed to expose the neck and chest organs. This
opening allows the trachea (windpipe), thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, esophagus,
heart, thoracic aorta and lungs to be removed. Following removal of the neck and chest
organs, the abdominal organs are cut (dissected) free. These include the intestines,
liver, gallbladder and bile duct system, pancreas, spleen, adrenal glands, kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder, abdominal aorta, and reproductive organs. To remove the
brain, an incision is made in the back of the skull from one ear to the other. The scalp is
cut and separated from the underlying skull and pulled forward. The top of the skull is
removed using a vibrating saw. The entire brain is then gently lifted out of the cranial
vault. The spinal cord may also be taken by removing the anterior or posterior portion of
the spinal column. In general, pieces of all of the major organs mentioned above are
converted into thin sections of tissue that can be placed on slides and studied under a
microscope. The organs may be returned to the body or may be retained for teaching,
research, and diagnostic purposes.
Dissection and examination of a dead body to determine cause of death and learn
about disease processes in ways that are not possible with the living. Autopsies have
contributed to the development of medicine since at least the Middle Ages. Beyond
revealing causes of individual deaths, autopsy is crucial to the accuracy of disease and
death statistics, the education of medical students, the understanding of new and
changing diseases, and the advancement of medical science.

Forensic Pathology

Forensic medicine has been around for years, and is the least difficult area
of scientific evidence (in terms of admissibility) because of a rather close
relationship that exists between law and medicine. Pathology is the branch
of medicine associated with the study of structural changes caused by
disease or injury.

Forensic pathology simply adds the word "unnatural" or "suspicious" in

front of the phrase 'disease or injury'. There are actually two branches of
pathology: anatomic - which deals with structural alterations of the human
body and clinical - which deals with laboratory examination of samples
removed from the body.

Most forensic pathologists are experts in both branches. To become a

forensic pathologist you must spend at least two years as an intern after
graduation from medical school. An additional year of study is expected to
prepare for passing the board exam with the American Board of Pathology.
Such experts are certified at: establishing cause of death, estimating the
time of death, inferring the type of weapon used, distinguishing homicide
from suicide, establishing the identity of the deceased, determining the
additive effect of trauma or pre-existing conditions.

States either have a coroner system or a medical

examiner system.

Under the coroner system, the coroner is usually an elected official and
need not even be a medical doctor, although they should have had at least
some medical training. In Texas, for example, the Justice of the Peace is also
usually the coroner (who calls inquests and orders lab tests).
Coroners are not exempt from civil liability for acts of negligence; medical
examiners are. Medical examiners operate out of centralized offices at the
state capital, or else they are part of an inter-county, regional arrangement.
They are frequently vested with both law enforcement powers (to hire their
own homicide investigators) and quasi-judicial powers (to call inquests and
take sworn testimony).
The purpose of an autopsy is to observe and make a permanent legal
record as soon as possible of the gross and minute anatomical peculiarities
of a recently discovered dead body. Autopsies are typically done at a local
hospital or at the county morgue, although some are done in private offices
or in funeral parlors.
Anatomic examination may be sufficient to establish cause of death if the
forensic pathologist has access to other information (such as surrounding
circumstances; life history, psychiatric data, and other pertinent patient
information).
Forensic pathologists also sometimes engage in "psychological autopsies",
although these are not all that readily accepted by the legal system.
Clinical, or microscopic, examination of organ parts is often necessary to
further bolster the forensic pathologist's conclusions, although such
examination would be impossible in an exhumation case (or where the
family opposed it) since embalming usually thwarts microscopic lab testing.
Forensic pathologists almost always order X-ray examination whenever a
firearm is involved. X-rays are also sometimes useful in stab wound and
child abuse cases. The examination of organ parts from the body is useful in
toxicology cases as well as anytime alcohol or drugs are suspected.
The inspection of stomach contents is part of every postmortem exam
since it may provide information as to cause of death as well as time of
death. Clinical examination also tends to confirm hunches about age, race,
sex, height, weight, and general health condition in cases of unidentified
remains.
The "manner of death" records whether the forensic pathologist thinks the
death is a suicide, a homicide, accidental, natural, or unknown. The general
rule is that manner equals mechanism plus immediate cause, but there are
other general rules also. If the mechanism is undetermined, the death must
be ruled as "unknown manner".
This occurs in some poisoning cases and other strange phenomenon (like
spontaneous combustion). If the immediate cause simply aggravated a
significant pre-existing condition (contributing cause), the death must be
ruled "natural". Most traffic fatalities are ruled "accidental". All suicides are
ruled as "homicides" if another person (other than decedent) is involved in
the immediate cause of death.
Autopsy
By Ed Friedlander, M.D., Pathologist
scalpel_blade@yahoo.com
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freely to sites that I believe my visitors will find helpful.
Autopsy means "see for yourself". It is a special surgical operation, performed by
specially-trained physicians, on a dead body. Its purpose is to learn the truth about the
person's health during life, and how the person really died.
There are many advantages to getting an autopsy. Even when the law does not require
it, there is always something interesting for the family to know. In doing 1000+
autopsies, I have always found something worth knowing that wasn't known during life.
Even at major hospitals, in about one case in four we find major disease that was
unknown in life. Giving families the explanations they want is one of the most satisfying
things that I do.
At least a fifth of autopsies reveal a cause of death other than was known to clinicians.
In "routine natural deaths" in England, 34% of the time the process that was believed to
be the cause of death prior to autopsy was completely wrong (J. Clin. Path. 61: 124,
2006). Consistent with my own life experience, more than a quarter of autopsies reveal
a major surprise other than the cause of death (Am. J. Clin. Path. 129: 102, 2008).

A pathologist is a physician with a specialty in the scientific study of body parts. This
always includes a year or more focused on learning to do good autopsies.
Under the laws of all US states and most other nations, autopsy can be ordered by the
government. A coroner is a political position, while a medical examiner is a physician,
usually a pathologist. Exactly who makes the decisions, and who just gives advice,
depends on the jurisdiction. Autopsies can be ordered in every state when there is
suspicion of foul play. In most states, autopsy can be ordered when there is some public
health concern, i.e., a mysterious disease or a worry about the quality of health care. In
most states, an autopsy may be ordered if someone dies unattended by a physician (or
attended for less than 24 hours), or if the attending physician is uncomfortable signing
the death certificate.
When a loved one dies, a family can ask the hospital to perform an autopsy. The
hospital pathologists are supposed to be independent, and often there's no affection
between them and the clinicians who treated the patient. This service has traditionally
been free.
If the family prefers, a private pathologist can do the autopsy in the funeral home. It
does not matter much whether the body has been embalmed first.
Whoever does the autopsy, there should not be a problem with an open-casket funeral
afterwards. This is true even if the brain has been removed and the dead person is bald.
The pillow will conceal the marks.
If autopsy is not required by law, the legal next-of-kin must sign an autopsy permit.
In over three decades, I have never known a family to be sorry they got an autopsy on a
loved one. I have known many who refused to allow an autopsy who were very, very
sorry afterwards.
Most religions allow autopsy. If the body is that of an orthodox Jew, pathologists are
happy to have a rabbi present to offer suggestions. Many Muslims prefer not to autopsy.
If you have a question, check with your own religious advisor.
No hospital where I have practiced has ever charged for an autopsy on a patient who was treated there. I
have been aware of a couple of cases in which a hospital, already concerned about possible liability,
discouraged families from requesting an autopsy by telling them there was a fee. (Most recently, a visitor
told me that a Louisiana hospital listed a charge of $2000 plus transportation.) The idea of a hospital
charging a family for an autopsy is opposed to my training, and in any case the charge should should be
modest. Please remember that some small hospitals lack autopsy facilities, so a mortuary may need to be
rented, and a special technician paid perhaps $200 for the day's work. Some pathologists are paid by the
case, and the hospital might pass the pathologist's reimbursement along to the family, though this seems
wrong to me. At a large hospital with full-time salaried pathologists and technicians, I am surprised to hear
of anyone being charged.

Here's how an autopsy is done. In this example, there are three pathologists working
together.
The body has already been identified and lawful consent obtained.
The procedure is done with respect and seriousness. The prevailing mood in the
autopsy room is curiosity, scientific interest, and pleasure at being able to find the truth
and share it. Most pathologists choose their specialty, at least in part, because they like
finding the real answers.
Many autopsy services have a sign, "This is the place where death rejoices to help
those who live." Usually it is written in Latin ("Hic locus est ubi mors gaudet succurrere
vitae"). Autopsy practice was largely developed in Germany, and an autopsy assistant is
traditionally honored with the title "diener", which is German for "helper".

The pathologist first examines the outside of the body. A great deal can be learned in
this way. Many pathologists use scalpels with rulers marked on their blades.

The body is opened using a Y-shaped incision from shoulders to mid-chest and down to
the pubic region. If the head is to be opened, the pathologist makes a second incision
across the head, joining the bony prominences just below and behind the ears. When
this is sewed back up, it will be concealed by the pillow on which the dead person's
head rests.
The pathologist uses a scalpel for these incisions. There is almost no bleeding, since a
dead body has no blood pressure except that produced by gravity.

The incisions are carried down to the skull, the rib cage and breastbone, and the cavity
that contains the organs of the abdomen. The scalp and the soft tissues in front of the
chest are then reflected back. Again, the pathologist looks around for any abnormalities.
Here, one pathologist is preparing to open the skull, using a special vibrating saw that
cuts bone but not soft tissue. This is an important safety feature.
Another pathologist is cutting the cartilages that join the ribs to the breastbone, in order
to be able to enter the chest cavity. This can be done using a scalpel, a saw, or a
special knife, depending on the pathologist's preferences and whether the cartilages
have begun to turn into bone, as they often do in older folks.
The third pathologist is exploring the abdominal cavity. The first dissection in the
abdomen is usually freeing up the large intestine. Some pathologists do this with a
scalpel, while others use scissors.

The skull vault is opened using two saw cuts, one in front, and one in back. These will
not show through the scalp when it is sewed back together.
When the breastbone and attached rib cartilages are removed, they are examined.
Often they are fractured during cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Freeing up the intestine takes some time. The pathologist in this picture is cutting along
the attachment using a scalpel.

The top of the skull is removed, and the brain is very carefully cut free of its attachments
from inside the skull.
The chest organs, including the heart and lungs, are inspected. Sometimes the
pathologist takes blood from the heart to check for bacteria in the blood. For this, he/she
uses a very large hypodermic needle and syringe. The pathologist may also find
something else that will need to be sent to the microbiology lab to search for infection.
Sometimes the pathologist will send blood, urine, bile, or even the fluid of the eye or
samples of brain and/or liver for chemical study and to look for medicine, street drugs,
alcohols, and/or poisons.
Then the pathologist must decide in what order to perform the rest of the autopsy. The
choice will be based on a variety of considerations. This team will use the method of
Virchow, removing organs individually. After the intestines are mobilized, they may be
opened using special scissors.

Inspecting the brain often reveals surprises. A good pathologist takes some time to do
this.
The pathologist examines the heart, and generally the first step following its removal is
sectioning the coronary arteries that supply the heart with blood. There is often disease
here, even in people who believed their hearts were normal.
After any organ is removed, the pathologist will save a section in preservative solution.
Of course, if something looks abnormal, the pathologist will probably save more. The
rest of the organ goes into a biohazard bag, which is supported by a large plastic
container.

The pathologist weighs the major solid organs (heart, lungs, brain, kidneys, liver,
spleen, sometimes others) on a grocer's scale. The smaller organs (thyroid, adrenals)
get weighed on a chemist's triple-beam balance.
The next step in this abdominal dissection will be exploring the bile ducts and then
freeing up the liver. Again, this pathologist has decided to use a scalpel.
After weighing the heart, the pathologist completes the dissection. There are a variety of
ways of doing this, and the choice will depend on the case. If the pathologist suspects a
heart attack, a long knife may be the best choice.
The liver has been removed. The pathologist has found something important. It appears
that this man had a fatty liver. It is too light, too orange, and a bit too big. Perhaps this
man had been drinking heavily for a while.

The pathologist has decided to remove the neck organs, large airways, and lungs in one
piece. This requires careful dissection. The pathologist always examines the neck very
carefully.
The liver in this case weighs much more than the normal 1400 gm.

The lungs are almost never normal at autopsy. These lungs are pink, because the dead
man was a non-smoker. The pathologist will inspect and feel them for areas of
pneumonia and other abnormalities.
The liver is cut at intervals of about a centimeter, using a long knife. This enables the
pathologist to examine its inner structure.

The pathologist weighs both lungs together, then each one separately. Afterwards, the
lungs may get inflated with fixative.
The rest of the team is continuing with the removal of the other organs. They have
decided to take the urinary system as one piece, and the digestive system down to the
small intestine as another single piece. This will require careful dissection.
One pathologist is holding the esophagus, stomach, pancreas, duodenum, and spleen.
He will open these, and may save a portion of the gastric contents to check for poison.
Another pathologist is holding the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. Sometimes these
organs will be left attached to the abdominal aorta. The pathologist will open all these
organs and examine them carefully.
Dissecting the lungs can be done in any of several ways. All methods reveal the
surfaces of the large airways, and the great arteries of the lungs. Most pathologists use
the long knife again while studying the lungs. The air spaces of the lungs will be
evaluated based on their texture and appearance.

Before the autopsy is over, the brain is usually suspended in fixative for a week so that
the later dissection will be clean, neat, and accurate. If no disease of the brain is
suspected, the pathologist may cut it fresh.
The kidneys are weighed before they are dissected.
It is the pathologist's decision as to whether to open the small intestine and/or colon. If
they appear normal on the outside, there is seldom significant pathology on the inside. I
usually open them. The last pathologist is preparing the big needle and thread used to
sew up the body.

When the internal organs, have been examined, the pathologist may return all but the
tiny portions that have been saved to the body cavity. Or the organs may be cremated
without being returned. The appropriate laws, and the wishes of the family, are obeyed.
The breastbone and ribs are usually replaced in the body. The skull and trunk incisions
are sewed shut ("baseball stitch"). The body is washed and is then ready to go to the
funeral director.

These pictures do not show all the steps of an autopsy, but will give you the general
idea. Exercising my artistic license, I have omitted the pathologists' gloves and
other safety equipment. And of course, in real life, there may be photographers,
evidence technicians, police, hospital personnel, and others.
These pathologists will submit the tissue they saved to the histology lab tomorrow, to be
made into microscopic slides. When these are ready, they will examine the sections,
look at the results of any lab work, and draw their final conclusions.
The only finding in this imaginary autopsy was fatty liver. There are several ways in
which heavy drinking, without any other disease, can kill a person. The pathologists will
rule each of these in or out, and will probably be able to give a single answer to the
police or family.
A final report is ready in a month or so. The glass slides and a few bits of tissue are kept
forever, so that other pathologists can review the work. You might enjoy the animated
version of this little cartoon essay. Use the "return" button of your browser to come back
here.
If you like my work, help yourself. If you share, it must always be given freely, and if you
use it for some good purpose, please mention that "Ed, the pathology guy", made it. If
you place it on your own website, please place a link to one of my pages (your choice).
If I can do anything for you, E-mail me at scalpel_blade@yahoo.com. No texting or chat
messages, please. Ordinary e-mails are welcome.
If you want to talk about an autopsy, phone my teamate Shawn Parcells at 913-850-
2223, or my longtime friend Cameron Schenk at 816-868-3335. I'm glad to help those
who can afford my standard fee, and those who cannot. I can usually be with you within
a few hours at the most.
I'm also available to review the work of other pathologists, especially for attorneys. I
have a policy of not taking money from the pockets of innocent people.
To include this page in a bibliography, you may use this format: Friedlander ER
(1999) Autopsy Retrieved Dec. 25, 2003 from http://www.pathguy.com/autopsy.htm
For Modern Language Association sticklers, the name of the site itself is "The Pathology
Guy" and the Sponsoring Institution or Organization is Ed Friedlander MD.
The Dirt on Death -- online schools
Site includes history of forensic autopsies
Victorian Institute
Andrea Campbell on Forensic Science
JonBenet's autopsy
Ronald Goldman's Autopsy
Virtual Autopsy. This is just now coming into its own, thanks to innovations in radiology.
It is unlikely to replace the classic pathology autopsy, but is certain to be a useful
adjunct and sometimes a suitable substitute. Especially, 3D reconstructions in cases of
trauma are helpful for demonstration. See Radiology 240: 522, 2006. My team does
virtual autopsies on selected cases.
Virtual autopsy video. This is no substitute for the real autopsy, though my team does
these as a supplement.

Autopsy Videos -- "Through the Eyes of Death's

Detectives"

The best photos are Scott Wagner's "Color Atlas of the Autopsy" (December 2003). You
can purchase this online for about $200.
How Much Do Organs Weigh?
College of American Pathologists -- Would you like to be a pathologist?
Ed Uthman MD -- tips for screenwriters
Ed Uthman MD -- autopsy tools
American Society of Clinical Pathologists -- Would you like to be a pathologist?
PathMax -- Shawn E. Cowper MD's pathology education links
Autopsy Diagrams -- AFIP . Pushin' Daisies -- novelty site
BlueLips -- novelty site offering autopsy videos
B J Winslow -- cyberfriend who makes props for autopsy scenes
AAMC -- so you want to be a pathologist?

Schools Where You Can Study Forensics

Anna Nicole Smith -- autopsy report. If you want to know what an autopsy report looks
like, click here. Or click here.
Terri Schiavo -- autopsy report is well-done
Jack the Ripper
Autopsy photo -- ruptured carcinoma of the ascending colon
Autopsy photo -- breast cancer encasing the lung

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Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine &

Toxicology
All Medical JournalsIssuesContentsEditorial Board
& Information
Medico legal aspects of homicide investigation
Author(s): T.K.K. Naidu
Vol. 2, No. 2 (2008-07 - 2008-12)
T.K.K. Naidu
Professor and Head, Department of Forensic Medicine, Prathima Institute of Medical Sciences,
Karimnagar, Andhra Pradesh
Forensic medicine is the application of the science of pathology to the needs of law and justice, in trial of
sudden, violent deaths and unnatural suspicious deaths. This definition is not only applicable to criminal
cases but applied also to all kinds of life or accidental insurance, employee’s compensation acts and
other civil procedure disputes.
The forensic medicine has to deal with a wide spectrum of deaths. He sees deaths due to suicides,
homicides, accidents and also the sudden unexpected and unwitnessed deaths. As Adelson has pointed
out while there is only one way to be born, there are many ways to die. To those people who have regard
and respect of human life, the present situation is tragic and pitiful spectacle. While the forensic expert is
interested in finding the cause manner and time since of death in all varieties of cases, that caused by
violence particularly these type of cases which attract the public and news agencies attention, throwing a
great responsibility on the shoulders of investigating officers and the forensic expert.
Every one is aware that medicine is a social science which deals with the health of the human being,
prevention of the disease and treatment of the sick and the injured. In homicide there is violence, brutality
and criminality. Homicide and medicine are closely associated with one another in the work of forensic
medicine department. His primary duty and responsibility in such cases is not only to find out the cause,
time and manner of death, but also to search and preserve evidence which gives any clue for the
apprehension of the offender. Many medical officers feel that their duty is only to conduct the postmortem
and to give the cause of death. Medical officers should give guidelines to the investigating officers in
constructing the scene of the crime or in giving the clue for the identification of the offender such as
foreign hair, buttons and stains etc. on the clothing and the body. But a trained forensic expert realizes
the importance of preserving trace evidence that present on the dead body.
Present system of investigation
Under the present system of investigation, the forensic expert is not called to the scene of crime. Our
system of medico-legal investigation is far from satisfactory. A subinspector of Police is always busy as
he is entrusted with multifarious duties and when he gets first information report, he passes on the
preliminary investigation to a head constable whose educational qualification and scientific knowledge are
not particularly high. He gathers some witnesses either by force or by persuasion and there may be some
witnesses, who are not willing to talk to him. On the other hand there are some witnesses who readily
give false statements for their own benefit and mislead the investigating officer. Under such
circumstances, if a forensic expert is requested to come to the scene of crime along with first investigating
agency; he will guide the investigating officer to approach in a scientific way. He will observe and collect
the material scientifically and analyze and draw inferences or produce proof of facts. Hence a forensic
expert with his sound scientific knowledge can render valuable service at the scene of crime. It is not the
present first investigating agency which is at fault. It is our system of investigation which is at fault. We are
not keeping pace with the changing environment, civilization and pattern of crime. The office of the
forensic expert is an obscure one in the present day. It does not attract the medical man or government or
the politician. Financial support and staff pattern is far from satisfactory. The importance of the forensic
medicine in the present day is not fully recognized by the government and the society. Consequently he is
unable to import his scientific knowledge in the interest of justice.
Some aspects of killing
Every one is aware, that the homicides are on the increase. As Bernard Shaw aptly stated that evil is the
product of circumstances. At present in India, the main causes contributing to criminal violence are
property interests, broken homes, linguistic problems, faultily marriages, poverty, starvation and political
differences. All of us desire to live in a decent orderly society administered by honest, energetic officials,
and a sincere and capable judiciary. When a murder takes place, many of us react vigorously and
respond promptly to search the offender and to punish him. But there are some people, who will hide the
offender and allow false accusations to be made on an innocent person. A single police officer alone
cannot investigate the case quickly, effectively and efficiently. Every citizen should help the first
investigating agency. The medical officer, the various experts and even the lay public should associate
themselves and work in coordination and co-operation to give their knowledge for that noble cause of
“The defense of the innocent and the punishment of the guilty”. At present we are working in watertight
compartments. We should really plan a medical examiner system that is now current in the United States
of America with excellent results.
When a forensic expert participates in the investigation of a known or suspected murder, he functions as
a member of a team of experts. The police detective is faced with the problem of tracing the accused and
apprehending the suspects and getting information from the witnesses. Similarly the experts like the
firearm expert, finger print expert, forensic expert, radiologists, chemical examiner, serologist, physicist
etc., may be called into action in the investigation of a murder. In every case of murder and unnatural
death, the services of the forensic expert are necessary. He has to prove the cause of death and
demonstrate that the death was due to violence. Further he has to extensive scientific knowledge far
beyond this and answers various questions. When an autopsy is done on a case of death due to injury
caused by a weapons, he has to find answer to the following questions:
1. was death due to injury caused by the alleged weapon?
2. Whether the person died before or after the injury?
3. What were the direction of the wound and the position of the assailant to the victim?
4. were there multiple wounds and if so which of the several wounds would have been responsible
for the death?
5. What type of weapon was used, was it heavy or light, was it single edged or double edged and
what was the length of the weapon?
 6. How long person have lived after receiving the injuries?
7. Was there any disease which was contributory or responsible for death?
Necessity of performing autopsy
The forensic expert is often asked by his colleagues or lay persons, who are not aware of the worries o
the people actively engaged in homicide investigation, why an autopsy should be carried out on an ‘open
and shut case, when it is known that the death was due to violence, the suspect had confessed, and the
witnesses were there to substantiate. The forensic expert never treats a case as ‘open and shut’. Even if
the commission of crime is established with certainty, it is mandatory to perform an autopsy to
substantiate the truth of the confession. The dead body will not lie. The autopsy constitutes a source of
strength and not of weakness. It clarifies and illustrates evidence and so remains an invaluable procedure
in the investigation of homicide. False statements and confessions due to fear are not rare in India.
Moreover, at the time of trial, the confessions made by the accused or the witnesses may be retracted. As
the dire penalties for murder vary from long-term imprisonment to death, it is necessary that a complete
autopsy be performed on all cases of death due to violence. Incomplete or partial autopsy has no place in
medico legal work. As pointed out by Hudson necropsy is the last court of a trial solves the mystery of
death.
Long experience has taught the medical person, that there are some medico- legal masquerades. Many
deaths from violence produce no external injuries or bleeding, but death might occur due to injuries to
internal organs. Similarly, there may be no injuries, only minor ones externally, but the victim could have
died of some natural cause, like coronary occlusion or cerebral thrombosis and hemorrhage. Deaths from
natural causes occur under such suspicious circumstances, as to suggest violence. Hence, only the
forensic expert can distinguish between deaths arising from disease and those arising from violence.
Sometimes, a homicide may be deliberately arranged so as to suggest suicide or accident and the
converse is also possible. Many a time railway accidents are brought as cases of homicide and homicides
described as accident. The forensic expert has to examine carefully the scene of crime and perform
autopsy meticulously and confirm the truth or falsity of the statements given by the witnesses.
Forensic Medicine in the court
The forensic expert is a fact finder and not a judge of facts. He cannot postulate the motive behind the
trigger of a firearm. His duty is to present carefully the facts in the court in order to help the judge to reach
a verdict. Many years ago Bourdel, a French medico-legal expert wrote “If the law has made a physician a
witness, he should remain a man of science; he has no victim to avenge, no guilty person to convict and
no innocent person to save”. A forensic expert must bear testimony within the limits of science and be an
impartial witness.

Conclusion
In our present system the forensic expert is called by the court as prosecuting witness, though he is an
independent impartial witness. They appear neither for the prosecution nor the defense. He takes no
sides. His main duty is to present the scientific evidence from the autopsy table and the microscope to the
court, un-emotionally, deriving nothing, withholding nothing. It is dangerous to get a remark from the
judge, that a particular medical officer is hostile. His sole aim of giving medical evidence is to help the
judge and to reach a just verdict. The forensic expert testify in a straight, unbiased, unprejudiced and
balanced manner he will make a unique contribution to the administration of justice, which is the keystone
of all democracy.
Legal dictums:
Justice delayed is justice denied
Justice hurried is justice buried
Justice protected will protect
Ignorance of law excuse no one
Be you ever so high, the law is always above you.
Justice Verma

References
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8. Times of India, News Delhi, 27th October 2006:13
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