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Jin Xing Distnpark, Singapore 129809
TK1007. P68.2001
333.793’2- dc21 2001045404
Pu~li~aCion
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A catalogue record for this book is avatlahle from the Bntish Library
TSBN 0 47149500 X
e~~~............................................................................................................ xxi
.................................................................................................................
ent ..........................................................
............. 1
1.2 Competitive Market for Generation ............. .................................................. 2
1.3 The Advantages of Competitive Generation ..................................................
1.4 The Role of the Existing Power lndustry ............. ....................... 4
1.4.1 Reconfiguring the Electricity System. ............................................
1.4.2 Trends in Conventional Electricity G
1.5 Electricity Demand Operation and Reliability .............................................
1.5.1 Power Plant Operation ..................................
1.5.2 Reliability Assessment ...................................................... 7
1.5.3 Availability of Fuel .......................................
s ...........................................
1,6.5 Solar.....................................................
.................................................................... 17
1.9.1 Capital Costs for New Plants ........................
..............................
................................................. 25
.................................................... 97
4.3.1 1 Automation Case Study .Remote Control in London Electricity ............. 129
4.4 Future Devclopmeiit ..............................
4.5 Appendix: Distribution Automation i
4.5. I Introduction ................................
4.5.2 Remote Terminal Units ..................................................
4.5.3 SCADA Master Station . ....................................................................... 134
4.5.4 S o h a r e Functionality .................................... .... 136
4.5.5 Operations and Maintenance (O&M)......................................................... 136
4.5.6 System Integration, Design and Management................... ............... 137
4S.l Coi~~inunication Systems . ............................................................ 140
4.6 References ...............................................................
....................................................1
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 153
5.2 Role of the TP ....... ................................................. 155
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.3 New Market Organisation .
5.3.1
5.3.2 Priority Insurance Scheme........................................................
5.3.3 Transmission Expansion ........................... 169
5.4 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 170
5.5 References .............................................. .................... 171
pen Access ..............................................................*..........= ................
17
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................
6.1.1 The Traditional Power Industry
6.1.2 Motivations for Restructuring the Power Industry..
6.1.3 Unbundling Cencration, Transmission and Distribution ........................... 174
6.2 Components of Restructured Systems........................................ ...... 175
6.2.1 Gencos ................................. ............ ..................................... 175
6.2.2 BOT Plant Operators and Contracted IPPs .. 175
6.2.3 Discos and Retailers ..................................................... 175
6.2.4
6.2.5 Independent System .................................................... 176
6.2.4 Power Exchange (P
6.2.7 .................................................... 176
6.3 PX and ISO: Functio
6.3.1 .................................... 176
6.3.2 California Power Exchange ...........................................
6.3.3 IS0 Functions and Responsibil~ties........... ..................................... 178
6.3.4 Classification of IS0 types .....................................................
6.4 Trading A~angements ................................ .......................... 183
6.4. I The Pool ....................... .........................................
6.4.2 .......................... 184
6.4.3 ulti 1atera1 Trades .........
6.5 T r ~ s ~ i s s i Pricing
on in .......................... 186
6.5.1
6.5.2 olled-in Pricing Methods .............. ......................... 187
6.5.3
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.6
6.6.1
6.6.2
6.6.3 System Control ...............
6.6.4 hicillary Sewice Provision.............................................
6.7 Congestion ~ a n a g e ~ eii?n Open-access
t Transmissioo Systems...................... 195
6.7.1 Congestion Management in Nomial Operation..........
6.7.2 Integrated Transmission patch Strategy................
6.7.3 ~ i o i i a Sma
~ ~ ~ u s t r a Using wer System ........................
6.7.4 Sfatic Security-constrainedRescheduling ...................................... 202
6.7.5 Dynamic Secmity-constrainedRescheduling .................
6.8 Open-access ~oordi~iatioii Strategies..... ........................... 209
6.8.1 Price Elasticity as a Me
6.8.2 Relieving ~ongestion
6.5.3 ~ o o r d i n a ~ ~betwce
on
6.8.4 ~l~ustrat~on o€Traii~actionCoordiiiatioii ......
6.8.5 ~ n t e ~ r ~Coordinati
ted
6.9 Conclusions ..........................
6.10 ............................................................................. 2 16
6.1 1 ...... 216
6.22 .................................................................................... 217
a ............................................ *.** a***...
7.1
7.2 Development of Electric Power Industry
7.2.1 ~ ~ v e of Power Produ
S ~ c c e ~ Growth
1.2.2 Further Expansion of Power Nehvo
7.2.3 Continuo~I~ increase of Electricity C
7.3 ~ a n a ~ e i System
n e ~ ~of Electric
7.3.1 The State Power Corporation ......... ..................225
7.3.2 hilosophy aiid Strategy o f tlie SP ............................................................. 23 1
7'4 Market in China...
7.4. I ~ o ~ i v a t ifor
o ~Reformation
s ...................................................................... 234
7.4.2 efonn PLaii of tile SP ........ 235
x Contents
s..............._...261
8.2.4 Thermal Limits ......
anagenment .........................................................................................................
............................................................... 287
9.2 Pre-privatisation (1 990): Th
9.3 Post-privatisation(1990): F
9.4 Early-inid 1990s: Getting t
9.5 1994/5+: Getting More for Less .................... ....................... 289
9.6 Late 1990s: Capital Effici
9.7 August 1999 Interim Report: All Change?....
9.8 The 1990/2000 Regulato
9.9 Asset Ownership.............................
9.10 Asset Governance.
9.11 Asset Management ......................................
9.12 Asset Information and t
9. I3 Condition Monitoring..................................
9.13.1 Transforniers.....
...............
9.13.3 Switchgear..
9.13.5 ~ n d e r s ~ a i i dLong-term
in~ Asset Costs ......................................... 298
9.13.6 Underground Cables .....................................................
9.13.7 HV Cables.................... .............................
...................
...............
........................................... 342
10.3.4 ~ p c s i o ~Distortion
ic
10.6 ~~f~rc~ces
........................................................ 353
11.2 S o h a r e Agents .....................................
.................................... 362
11.5 Complex Artificial Neural Networks for Load Flow Analysis .....
11.5.1 Conventional A" for Real Numbers ..
1 I .5.2 New ANN for Complex Numbers .........
11.5.3 Comparison of the two ANNs by Coinputer Sirnulatiou ........................... 388
113.4 Applicati
11.6 Virtual Reali
11.6.1 Types of' VR systems...................
1 1.6.2 Non-immersive (Desktop) Systems. ............................................. 396
X 1.7.4 Iinp~eiiientationExample........................
11.8 Coiiclusioris ...........................
11.9 Acknowledgements..
.................
12.2 The Internet................................ ......................
12.2.1 What Is the Internet? .................................................................................. 416
12.2.2 oes the Internet Work .... ............417
12.2.3 What Would Happm Without the Intcrnet? ............................................... 417
12.2.4 Wow Can the Power lndustry Benefit from the Internet?.
12.2.5 ow Can I Find the Inromiation I Need?.................................................. 419
12.3 Usability of the Interne
12.3.1
12.3.2
12.3.3 Internet Products..........
12.3.4
12.3.5 iltimedia Access ..............
12.3.6 0x1-line Setvices ......................................................................................... 42 I
12.3.7 Support for Professionals ........... 422
12.3~8 The Power Industry and the liitemet .......................................................... 422
12.3.9 Recent Improvements on the Inteilnet ....... 424
xiv Contents
...................... 433
Elechicity industry restructuring has had a dramatic impact on the energy market. To
gain a conipetitive advantage, toclay’s energy providers need to focus on value-aclded
products and services, such as power quality. Powcr quality is a critical issue for industrial
customers, especially in the high-tech sector. In order to understand power quality, many
customers or energy providers have installed power quality monitoring systems to record
electrical system perfo~ianceandor facility equipmcnt reactions, and the analysis of the
monitored data has become a challenge. Chapter 10 reports on the techniques, methods and
standards used or proposed for power quality issues.
The explosion in thc use of information technology has seen the introduction of
computer-based work management systems, asset management systems, and control
systems to manage system operation. Information teclinology is rnalcing markets more
efficient, resource production less speculative and costly, and the delivery and monitoring
of energy more etficctive, while enfi-anchising customers to make more intelligent choices.
Improvements in infomation technology will continue to allow economical aiid reliable
solutions to problems facing tlie power industry. Chapter 11 introduces intelligent agents,
genetic algorithms, evolutionary programming, artificial neural networks and virtual reality
technology, and reports on their applications to load flow, valuing electrical options and
power equipment diagnosis. Tlic chapter highlights the technology behind the new market
brought about by deregulation. Energy service companies will continue to make iucreasing
demands for more sophisticated software and equipment to monitor and control various
aspects of power delivery.
In just a few years, Java has taken the networked world by storm. Java comnbiries
powerful, object-oriented programming with the ability to run on any computer platform
without the need for recompiling or translating. Java promises to play a yet more
kndaiental role in the future of on-line computing, including electronic commerce, for it
can allow anyone to make use of powerful applications anywhere. One result of its
platform iI~~lepe~idence i s that a scrap of code called a Java applet can be embedded in a
World Wide Web page. Chapter 12 deals with the application of the Intcmet to power
station monitoring and discusses its use for energy trading. It also presents an introduction
to Web technology and i t s applications.
This book addresses the most up-to-date problems and their solutions in the arm of
power system restructuring aid deregulation in a cohesive manner. It will provide
invaluable information for power engineers, educators, system operators, managers,
planners and researchers.
i
The editor wishes to thank Mr Peter Mitchell of Wiley and his team in supporting this
project.
The editor also wishes to thank all the contributors, without whose siipport this book
could not have been coiiipleted. In particular, the editor thanks Harald Brawn in maiiagiiig
to complete the m a n ~ ~ s c rdespite
ip~ great diffkulties caused by software ~iico~patibility.
The editor also wishes to thank rs Vinay Sood and Professor Sood for their creation of
the iuitial manuscript. The editor i s very grateful to Dr D a d Jefferies for writing the
~ . permission to reproduce copyright materials by the IEEE and IEE for a
~ o r $ w ( ? rThe
number of papers mentioned in some of the chapters i s most helpful. The arrange~ento f
the index by Miss Qi Ling Eai and Chun Sing Lai is imch appreciated.
Last but not least, we all thank Wiley for supporting the prcparat~~noftbis book and for
the extremely pleasant co-operation.
ei Eai was appointed Senior Lecturer at Staffordshire Polytechnic (now
Staffordshire University) in 1984. From 1986 to 1987, he was a Royal Academy of
Engineering Industrial Fellow to both GEC Alsthom Turbine Generators Ltd and its
Engineering Research Ceutre. He is currently Head of Energy Systems Croup and Reader
in Electrical Engineering at City University, London. He is also an I-lonorary Professor at
the North China Electric Power University, Beijing. Dr Lai is a Senior Member of the
IEEE and a Corporate Member ofthe TEE. We has authoredlco-authoredover 100 technical
papers. Tn 1998, lie also wrote a book entitled Ivrtelligenf System Applications in Power
Engineering - Evolutionary P r o ~ a ~ m and i n ~Neural Networks published by Wiley.
Recently, he was awarded the IEEE Third Milleiiiiium Medal and 2000 IEEE Power
Engineering Society UKRl Chapter Outstanding Engineer Award. In 1995, he received a
high-quality paper prize from the International Association of Desalination, USA. Among
his professional activities are his contributions to the organisation of several ~nternat~ona~
conferences in power engineering and evolutionary computing, and be was the Conference
Chairman of the International Conference on Power Utility Dercgulation, ~ e s ~ c ~ f l n g
and Power Technologies 2000. Recently, he was invited by the Hong Kong Institution of
Engineers to be the Chairman of an Accreditation Visit fo accredit the University
(IIons) degree in electrical engineering. Dr Lai is also Student Recruitment Officer, IEEE
UI(R1 Section. In 1999, he was included in The Dictionury of Contemporary Celebrities qf
Worldwide Chinese. In 2000, his biography was included in the 18th Edition of J%zo ’5 !4%0
in the FVorld, Marquis, 1JSA. His b i ~ ~ g r has
a ~ also
~ y been selected €or inclusion in the 2001
Who I;yho in Science and Engineering, Marquis, USA.
xxiii
XXIV ~ogra~hy
lie has been at MIT since 1984 as a Senior Research Scientist in the
here she conducts research and teache§ ~ r a d ~ acourses
te in the area of
systeni§~ Since September 1999
o obtained his MSc and PhD from the University of Manchester Institute
of Science and Technology. He is currently the Head of the Power Systems Research
Group at the University of Strathclyde. His group specialises in energy management
systems, issues concerning the electricity market and deregulation, simulation, analysis,
monitoring and control of powcr networks. Professor Lo has been an international advisor
and member of many organising committees of international conferences,
consultant/visiting professor to over 12 educational institutions, and has lectwed
extensively in the Far East, Europe and America. He is the author of over 260 technical
pL~blications.He is a Fellow of the TEE and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburg~~.
s ~his BE
~ t received ~ (€Ions) and PhD degrees fiom the University o f
Canterbury (New Zealand), where he is now a Senior Lecturer. Dr Watson has authored
and co-authored approximately 100 technical papers and 3 books. Paper awards received
include; Best Paper Award (The Sixth International Conference on Harmonics in Power
Systems, 1994), the William Perry Award (TPENZ) and Finalist for the Carter Holt Harvey
Packing Award for Innovative Technology (IPENZ). He has also given a nuinbcr of invited
lectwes in Singapore, Australia and Canada,
ail Wen received his BEng and h4Xng degrees from Tiarijin University,
China, in 1985 and 1988, respectively, and his PIiD from Zhejiang University, China, in
1991, all in electrical engineering. He was a Postdoctoral Fellow at Zhejiang University
Eroin 1991 to 1993. He joined the faculty of Zhejiang University in 1993, and has been a
Professor of Electrical Engineering since 1997. We held a visiting position at the National
xxviii ~io~apliy
property rights in the electricity supply industry in order to obtain the benefits of increased
efficiency and innovation. A shift from public to private ownership refocuses the goal O f
the producer towards profits. Pursuit of the latter provides a strong econon~icincen~ive,in
a competitive environment, to improve and maintain the quality of customer services,
monitor costs more closely, and invest in productivity-enh~cingt e c ~ o l o ~ i eThese s~
incentives are blunted by state ownership. With respect:to privatisation, the
since 1989 seems more germane than does the regulatory reform the USA has been
undergoing since 1978.
The European C o i ~ is ~addressing i ~ these same issues and has agreed to draft
directives calling for open access in energy markets. As of January 1993, the E u r o p e ~
Commission seeks to let large users of electricity, those using 100 g i g a w a ~or more of
power per annum (aluminium, steel, chemicals, glass and fertiliser producers), to purchase
electricity from any supplier in the Community.
.3 Th
Competitive generation provides a market within which independent fimis compete on the
basis of price to sell electricity directly to large industrial customers, and to supply
electricity, via common carrier transmission, to distributors who in twn sell power to final
users [5,6], Produc~rsmay specialise or diversify by load characteristic. For example,
some may prefer to compete for long-term base-load contracts. These firms are likely to
own hydro and nuclear power plants. On the other hand, f m s with fossil fuel plants might
seek to supply base and cycling loads. Finally, producers with gas combustion turbines and
co-generators could compete to meet peak loads. Other firms may diversify and be ready to
compete for base, cycling and peak loads.
Prices charged for each type of service (peak and off-peak load, daily to ~ e a s o n a l ~
could be established by contract, 24 hour advance notice, and in spot markets. Unit
could vary by the amount of electricity purchased per period. As a result, customers
face more service options and a more complex pricing scheme. There are a nu
advantages to having a variety of types of generators linked to the transmission grid.
The first major advantage involves cost savings. At any given moment^ power is
supplied to the transmission grid by the firm with the lowest marginal costs.
according to merit saves resources and reduces the cost of generating electricity. Because
the different plants may have different load characteristics, peak and load duration curves,
generating capacity can be more fully utilised and additional capital resou~cessaved.
The second ~ d v a n of~ competitive
g~ generation is that a spot market for electricity will
develop. The ability to sell electricity on the spot market increases the ge~erator’s
~exibilityin scheduling production. The presence of a spot market means that less idle
capacity must be maintained in order to provide a given level of service re
Shortfalls and emergencies can be met by purchasing power on the spot market.
and supply are eq~libratedby flexible spot prices.
The third advantage o f competitive generation is that the market will provide an anray
of service standards that more closely match consumer preferences. Consumers could be
offered priority service with a schedule of electricity rates increas~ngwith the level of
reliability. According to reference [7], priority service offers significant efficiency gains
over random ration~ngwith fixed electricity rates. A compet~tivemarket in elec
Power System Restructuring and ~ e ~ e ~ l a t i o n
xis~i
The nature of the existing generating plants will affect the speed of reforms. In countries
where the coal industry has dominated the economy there has been opposition to
r e s t ~ c ~ r i nthe
g electricity industry, which usually includes a s u b s ~ t i a al ~ o ~ofn coal-
t
fired capacity. Deregulation of the electricity sector meant loss of a secured market for coal
w h i ~ hnow has to compete for its share in the market.
The nuclear industry in the UK was initially excluded from competition and subsidised.
The nuclear power s ions bid into the power pool and were
electricity due to the n-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO). The
on the distribution companies to buy a set percentage of their electricity from stations using
non-fossif.hels. In 1990, this was mainly nuclear power. A Fossil Fuel Levy was placed on
d of the total bill) and
i ~ of all electricity consumers (which ~ ~ u n t toe 10%
the e l e c ~ i cbill
over 90% of the money collected was given to Nuclear Electric to cover gen
not recouped from sales of electricity to the pool [9]. In 1996, when British
formed, the subsidy to the nuclear power industry was abolished. The levy
and since then it has been used to support renewable energy projects.
Prices tend to go down as competition is introduced and are expected to fall
sign~~cantly in the long-term. For example, in the UK prices have fallen since the market
open in^ and they are expected to fall even lower. In 1995 real prices, the price of
elect~cityfor industry decreased by almost 13% and the price for households by 6.3%
between 1991 and 1995. It is has been observed that i n d u s ~ pricesa ~ have decreased more
ousehold prices in most of the countries where reductions have occurred [IO].
ne of the conse~uencesof p~vatisationis the ~eve~opment of the i n t e ~ a ~ i energy
on~~
c o ~ p a n yconcept - a company whose focus is becoming more global and more multi-
le US electricity and gas companies have been ~ u r c h ~ electricity
in~
Australian and UK companies have been heavily involved in setting
r projects in developing countries. Another change with privatisation
older value. Privately owned companies have to compete for funds in
the capital market and it is important to show that they operate efficiently
to do well in the business environment to attract investors. That means a comple~elynew
organisational structure and strategies for companies from what were used in the highly
r e ~ l a t e dpower industry.
Goal is expected to retain a strong position in power generation worldwide in the
future. In 1995 solid fuel, mainly coal, accounted for almost 40% of world electricity
pro~uctionand is expected to retain this percen~geuntil 2020. In 1995,60% of total world
Energy Generation under the New ~ n v i r o ~ e n t
consumption was for power generation and this is expected to grow to 65% in 2020. The
emand for coal will increasing~ybe dominated by Asia.
expect^ to increase from 25% in 1995 to 43% in 2020 E1 11.
There are a number of issues that will affect future use of coal and in some cases the
results are quite u n c e ~ i n .The Inte~ational Energy Agency (IEA) points
projections of coal use are subject to the outcome of competition between coal
urope, and to the policies adopted by governments to improve
nnance and comply with greenhouse gas reduction c o ~ i ~ e [InI].~ s
In the past, power systems were developed to transmit large amounts of power at hi
voltage from remote generati~gstations and to diskibute power at lower voltage down
millions of small consumers. This was the favoured pattern, allowing ever-l~gerpower
stations, mostly coalfired, to be built and achieving economies of scale and high efficiency.
The national grid evolved to ensure secure supplies to all consumers and centralised
conkol and supe~isionwas essential. In the present privatised electricity supply ~ n d u s ~
based on free trading of electricity as a commodity, central control is unwelcome.
er ever possible, electricity generation should be closely i ed with space and
process heating in a diverse array of combined heat and power stems. newab able
energy sources should be harnessed by large numbers of wind and wave machines, marine
t i d a l ~ ~ u r r eor
n ~s m ~ ~ - h y d rplant,
o solar photovoltaic generators on roofs and small
generating plant close to farms supplying wood fuel or to sources of combustible waste
products. Generating plant will be small and dispersed and since CHP systems must be
located close to their heat loads there will be a natural tendency for most e ~ e c ~ c i ~
generation capacity to lie close to the consumer. There will be little need to transmit large
amounts of electric power over long distances. The h c t i o n of the power system will be to
handle the f l u ~ ~ a t i o in n s load and in the output from the renewable power generators.
~ i g ~ - p o w long~distance
er~ kansmission will be much less important,
In the current energy structure, a central power plant is the key facility providing
energy for houses, factories and offices. With decentralised co-gener
power and the d ~ l o ~ eofn renewables, t this situation would change.
would be less centralised and more dispersed. Network stability and frequency regulation
would gain in importance and energy storage would become very ~mportant.Ele
genera~ionis provided by a large number of small units rather than a small number
units, Co-generation is the generation, on site, of your own power and at the same time
taking advan~ageof the exhaust heat from your gas turbine or other engine to meet on-site
heat needs. Heat can be used to heat buildings, heat dryers, generate steam ~ o u an~ h
HRSG (heat recovery steam generator), or to provide air-conditio
a b s o ~ t i o nchiller. Power and beat can be generated locally from na~ural
using an efficient, reliable gas turbine.
The uncertainty in the USA today is what will happen to electricity prices. The major
c o ~ p e t i factors
n~ are limited deregulation and lack of new generat~ngstations ~ ~ c u ~ a r l y
large coal or nuclear stations). Estimates range from modest decreases in prices, to the
levelling of local inequities, and significant increases driven by demand without supply.
Our view is that prices over the long haul will increase slightly with some local equities
Power System Restructuring and ~eregulation
being eased. All this means that for many sites cogen (distributed power) will be a viable
option for those willing to improve their competitive position through ~ e d ~ c e dn e r ~
costs.
New enabling technologies have now improved transport of eleclkcity in ~ ~ g h - v o ~ t a g e
C systems to the point where this may be cheaper, and use less energy, than ~ a n s p o ~ i n g
fossil fuels, for distances o f 5000 km and above. This might make it possible to link low-
COzpower sources where demand is low to distant regions where demand is high.
atio
World electricity production is expected to grow by an annual rate of 3% in the period
1995 to 2020 according to IEA projections. Coal retains a strong position in world power
-
generation and will continue so. However, gas is expected to grow faster at 6% than -
solid fuels at 2.9% (e.g. coal) [I 13. This is because, in countries where gas is available at
competitive prices, gas-fired plants are cheaper to build and operate. D e r e ~ l a t ~ ohas n
played a role in opening the way for gas to compete with other fuels. Coal is still the
favoured fuel in locations close to low-cost coal production (e.g. p a t s of North America,
Australia and South Africa), in areas where gas is unavailable or expensive (as in those
deveIop~gcountries that have coal available, like China and India), and in areas where
there are existing coal-fwed units.
Prior to deregulation, utilities tried to predict the future energy demand in their area and
build new capacity accordingly. In a deregulated energy market gener
current demand is and try to fill as much of the demand as possible
plants. The predicted growth in the demand for energy on a wor
provide an incentive for generators to build new plant or extend their existing capacity to
take advantage of this trend. Competition rules will determine the market players.
However, the only players in practice who can invest in new capacity are those who feel
they can achieve a competitive advantage. In deregulated markets this should not be market
access or cost of capital but a genuine advantage such as feedstock, technology, captive
market of heat, extension of existing plant to take advantage of existing assets,
refurbishme~t,etc. The possibility of having stranded costs would seem to rule out new,
ensive power plants. Most of the additional capacity is expected to come from
incremental i n v e s ~ e n t in extensions done as part of general ~ p ~ v e ~ e or n t s
ma~ntenance.New plants are likely to be smaller, more cost effective, and close to areas of
demand that can compete effectively for local market share. This means that there could be
a swing away from large fossil-fuel-fired plants in the ene y mix towards sma~ler,less
Energv ~ e n e r a ~ under
~ o n the New Envirolment 7
intrusive plants sited close to the area o f demand. The fact that industrial sites are now
allowed to install their own genera~ngcapacity and export electricity to the grid could lead
to an increase in smaller scale distributed g ~ e r a t i n gcapacity.
1.5.1 ~ Q w ~ r
The operation o f power plants is also changing dramatically in dere
Generating companies are no longer obliged to generate electricity;
generate and sell their electricity when they think it is profitable for them. This means that
most of the generators will want to operate their plants at base load where most profit can
be made. There is little incen~vefor the generator to provide electric~tyfor more expens~ve
intermediate and peak demand, which make up only a small portion of the market. As
d e r e ~ l a ~ i proceeds
on an increasing number of players enter the system which is no
centrally controlled. This makes the quality and reliability issues more difficult to m
Experience so far shows that deregulated markets can reliably meet demand and are
expected to do so in the foreseeable future. The UK system’s re~iabilityand availa~i~ity
actually increased between 1992 and 1997 when the transmission and dis~ibu~ion network
was restructured [4]. It i s believed that the system will work without problems of security
of supply for the next 5-10 years.
Coal contracts are also affected by changes in power plant operation. There is a general
move to shorter term fuel supply contracts to match the electri sales contracts in
deregulated markets. ~ ~ e x i ~ini plant l i ~ operation i s an adv the competitive
market where conditions change quickly. Distributed gene small-scale units
could also give more flexibility to the system. An advantage of coal is the fact that it cm be
easily stored in stock~iles,whereas storing gas is much more complicated and expensive
and restricted to certain quantities. In deregulated markets demand and a v a i ~ ~ ~o fi l i ~
dictable and therefore the risk of disruption in fuel s u ~ p l yis more
es can ensure security of supply for the generator.
Utilities are forced to operate in a more reliable, economic and efficient manner and plan
their expansion investments more accurately. There are a number of reasons promoting
int~rcon~ec~ions among utilities. These include economic interch~nge,Brm power and
energy transactions, wheeling, improved operating reliability and ~ ~ x i b iand l i reduction
~
in installed generation reserves. Usually utilities construct new power plants to meet the
increas~ngdemand or to rep~aceold plants, which need large investments, ~ o w e v e r ~
~ t ~ r ~ o ~ ~utilities
e c t emay
d jointly install a generating unit in which the utilities may have
different or similar shares or the interconnected utilities may buy a certain perce
the output of a generating unit, which already exists in the other utility, Therefore, the
failure of a jointly owned generating unit will cause a decrease in the available capacities
of all the sharing utilities simu~taneous~~. Because of this correlation, the conventional
model of a ~eneratingunit cannot be used to represent a jointly o ~ e generating
d unit,
The re~iability modelling and evaluatio~methods of composite ~efierationand
transmission systems need to be extended when the system being analysed includes
generating units that are jointly owned with other interconnected systems. This is because
Power System R ~ ~ ~and c~ ~ r~e g ur l ~it i o~n ~
the modelling of jointly owned units causes two major problems. The first problem is that
they cannot be included in the area generation model in a conven~ionalmanner because a
jointly owned generator contributes generating capacity to two or more areas.
Consequently, a failure or derated state of a jointly owned generator affects all the sharing
areas. This condition cannot be incorporated in the traditional generation model, which has
an inherent assumpt~onof independence among generation models of various areas. The
second prob~emis with the transmission model. In the absence of jointly owned units the
transmission links are used only for emergency help and energy transaction^^ Since the
ontracts and the transmission c ity states are fixed, emergency help th
n e ~ g h b o ~ nareasg is fixed. when jointly owned units are includ
reliability analysis of the system, common generation flows are present and vary depending
on the states of jointly owned units. Consequently, the emergency help that can be given to
neighbouring areas is dependent not only on the tr~nsmissioncapacity states and energy
contracts, but also on the common generation flows which vary according to the states of
the jointly owned generating units [12,13]. Further research on a detailed system
representati~nis necessary to consider the particular operating features of jointly o w e d
units so that their impact on the reliability performance of the respective power systems
can be i n v e s ~ i g a t ~ .
It is impo~antto ~nderstandthe market response to the increased risk associated with
the introduction of competition into the market for generating electricity, Typically a
v e ~ i c a l ~iyn t e ~ a t e dstate monopoly deals with fluc~ationsin demand and r ~ d o m
equipment failure by carrying excess capacity, including redundant backup capacity. It
may also address predictable fluctuations in demand by offering peak-load pricing
schemes, although the incentive to do so is weakened by state ownership or regula~on.
Competitive generation produces at least two additional sources of
complex pricing structure, and loop flow problems when independent
electricity into the transmission network. Moreover, electricity flows along the path of least
resistance. Thus, for example, electricity sold by Generator A to Industrial Customer
may not travel along the ‘contract path’ that is, the shortest line within the network tha
directly links the buyer and seller, Depending on circumstances, electricity introduced into
the network at any point may give rise to ‘loop flow’ affecting ail suppl~ersto the grid.
Loop Bow can disrupt the quality and reliability of service to everybody taking electricity
from the grid at the moment additional power is introduced.
If decentralised markets introduce additional risk, they have to provide a bro
ways of dealing with it. All of these sources of risk potentially influence the
service to the final consumer of electricity. In general, the market offers methods to reduce
risk and to price risk so that it can be spread or shared optimally.
Consider how a generator faces the risk of uncertain prices for electricity. Firstly, the
producer can sell power by long-term contract to large industrial customers and regional
distributors. ~ o n ~ a cspecifL ts prices and adjustment clauses. Thus, only a small proportion
of its output may even be exposed to unknown price fluctuations [ 141. Se
the spot market on a regular basis offers normal returns because prices
mean over a large number of sales. By selling regular~yon the spot market, the producer is
reducing risk through diversification. Thirdly, the producer can hedge spot market sales in
the futures market.
Energy Generation under the New Environment
Fuels used to generate eleclricity are produced using the follow~ngfuel sources: namely,
coal, nuclear, natural gas, ail, hydrogen and renewable resources. ~ e n e w a b ~resources
e
include hydro power, geothermal, biomass, wind, solar and p~otovolt~ics. Coal is the
predominant fuel source. ~ u c l power e ~ is projected to decline her over the next 20
years owing to retirements of existing units, Generation from both natural gas and coal i s
pro~ectedto increas~to o€fset these retire~entsand to meet the growing demand for
~ . coal trade has been increasing and is expected to continue doing so in the
e l e c t r ~ c iThe
future. It is expected to increase faster than coal production. Between 1992 and 2010 the
coal trade is projected to grow by an annual 4.3% whereas coal product~0nwill
2.3% a n n ~ a l ~[15j.
y Coal prices dropped during the 1990s in line with compet~t~on and
with the fact that there is excess capacity for mining coal for the international market.
Cheap coal i s seen as being readily availabie in the short and medium tern. The ~ollowing
sections s ~ a r i s the e discussions of issues related to the markets for coal nuclear,
natural gas, oil and renewable fuels, followed by electric power industry res
fuel markets.
Goal
Power generators will attempt to pass on market risks to coal producers and carriers
wherever they can. As a result^ coal purchase contracts will ~ i k e ~become y s ~ ~ in~ e r
duration and lower in price.
The existing capacity of the power industry in each country will play an important role
e mix. In the EU, 17% of the conventional thermal capacity is over 30 years
in its ~ t u r fuel
old, indicating that much of the plant is in need of refurbishment or replacement [16].
Where coal-fired plants already exist it is usually more economic to operate them rather
than build new gas-fired capacity. Refurbishing or repowering an existing coal-fired plant
can reduce costs as the entire i n f r a s ~ c ~ uremains
re in place. Retrofit of pollution ~ n t r o ~
e ~ ~ i p m e nmay
t be necessary to meet environmental standards. In cases where
h y d ~ e l e ~ ~a ~n ~ oi nuclear
tr y power dominate base-load generation other fuels notab~y
~
-
coal and gas wiIl compete more strongly for position in the mid-merit market for
electricity,
-. . .
Energy \-Mission
18% 4%
1.1 C ~ a ~in~the
e market
s shares
12 Power System Restructuring and Deregulation
8% 33%
n operates on a small to m
d combined cycles can also
a d v ~ ~ ofg er e m o v ~ ~allg p ~ i c u l a t e sfrom the co
iency of over 85%. This teclmology is close
Eurther ~evelopmentis the fuel cell, where a
version at conve~ingche
i authorities, difficult
f trade or promotional orga~isatio~s
w tariffs for sale of bi
ackup electric supplie
costs also consti~teserious barriers.
Energy Generation under the New Environment' 13
1.6.3 Wind
Cunently some 50 countries have major wind power ins~allations~ Europe is presently the
most important market but demand in Asia is growing strongly. Ease o f rapid installation
(six to nine months) and a free local source of power make wind an attractive technology
in developing countries.
Over 1300 MW of wind-electric capacity has already been instal~edin Germany and
more than 1000 M W is on-line in Denmark. The Danish goal is to provide 10 % of its
elecwicity consumption through wind-electric energy by 2005 and more than 40 94 by
2030. At about 4 US cents per kW of installed power, electricity from Danish turbines now
costs around the same as the average cost for electricity from coalfired power plant.
However, there is no such thing as a single price for wind energy as the costs depend on
both wind speed and the accessibility of sites. Wind-electric energy has the potential to
supply 25 % of Europe’s electricity needs. Some countries could also export power to
neighbour in^ countries.
Potential applications of PVs range €rom basic electrification for the 2 billion people of the
world without electricity to the integration of PVs in building structures in deve~oped,
urban areas. Customers need complete systems of PV modules, panels and arrays to
provide electricity appropriate to their needs. Improved light-to-electricity conversion
efficiency of individual cells is less important than reliable, integrated systems. The
flexible thin-film amorphous silicon panel is at the forefront of PV technology. D i s ~ i b ~ t e d
generat~onwith PVs has been tested to relieve substation o v ~ ~ h e and ~ ~ as
~ na gmeans to
defer transmission or distribution system upgrades. Remote locations in developed
countries are also prac~icalapplications for PVs. ~xamplesinclude water p u m ~ ~ n fencegq
elect~~cation, and radio station power supply. PV is one of the most flexible technology
s u ~ ~options
ly available for electric power product~onbecause they can supply loads from
several watts to megawatts.
More than 350 MW of electricity are generated by commercial solar-thermal power plants
in the USA. To exploit s o i ~ - t h e ~ apower l hlly, broad~r coop~~ation
g o v ~ ~ m e nelectric
t, utilities and private industry i s ne~ded.The major investments ~ieeded
to develop and market solar technology must be supported by stable ~ o n g - t re ~ e ~ l a ~ o ~
policies, which can only be provided by government. For example, in the UK recent
o n the New Environment
Energy G e n ~ r ~ t i under 1
studies point to the need of tax equity to improve the economic ~ompetit~veness
of solar-
thermal plants more than ~echnolog~cal ~reakthroughs.
World concern over carbon emissions, new domestic pollution regulations, ~mprov~ng
small-scale technology, and the: prospect of open competition for energy markets are forces
that converge to demand greater efficiency in energy generation - to lower h e l costs,
iiicrease marketable products and reduce emissions. These forces argue strongly for a new
paradigm o f dispersed, combined heat and power (CMP) plants that have double the
efficiency and produce half the pollution. Although large units will continue to operate in
the short term, most will eventually be replaced by new facilities and virtually all new
growth will come in the form of small units.
Readily available technologies now exist to combine the generation and supply of heat
and power. By capturing unused heat energy, generators and consumers can, in effect, use
the same fuel twice. Combining heat and power production reduces the net fuel demands
for energy generation by supplying otherwise unused heat to residential, commercial and
industrial consumers who have heating and air-conditioning needs.
CHP technologies can be widely implemented. In almost every case, such teGhnologies
will save enough money, now spent on fuel, to pay for their capital cost. By combining
roduction and supply, 80 to 90 % of the useful energy in fuel can be put to
beneficial use. When these plants extraGt steam from the turbines ar relatively low pressure
to drive industrial processes or provide heat, they lose some electricity production, but
capture all of the heat, eliminating the use of other fuel to make this heat. Total ef~ciencies
can reach 90%, d e p e n ~ n gon how well the electric and thermal needs are matched or
balanced. CHP takes energy from a central electric plant and distributes it to end users as
steam, hot water and chilied water using piping networks.
An increase in efficiency of 1% would result in a 2.5% reduction in CO, em~§sions,An
UK study suggests that half of the CO, savings required up to 2010 can be met most cast-
effectively with CHP. CHP can reduce fuel use, cut emissions and save money. Policy
makers should take a ~ ~ ~ asteps ~ i tov encourage
e use of CHP. The technology is ~eadily
available, has a net economic benefit and can cut fuel consumption and pollutant emissions
in the e n e supply ~ ~ ~industry in half. There are many ways in which r e ~ l a c i nseparate
~
heat and power generatiQn with CHP systems can reduce emissions s i g n ~ ~ c ~ n tFor iy.
example, producing 1 kWh of electricity, and a given amount of heat, from hard coal in a
CHP system can reduce emissions by almost 30% compared with producin~both
~ y the sanie fuel. Using natural gas in the CHP system can reduce e~issions
s ~ p a ~ a t efrom
by almost two-thirds compared with generating the heat and power separately from coal.
CHP meets energy needs and can save money for a wide range of energy c~stomers-
incl~dingpublic sector users - and also helps preserve the earth’s precious energy
resources, reducing the impact on the environment of harmfbl pollutanls. The GHP shares
of European power generation range from about 34% in the Netherlands to about 6% in
Sweden, s ~ ~ g e s t i nscope
g for large increases in some countries. Energy m ~ k e t
deregulation could produce more favourable conditions for CHP, by increasing investmen<
innovation and market entry, and decreasing the costs of backup power and natural gas.
16 structuring and ~ e ~ ~ l ~
s been good value, and now it is even more so, with the UK
g o v ~ ~ m e n tdecision
’s to exempt d-quality CHP from the Climate Chan
starts in April 2001. This exemp will apply to electricity generated fro
CNP and used on site or sold directly to other bus~e§§es.The govemm$nt belie~eswith
f a fair and appropriate fiscal and r e ~ i a t o~ ~~ e w o r k ~
other measures such as negotiated ag~eementswith indu
ewable genera~ionand efgcient CRP will be ~creased,This should
deliver substantial increases in CBP capacity in the coming years. It should en
govemment to a ~ ~ o u n cin e , the coming months, a new CBP target of around 10
of the draft Climate Change P r ~ ~ a ~that m would
e resent more than
’s CHP capacity. Action by the UK government an
essential to provide a market environmen~with incentives and penaiti
that the new tec~ologiesbecome available at competit~vecost and in ample quantity. For
dis~bL~ted generators, there have been concerns about treatment of ~ ~ s ~ i bgeneration ~ted
by public electricity suppliers (PESs), especially distributed e n e ~ ~ t i that o ~ i they do not
er the new a~angementsa dis~ibutedgenerat~rowned by a PES will be
to formal arrangements with the distribution business in the same w
ted generator. The same r e ~ u i r e m e ~tot p u b ~ i ~the
h a ~ ~ ~ m
minimise the risk of the ~S-ownedgenerator bein treated in a more favourable way than
others.
~ ~ a l set the economic framework in which
The p o ~ ~ t decisions
n e ~ o r k sw311 d e t e ~ i success
~e or failure in meeting the target. Private deve~o~ers will
install the CHP and the renewable energy plant if they see a return for their investment, If
developmen~sare to happen, unpopular measures will be required, such as
ssions, incentives for the deve~opmen~ of s u i i ~ n § ~~~ l a~t i o~nand
s ~ the
relaxing of restrictions imposed by ~ ~ ~ regulations. ~ ~ i Inn order g to meet the new
o b ~ ~ ~ a tai ~uppIier
on can either supply the requ~redamount of renewable e l e c ~ i cor ~ buy
~,
upplier who fails to meet the obl~gationwill be required to make a
government has recently announced the basis for its new renewable
energy support mechanism. Suppliers will be able to meet their obl~~ation ~ ~ t h by
er
purchas~g~enewableenergy or by chasing tradable green c e ~ i ~ c a t eA
s .~ ~ e ~ i a ~ v e ~ y
able to buy out a of their obligatio~~
e total cast of meet ligaticsn and the associated inc
t ~ o to~ the ~ user. In addition, the provision of a
g end
le sources at p r e ~ ~ uprices
m via the NFFO and also the D
's New and Renewable Energy ~ r o g r has ~ iresulted
~
There are a number of le~~slative and policy ~ e ~ ~ l o ~ mc e~net ns ~inl yhand h hat will
n influence its growth. The Utility Bill is aimed at
impact on d i s ~ r i ~ u ~g e d~ ~ r a t i oand
p u ~ the ~ customer
g first. The Bill will ~ntrodu~e i r n ~ ochanges
~ t to the I98
Act. These changes will include the in~oductionof new ~ a d i n g
and seXling electricity, separation ofthe PES supply and dis~ibuti
ion on s u ~ ~ l i etor smeet targets an renewable electricity. AI1 of these c
e ~ m ~ l i ~ a t i ofor
n s some if not all distributed generator^. In gove
~ t a ' een ~inister'with responsibi~~~y
d e p a r ~ e has for ensunn that energy e f ~ c ~ e n c y
targets are met. Tar~etshave been set in some ~ ~ ~ a for~ sourc~ng e n ~ene s
renewable sources (such as wind) rather than conven~~onal genera~~on.
osts ~ e on the
~ s pee c i ~~site
~ as~ well as the s ~ e c i ~ c a ~(size,
i o n oper~tiona~
reliability, e n v i r ~ n m performance,
e~~~ n ~ , Costs will be
safety r e q u i r ~ m ~etc.).
ant built an the gr~enbeltCO
existing ~ i i f r ~ s ~can
c ~ber used.
e Plants close
oses and avoid costs for CO
rent sourc~sas each project is site
s-fired plant can vary &om US$300
om ~ S $ 9 ~ ~for~ W e
advanced c o a ~ - ~ r e
1 Power System Restructuring and ~ e r e ~ i a ~ o n
corresponding to the replacement of major plant components after 20-25 years, whereas
coal-fired plants can reach up to 30-40 years of life.
A l ~ o u g hgas-fired tecknology is cheaper in U S $ ~ W eterns there are other factors that
should be taken into account. Natural gas is not available in every country and prices are
not always competitive. Moreover the i n f ~ ~ ~ c ttou produce
re and
more capital ~ntens~ve than the equivalent costs for coal. As discussed
upstream capital costs are considered in the competitiveness of gas
coalfired plants then the capital expenditure associated with both ~echnologiescould be the
same. The high costs of the pipeline network to t r a n ~ p ogas ~ can outweigh the difference
in capital costs for plant construction. If in place, the electricity generator can benefit from
d build cheaper gas-fired plant. However, as d e ~ a n d
cture will be needed. It is estimated that to c
in Europe (1.7% annual growth from t 999 to
c ~ ~ ~ billion will be required [23]. Such inv
i n f r ~ s of~ US$l00-200
unde~akeiionly in the fr~meworkof long-term contracts and it i s unc
rofitable in competitive electricity and gas markets.
energy poses threats to the climate, with potentially severe enviroi~men~al consequences~
given the levels o f consumption likely in future, it will be an immense chal
the global demand for energy without unsus~inablelong-term damage to the environment.
This situation has attracted the attention of political leaders across the world, and at the
Kyoto meeting of the parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change in
-
D e c e ~ b e rI997 there was agreement to tackle one aspect the amount of greenhous~gases
emitted to the atmosphere. The levels of atmospheric CO,, for example, have increased
from 285 ppm before the ~ndustrialRevolution to about 350 ppm now. Xt is now generally
accepted that there is a strong case for acting to mitigate the threat of drastic clima~e
change associated with the unrestrained continuation of this trend. The Kyoto meeting
produced pledges by the industrialised nations to cut their GWG emissions, by 20 12, to an
average of 5% below the 1990 levels.
Deregulation could play a positive role by giving flexibility to different plants or even
countries to trade emissions. In this way a generator could have a portfolio of plants
including some using renewable energy and therefore meet overall environmen~al
requirements. It could also help the development of less costly pollution coatrol
technologies. In the single European electricity market, however, where electricity will be
traded between member states, it is not yet clear where to allocate emissions. It could be
the country where electricity is produced or where it is actually used, This is particularly
important in the view of commitments to reduce GHG emissions.
US e n v ~ r o n ~ e nregula~ions
ta~ have caused a niajor shift in demand for lower sulphur
coal supplies. Since the 1990 amendment to the Clean Air Act, there has been a noticeable
shift in coal use by ~eneratingcompanies in the USA towards lower sulphur coal.
~ e r e g u I a ~increases
i~n the o p p o ~ n i t i e sfor using CEiP, since the power ~ e n e r a ~ ecan
d
more easily be distributed and sold. GWP units can supply both electricity and heat at the
same time, achieving high efficiencies and therefore reducing emissions to th
compared with separate generation of electricity and heat. In all c o u i i ~ ~ s
economical on industrial sites or community heating schemes where there is
heat. In deregula~edmarkets industrial users can set up a small CHP plant on their sites to
sup~lyheat and sell any surplus electricity to the local grid. Before deregulat~onthis
practice was either not allowed, or at least not encouraged in many countries 1241.
There are two ways to reduce GHG emissions. One way is to increase our r e l ~ ~ n cone
nuclear power; the other is to develop a wide range of alternative methods of e x ~ a c t ~ n g
energy from nature. The nuclear option is clean and feasible but it is hard to See
opin~onwould switch from its present hostility to the acceptance of a massive pr
of c o ~ s ~ c t of n nuclear power stations. The role of nuclear power is ex
~ onew
decrease in Europe as the perception of its environmental and economic p e ~ f ~ ~ a has nce
substan~iallychang~d,In the 1970s nuclear power was regarded as a source of cheap and
em~ss~ons-free electricity. High costs invoived in decommissionin~nuclear reac~orsand
the unresolved issue of nuclear waste have changed the image of nuclear plants. Italy has
phased out nuclear generation since the early 1990s after the Chernobyl accident. ~ e ~ a n y
decided in late 1998 to phase out nuclear power and is now d~seuss~ng possible ways for
implementation. The UK ~ o v e r n ~has ~ nplans
t to start phasing out nuclear power in
It is clear that the construct~onof new nuclear plants in Europe will cause pubI~coppos~~ion
and is unlikely to materialise, particularly in deregulated markets where such ~ n v e s ~ ~ n ~ s
are not competitive, as they are too expensive. The contribution frorn nuclear power to the
fuel mix is expected to decrease and will be replaced by other sources ~ne~uding coal.
_sl__
Power System R e ~ ~ cand
~ ~i e rn~ ~ u l a t i o n
ercut c ~ n ~§a ~
l ~u ~~ iicosts
ol ~~and
~ have
ya of
grid is fin e l e c ~ ~~~ s~ ~l ~set t eg e~n e ~ f i ~ ~ r s
of c ~ s ~ o m[28-403.
~r§
Energy Generation under the New Environment 1
any studies indicate that distributed generation (DG) might play a s i g n ~ ~ c arole
n t in
the future power system structure. A study by the Electric Power Resea
(EPRI), for example, indicates that by 2010,25 % of the new generation will be distributed
[41]. Owing to variations in ~ o v e ~ m eregulat~ons,
nt different de~nitionsfor DG are used
in different countries. In England and Wales, the term ‘dis~ibutedgeneration’ is
predominantly used for power units with less than 100 MW capacity. In Sweden, DG is
oRen defined as generat~onup to 1504 kW.In Austra~~a DG is ofken defined as power
generation with a capacity of less than 30 MW. In New Zealand, DG is often considered as
generation up to 5 MW. There is no special definition of DG in the Californian and
N o ~ e g i a nelectricity markets.
forn DG could be an electric energy source c o n n e c directly
A general ~ e ~ n i t i o ~~ to the
distribution network or load centre. DG is decentralised and located closer eo the point of
reater economic and env~ronmen~l sense. Several main reasons have
combincd to make DG a technically, commercially, environmentally and, to an extent,
politicalIy attractive proposition.
worldwide have been designed with large centxalised generation in mind and that,
therefore, DG ofien faces significant barriers w~thinthe competi~~ve
market.
t e c ~ o l o ~ i have
e s the d ~ ~ a ~ that v the g e output during an upcornin
~ ~power
urs, can only be pre~ictedwith some ~ c e ~ afor i ne ~
Contracts for
re I. 001
needed reforms
Energy Generation under the New Environment 5
A n ~ i ~s l~a~~i care
e sthose nctions ~ e r f o to~ s~u pdp o the
~ basic services of
c a p a c i ~energy
~ supply and power delivery. The costs for ancillary servic
s i ~ n i ~ c a nfor
t ; e x ~ p ~ine the
, USA the total costs for ancillary services are about
erat~onof ~ l e c ~ i yc ~istrib~ited
i~ ~eneratorswith~ndistri
issues concerning real and reactive
r qua~ity[ 1 ~ , 3 0 , ~ 4 ] .
ution networks operate on a radial or open-r
designed broadly on principle that load
reduces along the I of each distr~~utor.
d i s t ~ ~g~~ t~ ee r~a t effectively reverse th
point on a distributor or interconnected network and this could affect c o n v e n ~ ~ Q ~ ~ 1
automatic voltage control schemes which cater only for conveneio
the design of protect~verelaying systems i s much more complic
going both ways.
~ ~ e r a t Qsuitably
rs located may also offer benefits to a d ~ s ~ i b u t oby,
r for ex
o f f s the~ need
~ ~for~ re~nforcementor provis~onof other s e ~ i c e such
s as voltage
ayments to generators will be s u ~ s t i ~ t i nfor
g other ex~enditur
1.10.
uppose t is a need to replace a circuit breaker as
the fault level. It is i ~ p o ~ a to
n ts~ress
Energy ~ e n ~ ~ tunder
i o nthe New E n v i r o ~ ~ n t 7
In regions where renewable energy resources are abundant but usually situated in remote
locations, connection to the central power grid is expensive and in many cases ~ ~ ~to ~ c
provide. Small-scale, autonomous generation schemes, on the other hand, are both
economical and practicable. They utilise the energy resources available and supply the
consumers in the local regions. The system cost can be reduced by using c a g e - ~ e sdf- ,
excited i n d ~ c t i oge~ierators
~ (SEIGs) [47-521 since these machines are cheap and r ~ a d ~ l y
available.
~utonomouspower systems often employ single-phase g ~ n e ~ t i oand n dis~bution
schemes for reasons of low cost, ease of maintenance and simplicity in protect~on[53].
When a three-phase SEIG is used to supply single-phase loads, however, the stzator c
are s e r i o ~ s ~unba~anc
y causing degrada~ion in generator perfo
o v ~ r c u ~ e novervoltage
t, efficiency and machine vibration. These
can be alleviated to a c xtent by the use of the Steinmetz c o ~ n ~
the excitation c a p a c i ~ c eand load are connected across different phases. For isolated
operation, however, perfect phase balance cannot be achieved when the load is purely
resistive.
The objective of this case study is to introduce a modified ~ t e i n m ce o~ ~ e c ~ i othat
n
enab~esperfect phase b a ~ a ~to c ebe achieved in a ~ e e ~ ~ hSElG
a s ewhich supp~iessingle-
phase loads. A general performance analysis is presented and experimental results are
given to validate the princip~es.
~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ i ~t and ~ ~ ~ n ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ l ~
Figure 1.5 shows the mdified Steinmetz connection (MSC) for a ~ ~ l ~ - c o n nSEIG, ~ted
which supp~~es ~ a s eIt is assumed that the rotor is driven in such a d~~ection
a s ~ n g ~ e - ~load.
that it ~ ~ v ~the s e swinding in the sequence A-B-C, i.e. in h e same direction as the
~ stator
positive-sequence rotating field. Hence, if A-phase is taken as the reference phase, B-phase
is regarded as the lagging phase. The main excitation capaci~nceG2and the auxiliary load
c e are c ~ ~ ~ across
r e s ~ ~ ~ a nRL2 t e dB-phase (the lagging phase), while the ~ u x i ~ i a ~
excitation Gapacitance 6, and the main load resistance R,, are connected across A-phase
(the reference phase). Compared with the original Steinmetz connection [54],it is no
that the auxiliary load r ~ s ~ s RL2 ~ cand e a u x ~ excitation
l ~ ~ capacit~ceC, have
introdu~ed.These circuit elements provide additional current components that result in the
flow of bdmced line currents into the SEIG.
In a practical aut~nomouspower system, the auxili load resistmce RL2 cm be local
loads such as lighting, storage heating or battery charging Alternatively, it could be a
portion of the remote loads.
For the purpose of analysis, all the circuit parameters in Figure 1.5 have been referred
to the base (rated) frequency hose by introducing the per-unit frequency a and the per-unit
speed b [55]. Thus, each voltage shown in Figure 1.5 has to be m~ltipl~ed by a in order to
-
give the actual value and the per-unit slip is equal to (U b)/a. Besides, the motor
convention has been adopted for the direction of phase and line currents.
The ~hase-balancingcapabiIity of the MSC for a three-phase S E E may be studied by
~ n t diagram. It is assumed that the values of C,and C,
re€erence to a ~ o l t a g e / c ~phasor
are su~cientlylarge so that the SEIG has built up its voltage and is supplying the loads.
Figure S.6 shows the phaasor diagram for the SEIG under balanced conditions. Because the
is delta ~onnected,the line currents I,, I, and I3 lag the c o ~ ~ o phase n d ~ ~
voltages V,, V, and V, by (ld, f d 6 ) rad, where lli, is the positive-sequ~nceimpedance
angle of the S E E .
The line current 1, is contributed by the current Ia through C, and the current lR2
through RL2. ~ ~ e a n w h ithe , current I, is contributed by -Icl(where Ictis the current
~ e line
through 6 , )and -IR,(where IR,is the current through RLl). It can be shown that the angle y
between 1, and I, is equal to (4 2 d 3 ) rad, while the angle Sbetween -IR,and I , is (5x16
~ -
bP) rad. The phasor diagram in Figure 1.6 can be drawn only when la leads 12,which
implies that perfect balance can be achieved for values of #p ~xceeding2x13 rad.
Energy Generation under the New E ~ v i ~ o ~ e ~ t
_/_3__
a
~~g~~~1.5 Modified Steinmetz connection for three-phase SEIG
From the current phasor triangles in Figure 1.6, the following relationships can be deduced:
For a given total output power, (1.1) to (1.4) can be used to determine the values of the
load and phase converter elements required for perfect phase balance, provi
and a of the SEIG are known.
Equation (1.2) shows that B, vanishes when 53, = 5n/6 rad, which innplies that the
auxiliary capacitance C, can be dispensed with. When #, exceeds 5a/6 xad, B, becoines
negative, i ~ p l y i n gthat perfect balance can be achieved with an auxiliary induc~ance. In
practice, however, the full-load power factor angle of an SEIG ranges from 2 d 3 rad to
4n/5 rad, and hence it is very likely that an inductive element need be used.
B
Phasor diagram of SEIG with MSC under balanced conditions
A general analysis of the SEIG with MSC can be carried out using the method of
i c a ~s. All the equivalent circuit parmeters are as
s ~ ~ e ~Gompone be ~ o n s t a ~ t
except the magnetisi reactance, which is a fbnction of the posit nce air gap
voltage. With reference to Fig. 1.5, the following 'inspection equations' E561 may be
w~~en:
where,
1 = G1+ J
y ,=-
Z1
and
~ q ~ a t (1.6
~ oj nimplies that z ~ r o - s e q u ~ voltages
ce and Gu~entsare absent in the SE1
solving (1.5) to (1.8) in terms of the delta system of synmetrical ~ o r n p [57], o ~ the
~ ~
~osi~ive-se~uence volta~eV, and nega~ive-sequ~nce voltage V, c m be d e t ~ ~ i n e a :
Energy ~ e n e r ~ tunder
i o ~ the New Enviro~ent 1
Y,+-Y2
v,=&v. A (1.11)
Y2 -t- Y p + Y,,
v,=J?v. (1.12)
Y2 + Yp+ Yn
where Ypand Ynare the positive-sequence and negative-sequence admittances of the SEIG.
The input i ~ p c d ~ Zc, e of the SEIG when viewed across stator terminals 1 and 3
(Figure 1.S) is given by
Yz + Y p + Y n (1.13)
3 Y pY , -i-
Y p Y2 + Yri y2
L + z,,
=0 (1.15)
Equation (1.15) can be solved for the excitation fkequency a and m a ~ e t i s i n greactance X,.
d X, have been d e t e ~ i n e dthe
, positive-sequence air gap voltage is found from
tisation curve. The generator performance can then be comput~dusing (1.5) to
(1.12).
The input impedance Z,n as given by (1.13) involves the generator admittances 5 and Y,
whose real and i m a g i ~ parts
a ~ are high-order polynomials of a X,. As a result ofthe
algebraic manipulations involved, both R,, and &,! in (1.13) are extremely complicated
functio~sof the above ~ W Ovariables. Serious difficulties will be encount~redwhen solving
(1.15) using conventional techniques such as the Newton-Raphson method [47] owing to
the lengthy mathematical derivations required. To overcome these d ~ ~ c u la ~function ~ ~ s ,
minimisation t e c ~ i ~ isu eemployed in this case study for solving (1.15). This is based on
~ o n€or given values of a and X,, the input i m p ~ ~Z,~ can
the o b s e ~ ~ t that, c ebe ~ o ~ ~
readily.
and X , are respectively the equivalent series resistance and reactance of&.
olution of (1.15) is next formulated as the following opti~isation
For given values of load resistances, excitation capxitancm and speed, determine the
values of a and X, such that thefunction Z(a, XJ is minimum.
It is obvious that Z(a, ) has a minimum of zero and the corresponding values of a and X,
also satisfj (1.15).
Any o p t ~ ~ ~ s a talgorithm
ion that does not require the evaluation of ~ ~ c t i do ~nv a t i v e s
may be used for the above problem. In this study, the pattern search method 1583 is used
for ~ n c t i o n~ ~ i m i s a t i o The
n . method employs two search strategies, namely exploratory
rn moves, in order to a r b e at the optimum point. A ~ n c ~ i evaluation
on is
required each time an expioratory move or pattern move is to be made.
For normal opera~ionof an SEE, a is slightly less than the per-unit speed b whilst X, is
less than the u n s a ~ a t e dmagnetising reactance Xmu. A c ~ o r d i ~ ~bl yand , X,,,could in
general be chosen as initial estimates for a and X, for starting the search procedure. In
practice, it was found that a smaller initial value for the variable a (say 0.97b) would give
more rapid converge~ce.
To simplify the calculations and for easy comparison, all the machine p~ameter$are
expressed in per-unit values using the rated phase voltage, rated phase current and rated
power per phase o f the induction machine as bases. TabIe I. 1 shows typical computed
results for the $xperi~en~al machine. The hnction minima obtained imply that very
accurate so~utionsare possible. Over a wide range of load, the number of hnction
evaluations Nrequired to reach a solution varies from 350 to 450.
~ a b 8.1
~ eComputed results for SE16 with MSC
~ondi~ions
for perfect phase balance in three-phase S E E with MSC
v Zph YP @P RL, c, RL2 c
2
volt 4.1
Phase ciurents ofthree-phase SEIC with MSC. P,: output power to main load RLI:P,:
output power to auxiliary load R,,
1.6
0.6
1.11.6 i~~d ~ ~ ~ ~ r n e
~ i m ~ i P~a~e-balancing
In circumstances where it is not pract~cableto provide auxiliary loads, or when a u x i ~ i a ~
loads need not be supplied, the simplified Steinmetz connection (SSC) shown in ~ ~ g
be employed. In this case, all the electrical power output o f the $E
to the sing~e-phaseload &,. The phasor diagam for the MSC (Figure 1.6) and
ondiiig equations (1.1)-(1.4)may be used to identify the conditions for perfect
phase balance for the SSC. Since the auxiliary load resistance R,, is absent,
in (I .3) is forced to a s s u ~ ea zero value. Accordingly the posit~ve-seque
angle bpo f the S E E must be equal to 2n/3 rad for (1.3) to be satisficd. F
and (1.4), the values of the load conductance and phase-conve~ers
in a b a ~ ~ c oepde r a ~ i ~ofnthe SEIG are: G,= 3 YJ2, B , = 43 YJ2 and
T
i ~ e ~connection for three-phase SEIG
~ j ~ p iSteinmetz
0.
El.
0.4 -/ I
0 1.
-
0
Fi 3~ upowe~ ~ t
Energy ~ e n e r a under
~ ~ ~ the
n New ~ ~ v i r o ~ e n t 7
1 ~ ~ a c h has
~ nthe
e follow~ngpa~icula~s:
.4 A, four-~ole,50 ~ three-phase, d e l t a - ~ o n ~ e ~ t e
e ~ i a c ~p ia ~r ai ~ ~(in
~ eper-unit
~ s values) are:
-
_I
0.0844
0.112
0.0~2 1
0.098 1
-
- 0.1
-
- 22
- 0.013
(1.17)
de A l m e r ~(PSA)
~ in Spain,
xi@ and success. The key c
The solar power plant under investigation, Plataforma Solar do Almeria (PSA), in
Almeria, Spain
I Steam
4 1 Generato
Steam
turbine
///*
ACUREX
Collectors
I-- I
I Pump A
I - -
(1.18)
n ’ in
‘ i f - ~ ~ e mles ase ofthe FLC as
~01010101000Q0101 1110101010~01Q111~0~01012
1101Q1Q~0101010~01 1111110110000
11100011100101111Q10101010l000000000000101~11101100111110
1 ~ 110001I1 0001I 100
I1 ~ 0 0 0 1 0 0101
11 1Z 10001 1 111 I 1000110000~00011111Q0
1000111101110111111001010~
The chromosome
7 ~ ~ r o ~linked
o ~to rule
~ ~base
e s
re~ro~uction, crossover
1.18. Firstly, the GA r
nto an ini~~alisatio~
2 Power System Restructuring and ~ e r ~ g u ~ ~ ~
~ s e u d o ~ c €or
o ~ the
e GA
e n ~ on
~ x p e r ~ ~results l the simulator of the plant have been taken to verify the proposed
GA-FLC s c ~ e ~Ine .Figure 1.19, the effect of GA o p ~ ~ ~ i sofa ~thei orule ~ base on the
e r f o ~ a n c of
e the plant is illustrated. The upper graph shows the eiTor versus the number
of generations. The error, an index of the fitness of the c h r o ~ ~ ~ ois~seen
o ~ to
e , decrease as
. The middle graph show
bottom one shows the corre
emcnt of the dynamic response o
scheme on a day wh
tional PI control s c h e ~ e .It is
the plant's robustness when external
. Since there is only on
u n ~ ~ u ~d~fferen~
ly in any time interval, we
concurr~n~ly in real-time. The validity of the comparison ~ e ~ e the e nPI and GA-FLC
1 in the fact that the simulator is a proven ~ o of the
~ 0 ~ s ~c h ~e ~0e slies ~ plant
e [63]~ and
one can ~ ~ pthe~ solar r eradiation in a particu~arperiod and use it as one of the i n p ~ to
~s
the simulator. The simulator's output is then compared under different control schemes.
The current ~nvestigationis based on this principle.
n the New E n v i r o ~ c n t
Energy ~ e n e ~ a t i ounder
35000 -
30000 -
25000 -
20000 -
j
isaoo
10000
5000
300 -
300 1 1
25Q
00
150
100
I---- et point
~ ~ f c con
t sthe ~ e ~of thef planto by the
~ GA ~optimisa~~on
~ ~
arison of GA-FLC with PI scheme un er extreme external dynamic c ~ a ~
neration under the New ~ n v i r o n m ~ n t _I___p
such as l a r ~ e ~ s expen
ca~~
e ~ ~ s t cannot
o ~ be~ sec~ s
Energy Generat~onunder the New E n v i r o ~ e n t 4
_l
_ l
*
shnell and S.S. Qren, ‘ idder cost revelation in electric power auctions’, J o ~ r n uof~
ory Economics, Vol.6, 1994, pp.5-26.
o and R. Wilson, ‘Priority service: Pricing, investment, a d market organization’,
Anzerieun Economic Review, Vo1.77, 1987, pp.899-916.
[S] T. Straws, and S.S. i b ~ ~ service with early
‘Priority pricing of ~ n t e ~ p t electric
notifica~ion’,Energy ,V01.14, 1993, pp.175-196.
[9] A. Midtun and S. Thornas, ‘Theoretical ambiguity and the weight o f historical heritage: a
i v e of the ritish and ~ o ~ c g i electricity
c o ~ n ~ a r a ~study an l i h ~ r a l i ~ a t i EmerB
o ~ ~ , Policy,
V01.26, 1998, pp.179-197.
aas, N.Auer, C. Huber, and M. Tranger, ‘Limits for competition in restructured electricity
~ ~ k e- tthe s European pe~ceptive’,19th annuui North Amer~cunCon~erence,United States
Association for Energy Economics and International Association for Energy Economics, 1998,
pp.103-112.
[I I] IEA, World energy outlook: I998 edition, Paris, France, QECDIIEA, 475pp, 1998.
[I21 C, Singh and N. Gubbala, ‘Reliability evaluation of interconnected power systems including
jointly owned ~enerators’,IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vo1.9, No.), 199
412.
an, ‘Evaluation of the reliability and production cost of i~i~eKconnc~~ed
ems with jointly owned units’, IEE Proceedings, Vol. 134, No.6, 1997, pp.377-382.
Jaskow, ‘Price a ~ j ~ s ~ine long-term
nt contracts: The case of coal’, ~ ~ ~ r qfLaw n u l and
~conomics, Vo1.3 1, 1998, pp.47-84.
[ 1151 IEA, rroje~tedcosts o ~ g e ~ e r u t ielectricity,
i~g Update, Paris, OECD/ IEA, 243pp, 1998.
[ 161 J. Lane ‘Sweeping thc board’, Power EngineeringInt$~u~ional~ Vol.6, 1998, pp.25-29.
on Embedded Generation, IEE, 28 February 2000.
utanto, ‘Battery storage plant within large load c e n ~ ~ s~9 , E E ~
terns, Vol.?, No.2, May 1992, pp.762-767.
[ 191 Gmzettu Uficiule delta Republica Italians, Decrelo legislatho 16.3.1999 n. 79, Attuazione
comuni per il mercato in
afico e Zecca dello Stato -
[20] EC, ‘Guide to the electricity directive’, available from: http:J/www,~uropa.eu.in~en/
r . h ~ , Belgium, European Com~ission,D ~ r e c t o r a ~ ~ ~ ~ e n e r
c o ~ ~ d g ~ ~ / e l e c . m e i n oBrussels,
II ( ~ n ~ r g yIOpp,
) , March 1999.
E211 P. Baruya and D. Goidsacks, ‘European coal issues - European tibcralisation af coal’, ~ o ~ l d
Coal, Vol. 7 (10); 1998, pp.29-34.
road ben^, ~ G o ~ p e t i ~ i v eof s ~ - the evolution of price’, CS/05, London, U
n ecoal
Goal Research, 20pp,
[23] UNEGE, ‘Security supply in a changing European natura1 gas
~ ~ P . 3 / ~ ~ . 4 / 1 9 9Geneva,
6 / 6 , Switzerland, United Nations Economic C o ~ m ~ s s i o n
for Europe, Committee an Sustainable Energy, 17pp, June 1999.
E241 Couch G., ‘OECD coal-fired power generation - trends in the 199Os’, IE
esearch, 83pp, April 1997.
[ E ] Modern POWCK Systems, ‘World digest: Green power launched,’ Modern Power Sjwterns,
VoI.19, ~ e 1999. ~ ~ a ~
lobal Private Power, ‘Own coal?’, GIobuE Private
Climate, report, The ociety and The Royal ~ c a d e of ~y
hugar, 'The value of grid-sup
T r ~ n s ~ coiz~ Energy
i o ~ ~ o n ~ e r s iVol.
o ~ ,10, 1995,
eloping CHP in the public sector and beyond'
up Ltd., April 2000, pp.2-22.
Ilan, Pcter Gaossley, Daniel
hluture far ~ i s t ~ ~g ~
u nt eer a~~ ~ oEniq ,e c ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~
ket ~ a n a g ~ ~ ~ n t
IiwM.w.nemmco.com.a~aulne
Energy Generation under the New E n v ~ r o ~ e n ~ 9
. Wa~son,J. Arrillaga and T. Densem, ‘Controllable d.c. power supply from wind driven
se~f-excitedinduction m~chines*, 1EE Procee~ings,Vo1.126, W0.12, 1979, p p . 1 ~ ~ ~ - $ 2 4 ~ .
[SO] T.F. Chan and L.L. Lai, ‘Phase b a l ~ c i t ~forg n se~f”exc~~ed ~ n d u c g~ e~n oe ~~~~t o~r r’ ~o ~ e e ~ i n g s
of the In~erna~ional Conference on Power Utility De lation, ~estructuringand Power
) , ~niversity,London, TEEE
e s ( ~ ~ T 2 0 0 0City
~ e c ~ n o l o g i2000
[SI] T.F. Chm and L.L. Lai, ‘S~eady~state analysis o f a thr~e-phase
co~iection’,IEEE Power Engineering Review, V01.20, NO.10,
[SZ] T.F. Chan and L.L. Lai, ‘A novel s i n ~ ~ e - ~ she~l € s e- r e ~ ~ lself-excited
a~~d i
using a ~hree-~hase machine’, IEEE ~ r a n ~ ~ u c ~oni QEnergy
ns ~ o n v e r s ~ oVol.
n , 16,
A. ~ ~‘Experience
~ of ~using thea neural i
Ironically, neither is th
~ e ~ t 2.5, i o none
~ of
titi ion or o ono^^^^. It i s ther~fo
sive exercise of rn
t ~ oUtiliti~s
~ e ~ ~ ~afaElectric n 1.
v
an
structuring and ~ e r e ~ l ~ t i o n
2.4. I
exercise market power and control the price of e l e c t r ~ ~ i ~ .
itions where the providers of a service can c
ose that would be established by a coinp~ti~ive mark
actual prices and the prices that would arise from
the assumption that the generators are priceta
en a major impediment to price reduction in the Engl
Pool. Efforts are being made to eliminate market
~ a ~ ~ c u lhere
a r , will be a d r a ~ a ~reform
ic of the energy market
the year 2000.
~ n s u f ~ c ~because
e ~ t ne
r ion ~acilities~
henever each whee
~ ~ r e ~ l a of o ~ i Utilities
t i Electric
[9, Z 51.
Q e r ~ g ~ l ~oft Electric
i o ~ Utilities
a h a ~ f ~ h o u basis.
r ~ y Many customers will pay for electric power based on this price^ e~ther
irectly ~l~rough
their distribu~~on utility or t ~ o ~ ag private
h power supp~y
e Pool price. The IS0 can also operate markers for a n c ~ l t a ~
wer, spinning/non-spinning reserve and losses. The roles of the
2.6. I ~ ~ and i ~ ~ ~ g
n Section 2.5.2 ~ifferentkinds of auction ~ e c h a n i ~ r weren s discussed. T
y Pricing is done essentially in eith
uty to set the e l e c ~ c i ~price.
ex ante or ex post. An ex ante market is one in which the price o f the CO
is set prior to its del~verywhile an ex posl marke~is one in which the
c o m I ~ i o d iis~d e ~ e ~ ~ at e d time o f delivery. In an electricity market, a
n the
is like a b~~ateral con~rac~ market in which ~aders/pa~ic~pants agree on the a ~ ~ o ~ ~
electricity to be delivered at a certain time in the future at a certain price
Nord Pool combines ex ante and ex post pricing. In its spot market, syst
prices are set up the day prior to delivery. Any differcnce in the forecast wi
delivery results in a discrepancy with the pre-set price and the spot price. This is
c o ~ p e n s a ~ cbyd the presence of the ex post mechaiiism. In the ord Pool, there is a
buy~ackmarket to make up for this difference. ~imilarly,genera~orbids are also s u ~ i ~ i ~ e d
on a o ~ ~ ~ ~ a y basis - a lin~the
~ ~England
d and Wales Pool, and participants are paid at the
end of each day for their transactions plus CoInpensation. The England and ~ a ~ Pool e s is
the~eforealso an ex ante market with an ex post mechan~sm.Ex post markets also exist and
examples are the New Zealand and Australia markets. In the New Zealand e l e c ~ r ~ ~ i ~
mar~et,ge~eratorsand loads are aflowed to change their bids until 2 hours prior to d e l i v e ~
and the market is cleared re larly d u r i ~ gthe bidding process. Ex post prices are c a ~ c ~ ~ a t e
using arke et-c~ea~ng software with the latest offershids and the actual r n e ~ demand ~ r ~ ~
together with losses. Figure 2.5 illustrates the ~n~eraction of ex a m and t?x post p r ~ c i nfor
~
e i e c ~ r i cmarkets.
i~
-
', LOSS '.. \
Compensation
I actual demand
- ~_____-
final clearing price I
1 e.g. Nord Pool, E & W Pool 1
~ ~ r e ~of Electric
l ~ ~ Ui ~ iol i t~i ~ s 3
tier prov~ders~
play an
c o n s ~ e r rather
s than be c B ~ t u
11c o ~ s u ~ eshould
rs have access
is a type of b i l ~ t e r ~ l
I
eregulation of Electric Utilities 5
=3 + 0 . 0 2 and
~ ~ ~
.7(a) The network; (b) unconstrained dispatch; (c) constrained d i s p a t ~(Source: [151)
(a) SMP; (b) G1 cost function and adjustment; (c) G2 cost function and adjustment
(Source: 1151)
~eneratorPayments G1 62
~ (Light-shaded Areas) (Eh)
G e n ~ r a t i nCosts 616 487
Generating Payments from Pool (Ou~ut*PFF)(E/h) 952 340
Adjustments (Dark-shaded Areas) (E/h) 25 147
Total Payment (Sum of Generating Payments and 1464
Adjustments) (f/h)
d
eration e o m ~ e n c in
e ~Norway two years a&er the pass
d from the former ‘ C
optional pool was sufficient because o f the la~gen
land and Wales Pool, the Nord 001 utilises ex ante pricing to set the
or to delivery and compens s power i m b a l ~ c e susing ex post
ahead of actual delivery, the Nord Pool acc generator offers and
our of the following day. The system pric
emand curve meets the ag
price auction by paying all generators the last
en bidding areas d ~ r i n gthis process,
reas. In the s u ~ area, ~ ~thes area price is
by an amount equal to the line capac
y the right shifting o f its supply curve
Deregulation of Electric Utilities 9
~ ~ Q I t ~e ~
Q ~~the
s ~, area
c price in the su lus area is set up in such a way that it should
demand which has a quantity equal to the capacity of the c o n s ~ ~ ~ ~ e
hand, in the deficit area, the area pkce is set
encouraged to supply an ~dditionalamount equal to the capa
n ~ s an ad itional cost and this charge is called the '
p a ~ i c i ~ a incur
is the dif~erenceb e ~ e e nthe system price and the area price. (A
iilus~atethis m e c h a n ~below)
s~
on is broadcast to pool participants by 2.00 p.m. on th
power imbal~ncesare compe~sa~ed in a separate
rators can submit buyback bids after the d a ~ - ~ e amd
is ~ ~ i s ~These . reveal how much a generator is willing to pay to buy
~ e dbids
surplus power and how much a g e n e r ~ ~costs o r to produce the deficit a ~ o u n t .
system operator selects the cheapest a v a i ~ a ~generators
le to buy or sell in case Q
and c ~ ~ g e s ~ ~i o~na g e m e nand
t , all in-merit generators are paid the price set by the
s t block. S ~ ~ ~ e misedone
h i ~ ~ ecost n t ~ s ~ ~ ainl W
l yOweeks.
situation. This is reflected in the area prices. Also, because of the physical flow of 10
7 Power System ~ e s ~ c and
~ i ~i ei r ~~ ~ ~ a t i o
LI 2 LI 2
5.8
4.6
80 MW
(b> (c)
.I0 (a) System Price; (b) Surplus Area Price; (c) Deficit Area Price (Source: 1151)
The ~ o ~ e g i energy
an markets have been a successful example of energy ~ e r e g u ~ a ~ i o n .
ket power has not been an issue, ~ e v e ~ h ~ lthe
e s management
s of power im~a~ances
arouse^ concerns since it costs the SO money to resolve bo~Ienecksin the regulating
market. ~ o ~ n a it~has y contributed to a sniall amount of S tmett operating ~ u d g e t
$ ~only
SO f a [I cong~stion~ ~ a g e ~will e nbet costly when con~est~on becomes more
serious. er, the selection of ~egulatingbids using merit order, which is easily
c o m ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ by
n s participants,
ible does not necessarily result in the lowest cost to alleviate
co~gestion.
Deregulation of Electric Utilities 71
2.8.3 Galijhiu
The ~ n e r g yPolicy Act PACT) of 1992 clarified the d e t e ~ n a t i o nof the USA for a
com~etitiveenergy market. It is not m a n d a t o ~to implement a whole§ale c
energy market in the nation. Individual states pursuit difl'erent policies an
ending on their electricity prices. States with relatively high
California, New York, Massachusetts, etc., arc more aggressive in
implemcnting reforms. In 1998, California embarked on a four-year transitional period of
deregula~ion.
~ have com~licatedderegulation in California. The state gov
~ t r a n d ecosts
solved this problem by issuing bonds to inflicted companies to compensate for thei
Customers' bills include a small amount of charge (e.g. 4 cents~Wh),the so-calk
competi~ion~ a n s f e charge
r (CTC), to account for stranded costs.
During this transitional period, participation in the pool is optional, ap
large private utilities, which have to trade through the PX until March 2002. One ~i§tinct
d i ~ ~ r e n cb ee ~ e e nthe Californian Pool and the England and Wales Pool i s that in the
former case market clearing and bids matching are under a separate entity, the PX, rather
than embedded in the duties of the ISQ, as in the England and W
C a ~ ~ ~ o r ntwo
i a , types of bilateral contracts exist: Contract for
Access Contracts. The fact that CFDs are tied to pool prices has 1
game the market using their market power, The idea of Direct Access Contrac~sis to
c o ~ t e ~ athis
c t problem: Direct Access Contracts are not bonded to the PX and pa~icipan~s
only have to request their transactions through the ISd).
e ddo SO unless they can make more money in the reserve markets than in the
e n c o ~ a ~ to
ecause of that reason, generators submit very high bids to the r e s e ~ e
markets, resulting in n o n ~ c o ~ p e ~ i treserve
i v e prices. ~on~spinning
reserve has a relatively
higher price than spinning reserve because there are insufficient pa~cipantsin the non-
~ . maintenance of system security, the IS0 has
inning res~rve~ a r k e For
certain amount o f both reserves. Since non~spinnin~ res
spinnin~reserve, the consequence is a higher price for a 10
r e s ~ is~ not
e as ‘worthy’ to the system as spinning reserve is). These exemplify ~ ~ k e t
ine~~ciencies caused by unapt market rules.
The voluntary wholesale electricity market in New Zealand c o ~ ~ e n c eind 1996, but
before that there had already been limited competition in the supply sector. It is operate^
73
Afler years o f negot~a~on and debate, The Council for the European ~ n i o neven
adopted Directive 96/92/EC in ~ e c e m ~ e1996 r to liberalise the e l e c ~ i c ~ tin8
y
According to the ~~rective, members of the EU are required to open their
y the year 2006 at least one-third of the EU-wide energy market will h
rent European countries can liberalise their markets at their own pace, as long
nts set by the directive are met, Apart from i n ~ o d u competition
~~g in the
wholesale and retail sectors, the directive also features U . ~ o u n ~ ate sthe
forefront of liberalisation include Spain and the Netherlands
the existing one in England and Wales, will be developed
hourly supply and demand bids, while in the N e t h e r l ~ d sthe Elec
m ~ d a t e sa complete l ~ ~ e ~ ~ l i s aoft ithe
o n generation section by the year 2 0 ~ However,
~ .
there are also coun~ies,like France, Italy and Belgium, which keep their l~be~alisation
ess to the minimum level requ~redby the direc~ivebecause o f domes~icpoIi~ica~
reasons.
e ~ a n opened
y its market to all suppliers and end users. As it is n
ely few natural resources, two-thirds of the energy con~umedis
imported from other countries, Effort in deregulation is therefore focused on the
~8intenanceof security of supply. Under the Energy Law A~endmentnet owners are
required to provide o en access to facilitate competition. However, only 8 few out of about
700 net users have so far published the charges for using their networks [29]. At present,
nmst net owners also operate the grid; t~ereforethe issue of se~arationof owne~sh~p and
7 Power System R e s ~ c t u ~ xand
ig ~ere~lation
opera~ionwould need to be looked into, Also, practically small custo~er$have not bcen
able to change their suppliers easily under the current legislation.
The ~ e ~ project a n group on the energy market is ~ r a ~ an poten~~al
g project sketch
and it is likely that concept for the pote~~tia~ energy ark et will be similar to the
EX [30] (European Energy Exchange). It is envisaged &at the d ~ v ~ l o p ~ofe n t
ill be done step by step. The first step will be the ~ e v ~ l o p ~ofe natfutures
market where bilateral contracts can be traded ahead of time. Then a spot market will be
founded for physical and short-term power trading. efore reaching that step, Gemany has
to work on the i n ~ a s ~ and ~ ~r er~ e~ a t i o nfor
s fast and rel~ab~ew ~ e e l ~which
g is
essential for efficient ~ ~ i ofnthegspot market.
[13] J.W. Marangon Lima, M.V.F. Pereira and J.L.R Pereira, ‘An integrated f r ~ e w o r kfor cost
a~locationin a mu~~-owned transmission system’, IEEE Transuct~onson Power ~ s ~ e m s ,
V01.10, No.2, May 1995.
[14] J.W. ~ a r a n g o nLima and E.J. de Oliveira, ‘The long-term impact o f transmission pricing’,
IEEE ~ ~ n s a c t j o nons Power Systems, Vol. 13, No.4, November 1998.
[lS] K. Lo, Y.S. h e n and L.A. Snider, ‘Congestion management in d e r e ~ l a ~ eelectricity d
markets’, Proceedings of the I~~erna~ionul Conference on Power Utility ~ ~ r e ~ ~ a
~ e s t ~ c ~ u rand ~ nPower
g i e ~ City Universiw, London, IEEE, April 2000,
T e c ~ n o l o ~ 2000,
pp.47-52.
[16] Michael D, Cadwalader, Scott M. Rarvey, William W. Hogan and Susan L. Pope,
‘Coord~~ation congestion relief across multiple regions’, Harvard Energy Policy Papers,
available via ~ . k s g . h a r v a r d , ~ d ~ p e o ~ ~ e / w h o g a i ~October,
~ d e x . h1999.
t~,
[17] R.S. Fang and A, . David, ‘Qptimal dispatch under transmission ~ontrac~s’, IEEE
n sPO
T r a n s a ~ ~ ~ oon Systems, Vol.14, No.2, May 1999.
sco Galiana, Lester Fink, Power Systems R e s t ~ ~ E~i ~~~ i~n e~e rnand
i r~~ ~:
r Academic Publishers, 1998.
ie and Ivar Wan~ensteen,‘The energy market in Norway and Sweden:
~ l e markets c throughout
~ ~ ~the world ~ ~are undergoing major chan es 111. These changes
are varied in their nature but h e uiiderly~gtrend is towards a more CO
and this results in electricity being traded as a c o m ~ o d ~ ~
e markets to facilitate this trade. Political forces [a33 are driving these
changes. A compe~~tive electricity market is one in wh
(ge~~erators) are c o m ~ e ~ i ntog sell their e l e c t r ~ cto~a~ number
(loads). Here we are concerned with c o ~ ~ e ~ i tin i oanwholesale electricity ~ a r ~where
e t
the c~istomersare lap consumers or a retailer who will resell the e l e c ~ i to c ~th~
co~s~~ers.
A l t ~ o ~ electric
gh energy can be stored in batteries it w
tities and hence ~ l e c t ~ is c ia~ r ~ a l - t i ~corn
e
i~stan~ly. The electrici~demand
d also has a significant random
Id in an ~ ~ ~~ ~c ris~energy, ~ ec t iTh ~
active ~ o w e rand au~omaticgen~ratorcontrQ~
Er that the electricity system can
need to be ~ r o v ~ d eand d an e$ec~icitym
of t ~ e s eservices [ 6 ] . The g ~ e r a t o ~
ically and K ~ c ~ olaws f ~ s
system. The consequence o
ystem and altering the s u ~ (g~~ierator ~ l ~ ou~uts)
iates this c ~ ~ ~ ~ e s[7]. tion
y, a n ~ ~ lservices
l a ~ and
Competetive Wholesale Electricity arke et§ 77
with the real-time stochastic nature o f the electricity deman makes des~gningan
arket a great challenge.
s in a wholesale electrici~market will be connected to the high-
system as opposed to the Iow-voltage distribution system. This
~ansmissionsystem an sports the electricity. In some markets single entities
generati~gunits, transmission systems and supply the customers directly. These
are ~o~ as vertically integrated utilities (VIUs) and can be monopolies. Where
opol~esexist or where a ~ o ~ i n market a n ~ position is held in one part of the ~ n d u s t r ~ ,
c ~ i ~ agenera~ion,
rl~ au~oritiesare implementing new market s ~ c ~ r toe es n c o u r a ~ ~
corn~et~tion [2,3]. It is ~ i f o accepted ~ ~ y that the transrnissi~n sys
n ~ o ~ o p oand
l y in this new environmen~it should be regulated to ensure
open market [9]. Here it is assumed that all other aspects of the w
market are competitiv~,a it is recognised that many who
tive. For example, in Norway
redefined limit are compensate
limit are not [no]. Co~sumerdemand is largely inelastic but demand-
c o ~ p e ~ ~ t~i av ~
e k ei st tse c ~ i c a l l yfeasible and is becoming more CO
In a monopo~istic ~ameworka re lated VIU makes pl
isions based on a least cost objective, subject to constraints (
~ ~ ic ~l ~ ti e~~ r 1~ ~a ~ 1This
3 1 . p ~ a ~and i ~operationa~
g process
f scheduling algorithms, each one s
roblem over a distinct time frame.
~nvo~ves econom ch ~~gorithms which achieve a real-ti
and demand in a least cost manner. More advanced economic
the optimal ~ o w e rflow ~~~~~ e consider the optimal
c o n ~ ~ a i n~ncluaing
ts transmissi e limits, voltage levels,
e frames unit commitment (UC)
these markets result in cost m~nimisationin the short tern but their CO
aspect should in the long Tun serve to reduce these costs even further. In the c o m ~ e ~ i t ~ v e
market situation ~here€orea set of markets need to be developed that mimic the VIU least
cost objective, subject to opera~io~al and re~iabi~~ty constrain~s.In p ~ i c u l
are being replaced by markets for energy, transmission and
Just as with scheduliiig algorithms these markets have di
The real-time or ba~ancingmarkets are run very frequ~ntlyto main~hn~alance~ e ~ e e n
supply and demand and to ensure system security and are similar to economic d~spatchand
OPF al~orithms.In many markets there may be a need to run day-ahead ~ a r k e t that s will
be like the unit ~ o ~ i t m eprocess nt [22]. L ~ n g - c~a ep a~c i ~markets may also be a
feature hn some systems where €or reliability reasons generators are compensa~edfor
keeping available capacity 1231.
~ o m p e t i t ~ velectricity
e inarket design is a highly complex exercise
not only by economic and engineering considerations but also by histo
social cons~aints.Many of the current designs have ~ecQgnisabIe flaws
ibutcd to both technical and non-tec~icali ~ ~ u e n c e s .
to be assessed with these factors in mind. Lessons can be
generally every market has particular c i r c u m s ~ c e swh
ity market designs in di~erentcircums~ncescan be e q ~ i a ~e ~f yf ~ ~ ~ i v
ired result, an efficient and reliable electricity supply. Different rna
~ i r c ~ s ~may c e also
s roduce the same desired results. There i s no
olution to the complex problem o f e l e c ~ c m i ~ ~ k de~ t
ators will agree that competitive e ~ e c t r i cmarkets
i ~ ~ will resat1
society there are some very s i ~ i ~dif€erenc~s c ~ t of op~nionon some
issues, These differe~cesof opinion can be d o ~ ~ ain~nature i c and s
to cloud the issues. Each regiodcountry should choose a design tha
ition but suits their particufar social, e c o ~ o and ~ ~political
c e
re a broad o ~ e ~ i eofw wholesale elecbi
on of the independent system operator in
which describes wholesale e~ectricitymarket charact~r~st~cs follows in ~ e c ~ i o n
c~arac~erist~cs incl~deauctions, b i d d ~ nprici~ig,
~, fo~ard
ential markets, congestion man
ary services, physical and ~ n a n c ~mal
s are given to illustrate these cha
ty markets Section 3.4 describes
le e ~ e c ~ imarkets
c i ~ are still an active area o f rese
the challenge^ in the design and opera~ionof these
A c ~ o ~ ~ ~ d are g eInmSection
e ~ ~ 3.6 and a CO
S e c ~ i 3.7.
o~
s ~ ~ Markets
C o ~ ~ ~ t e~~hi vo el e Electricity 79
electricity market and this is not a trivial task [29]. The revenues collecte~by the TSO
from the ~enera~or§ and loads for these ~ansmiss~on s e ~ ~ c e(co~ection,
§ age,
ay for the ~ a n s ~ i s s i o§ ny s t e ~in tbe short an
In the VHU environ~entthe least cost objective ~ p ~ c a rl e~~ye ~ ~e idi l yto the cost of
a n 6 i l l a ~services such as r ~ s e and ~ ~ e a t as
~ e vol~dge~ o n t r owere e~
opt ~ ~ is atioprocess
n and their cost may not have been e x p l i ~ i ~ ~ y
illary services is costly, and the ~ u a ~ ~ ~of ~ ~ ~
reserv~are services that generat~ngunits provide
they have significant costs associated wit11 them D23. ~ ~ ~ will~ a
not provide these services unless they are ade~uatelycompensa~ed[33]. In s o ~ cases, e
o r § be obliged to provide these services in order to be all~wedto
howev~r,g ~ n ~ r a ~ may
arket. Ancillary services can be self-~~ovided
by the e ~ ~ r g y
nsible for a ~ q u the ~ ~ n ce.
~ ~ h y s i c a ~self-
ly
~ r o ~ i s i af
Q nthese s ient and ener~y~~k~~
these services from others. Therefore in c o ~ p e t i t whole
~v~
~ncentiveto ~ a i n t a units
i ~ [41]. A strong ar
fines are not n ~ ~ e s sasa pure
~ , market forces
In a ~ ~ o ~ eelectricity
s a l ~ market ~ u l t i ~ l e
being traded over
3.3.1 ~ ~~ yl s ~ e r n
~ r nTest
test system c o n s ~ s ~ ~ofnag supply si
d a simple ~ ~ e e - bnetwork.
us
Line A (3.5)
Line AC (3.6)
us A Line A
us
istinct ~ a d ~ ~n g~ c h a n ithe
s ~central
s ~ auction
iers and ~ustomersboth s u b ~ i t
the market clears, i.e. d e t e ~ i n ~ §
m [46]. In their simplest forms these centralised auctions
to a §im~le
merit order economic ~ s p ~ a~l gc oh~ i [12].
~ h ~ The
d auction for ~~~~~~
auction m e c ~ a n i s ~ ~
Competetive Wholesale Electricity Markets 3
3.3.3 ~ddin
idding into a simple central auction i s similar to the process of each generator submi~i
cost data and each load submi~ingutility ( ~ l l i ~ ~ e s s - t o - pdata
a y )to the
used by the VIU to dispatch the system. In an ideal world with a
electricity market the bid data should be the same as the ~roductioncost (utility) data or
o p p o ~ n i t ycost, wRicRever is eater. The o p p o ~ n cost i ~ is the r~venue
p ~ i c i p would
~t expect to get by selling in a different market. This price
assu~ptionin a competitiv~market is an optimal strategy for a market particip
The p ~ c i nmechan~sm
~ i an important factor in this p r i c e - ~ i n ga s s ~ ~ p t i oand
n the
to the seminal paper by Vickrey [49]. The fixed costs are not
d ~ u a n ~ i t yi.e., clearing the market. The incrementa1 costs
(ut~~ities) are all that are needed to clear the market. Here it will be assumed
no opportunity costs and that all market p ~ i c i p a n t sbid at ~ c r e m ~cost n~l
case where bids vary from incremental cost (utility) is dealt with later in the section on
~ S e ~ t i o3.3.9).
n The cost (uti~ity)curves and the increme~talcos
small test system are given in ~ ~ ~3.2r and e 3.3
s respective~y. T
(utility) curves result in linear increnienta~cost (utility) curves.
20
Cost ( ~ t i lcurves
i ~ ~ for the small test system
5
n
u
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 7
3 I ~ ~ r e ~ e icost
i ~ a(utility)
l curves for the small test system
C o ~ ~ e t e ~Wholesale
ive Electricity Markets
roce~§ (a ~ ~ a d r a ~p ir co g ~ a ~ i n g
ils of solution) the no-load and fixed
et in h i s m ~ n e with~ut
r amb
~ ~ c r e a s ~[ndg~ c r e a s ~ ~ g ~ ,
Power System R ~ s ~ c and
~ ~n e rge ~ l a t i Q n
constraint (3.9) and the assumption of a lossless system, the pool (central auction) is
revenue neutral, i.e. what is paid in by the loads is paid out to the ~enerators,
G e n ~ ~ ~ Q r / Quantity
~ Q a ~ (MW) Price ( $ ~ ) ( S u ~ l ~($A)
~ Profit s)
Generator #I 313.6 18.3 683.7
~eneratQr #2 409. I 18.3 21 10.3
Load #\ 522.7 18.3 437 1.9
Load #2 200.00 18.3 4345.5
3.3.5 ~ a rTiming
~ ~ t
to the stochas~icnature of the demand [ and the need to s c h e d ~ e~ e ~ e r a t i o n
resources in advance, electricity markets can characterised by timing. Forward
s are run in advance of the delivery time. This enables suppliers to
e~erationto meet the demand and for the IS0 to coo~dinate~ a n s r n i ~ s and i~n
ervice needs. The forward markets also perform a very important financial
ants by locking in prices an
I-time (spot) markets and is ractice [SZ]. In power
systems with large themal plants that are in unit constraints these
1. There may be a m u ~ t i ~ of d ef o ~ ~ ~a r kd e at
~s
ahead, month ahead and day ahead. In C a l i f o ~ i athe power
(PX) m s three different types of forward markets [53,54]. The day-ahead
lishes prices and quantity of electricity for delivery d ~ each~ hown of ~the
. The day-of~our-aheadmarket o erates similar to the day
ding closer to the delivery hour.
pa~icipantscan buy and sell energy months in ad
order of min~tesin ance of delivery are deeme
a ~ p r o ~ ~ real-time
hes markets are needed to ensure supply and
adapt to unforesee~c~rcumstances.These real-time markets are in
d Norway the respecti~elSOs operate
market for real-time a d ~ u s ~ [55, e n ~101. The p
~ i ~but~ this is set to change with the ~ t r o d u c ~ i oofn a binding day-a~ead~ a r ~ e t
r e a ~ -basis
E567.
The core product being soid in electricity markets is energy. U l t i ~ a ~ e the l y coordi~&ti~n
of units (sc~eduling)and of the ~ransmissionand a n c i 1 1 services~ enables its
seque~tia~ e l e c ~ c market
i~ structure is one in which the energy t ~ a ~ ~ d
ndently of the transmission and ancillary services. The provision of the
tlal trans~issionand ancillary services needs follows e ~ e r g y~ a d in~ an ~
sequentia~~ ~ a n n eIn
r . ~ a l ~ f oforward
~ i a energy ~ a r k e t are
s con
real-tinre energy, congestion management and ancillary services
i a There i s a strong physicai coup1
a l i f o ~ ~[58].
Compete~iveWholesale Electricity 7
-100
Line AC (PAc) 337.5 200
Line BC (PBc) 385.2 400
and New ~ e a l ~ ~
can r e a ~ a n gthe
~ result of the ener
~ o m ~ e t e t i Wholesale
ve Electricity Markers
~ q ~ a n and
t i ~price) ar
is trading ap~roachhas the
ut the cheapest generators.
ot c ~ e n t l y~ e ~ i in~ e d
must be traded through the cen
is set to change in Engl
If these transacti
m have been changed as
se bilateral trade
transmission c o ~ $ ~ a i nfor
t s the central auction:
Line A
ine A
Li (3.12)
Table 3.6 Power flow, market clearing with transmission constraints and
bilaterals
The bilateral trades have altered the central market result. In order for
be allowed they need to pay for the tran§m~ss~on service. The ~ ~ s ~ i s
a l is the product of the q u ~(10t MW)
b i l ~ t e ~W1 ~ ~by the i n c r e m ~ ncost
~ l of ~rans~ission
between bus A and bus C ((23.3-13.9) $ i.e. 94 $/h. The ~ ~ s m i s § i charge
on for
product of the quantity ntal cost of ~ansmi§sion
d bus G ((2~.3-20.2)$ / ~ i.W ~ ~ ~ ilatera~trades re in a
d~rect~on that relieved congestion the price diff~rential~ would be negativ
~ ~ ~ s m i s s charge
i o n would be negativ~,i.e. the bilateral trade would be re
scheme in the ~ a l i f o ~Pi a [54]. It is interesting to note that this iterative bid~ingscheme
proposed for California proved impractical and has not been
In the VIU envi~onmentgenerators were typically
This UC a ~ g o ~uses th~ cost
ts and accounts for the inter
g [l5]. In so
r a m ~ ~ nrates
need to be ~ n t e ~ a l i s eind the bids of the p a ~ i c i p ~16
ts
the prices in advance [69] and bid so that the
pro~table. This self-schedu~~ng approach is in existence in the ~ a ~ i f o r n ~ ~
and Norway [70]. Bilateral trades are by their nature self-s
security reasons, self-scheduling may be subject to approval by the IS0 "711.
a central auction process can also involve a firm that owns mui~pleunits
submitting portfolio bids. These bids represent an aggregate offer. Afier market clearing
the firm can then decide how it will schedule its own units to supply the q u ~ t i t i e s ,The
CalPX allows portfolio bids.
An alternative to self-scheduljng is centralised scheduling where a UC-type algorit
i this auction m e c h ~ i s mis very
is used to clear the market [41]. ~ i d d i n gi n f o ~ a t i o iin
~ e t ~ ~ ~n ~~ e~ ~all u 9dcost ~ gdata and a p p r Q ~ ~ atechnical
te cons~aints.In the
clearing examples above the optimisation problem variables were which are
con~inuo~s.In a centrally scheduled system the objective is th of social
welfare, subject to ~onstraiiits9 but the variables are both continuous (quan~ities~ and
discrete (turn a generator on or off) [72]. In PJM some units can choos
scheduled while others with bilateral contracts can self-schedule. In the
e n e r market
~ i s a centrally optimised UC process but this is set to change
Social welfare
Market Social welfare ($h)
No t ~ ~ s ~ i s sconstra~nts
iQn tab^^ 3.1) 11,511
~ r a n s ~ i s s ~constraints
on (Table 3.3) 10,715
Gaming and transmission constraints (Table 3.7) 10,711
3.3.10 A n c ~ i Services
~u~
s e ~ i c e sare required for the reliable operation of the power sys
s ~ n ~dre d~ n i ~ of n services is not globally accepted. AGC, resesve (s
~ othese
~ , fo~~owing,
s t a ~ d b yload v o ~ ~ control
ge and b ~ a c ~ - sct aa~p a ~w~ oi u~ be
~~
ised services. The generat5rs ically provide these ~ n c ~ l ~ a
can also provide some. New
s not
these s e ~ i c e are
Table 3. the r e s ~ of
~ ~clear
s the market with the above constraint (3.13)
m~ssionc o ~ s ~ a i n t s
Power System ~ e s ~ c ~and
~ ~i ne rg e ~ I a ~ ~
G e n e ~ a ~ o r ~ oQuantity
a~ (MW) Price ($/MWh) Profit (Surplus) ($h)
Generator #1 3 16.9 21.9 1842.4
Generator #2 291.5 21.9 2969.2
Load #I 408.4 21.9 2669.3
Load #2 200.00 21.9 3614.1
The first thing to notice about Table 3.9 is tkdt in comparison with Table 3.1 the
quantities have altered substantially. In order to meet the reserve c o n s ~ a i n(3.13) ~
g e n ~ a t o#2
r has had its quantity reduced and loa
is largely unchanged and load #2 is unchanged. Although generator
reduc~ionin quantity it i s more profitable than the unc~nstrainedcas
reason for this is that the price has increased. Although generator #2
cannot complain about its profits. The biggest gainer out o f this si
whose profits have more than tripled. This high1
with ~ e c ~ i cparameters,
al i.e. generator # 1 has
It should be noted that if both generator #I and #2 had the ability to ramp up to m a x ~ ~ u m
output within the s p ~ n i n greserve time period then the market would clear at the same
price and q ~ ~ ~asi int Tabley 3.1, i.e. the reserve constraint (3.13) will not be ~ ~ n d i n g .
Here the binding reserve constraint has caused the social welfare to reduce to 11095 $/h
from 11511 $/h in the ~ c ~ n s ~ i case n e (Table
d 3.8). It shou~dalso be noted that in the
event o f this reserve being used then generators # I and #2 woufd be paid the real-ti~e
price for their energy. This scenario, where both g e n ~ r ~are t o bettcr
~ off because o f the
~ c ~services, ~ l i sanot~always the case and eref fore if a constraint causes a red~ctionin
profits a p ~ i c i p a n tshould be compensated for its o p p o ~ n cost i ~ [60]. The ~ y b r ~ d
approach in the New England Pool requires the ca~culationof this o p p o ~ cost n ~ for~
lco r n o ~and
~ l the ~ i ~ a t e r a l
sion and ~ ~ c i ls~e ~ai rc e~s
3.5.I ~ a rPower
~ ~Evulualion
t and ~itig~lion
valuation of market models can have many differe~tv i e ~ o i n ~ sThe . ~ a r ~ must
e t
dmction in a reliable, efgcient and fair manner. The generators will want to maximise
their profits t ~ o u g hthe markets. The consume^ will seek the best value for the service
they receive which may conflict with the aims of the generators [SS]. This will ne~essitate
analysin~the social benefit that the market offers and the prices that are charged. It will
also be dent to ensure that market power and gaming do not exist and that m ~ k e t are s
not overly volatile.
on there are some a v a i l a b ~simuiat~on
~ and a ~ a l ~tools.
ic
simulation model that considers the market s ~ c t u r and e estimates
and ~uantities.Kumar and SheblB [93] have dev~lopedan auctio~
market simulator. s et al. @ I ] have developed a framework to in supply
when all p ~ c i p a n t are
s maximising their own Green
and ~ e w b [94] e ~investigated the UK market using the supply curve
e doubt that market power is bei exercised regularly in many electricity
T h ~ is~ little
m ~ r k [95,96~.
~ ~ s This practice is characterised rices, which are well above co~petitive
levels, The result is ~ i c a l very~ y profitable for the ge~eratorand ult~matelycostly for
s power can be exercised in many ways. aerators with global market
power can manipulate the marginal (spot) price as in the gland and Wales p o ~ e pool r
[96]. ~ransmissioncongest~~n can give p ~ i c i p a n t slocal market power and they can
~ a n i ~the ~ ~ t e marginal prices 1971. Some possible solutions to this problem
~ Iocational
~ following [76]:
i n c ~ u dthe
Competelive Wholesale Electricity Markets 99
Better market design. Some markets have experienced difficulties, which could be
resolved by better design [24]. The congestion management process in California has a
gaming problem and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FEW) appears to be
encouraging the adoption of locational marginal pricing as a solution [3,64].
reaking up the large generating companies into smaller co~petitiveWI
oliticd issue, which may not fully solve the problem. In the
perceived that the two dominant generation companies exercised their market power to
raise prices above competit~velevels [96].
~ u ~ more ~ ~~ansmission
n g so as to avoid creating o p ~ o ~ n i t i efor
s local m a r ~ e t
power. Over-building transmission may seem wasteful but with this ~ a n s r n ~ s ~ ~ o n
capacity in place local market power can be removed and generators may act more
e ~ ~ v e [8].
l y This additional ~ansmissionwill also increase the r e l i a b i ~ oi ~f the
system. There is, however, significant environmental concerns related to b ~ ~ d i more ng
transmiss~onlines.
Making the load more responsive to price. In the examples n here the load is
responsive (3.3); however, this masks the reality where in mo
markets the load i s largely inelastic. Any generator hoping to
find that a responsive load will reduce its quantity and reduce
. For domestic customers this may be very difficult to i
e customers may be capable of ~ n s t a ~ ~equipment
ing that can respond to the m a r ~ e t
e.
In the long run new technologies may make distributed generation (e.g. fuel cells) more
prevalent and this will reduce the need for further investment in transmission [%I. It
will also combat market power, in particular, if this type of generation is owned by
groups of consumers (i.e. if the market price is too high they will generate themselves).
If this does happen then the electricity market will become part o f a larger energy
market.
In some markets if the price rises above certain levels the prices are capped; however,
this distorts the price s a1 and may have long-term negative consequences~ Price
capping has been used at one time or another in most wholesale electricity markets. For
e x ~ ~ ~theI California
e, ancillary services markets have had price caps i m p ~ ~ [79].
ed
3.5.2 ~ y s t Capacity
e~
The issue of p l a ~ i n gin generation and transmission must be a d ~ e s s e dwith a view to
ma~ntenanceand enhancemen~sto meet increasing demand. On the generation side these
functions are generally left to the market, the assumption being that energy prices will
signal the best times to maintain units and when to build new plant. The energy price
spikes in the Mid West (USA) in June 1998 highlight this issue. A market for generating
capacity over a fonger time frame (more than one year) may provide the necessary market
signals h ensure that the system will expand according to the needs of the c o ~ s u m ~1233.
rs
The concept of marginal cost pricing [99,100] for electricity is based on ~ndamental
microeconomic principles [50]. In an ideal market bidding at ~ n c r e m e ncost ~ is an
optima^ strategy [48]. However, the resulting schedule may be unprofi~ablebecause of
costs such as no-load costs, startup costs and fixed costs (Table 3.3). In the VRJ
environment with spot pricing Schweppe et al. (281 introduced the concept of revenue
reconci~~a~ion where ~ a r g i n apricing
~ may not be sufficient to cover all costs and give a
1 Power System R e ~ ~ ~and
~ Dere
r i n ~
.5.3 Reliability
W h ~ it~ is
e desirabIe to encourage co~npetitionin the e l e c ~ i c arke i ~ et to reduce the costs
e quality for consumers, also v ~ ~ ai~ml yp o ~ tot ~ a i n ~the in
. In an operational envir ent, an important re~~ability ~ e a § u r eis
em security refers to system’s a b i l i ~to w ~ ~ h l is~ et l y~ ~
A system is said to be in a secure state if it is able to meet the Load d
without viol at^^ the erating constraints in case of a like c o n ~ n ~ e n such c y ~ as a line or
g ~ ~ e r aot uo ~ g e11 In other words, s e c u is ~ defin
~ with re spec^ to a set of next
ies that are likely to occur. Gatas hic failures of power
c ~ c a d e devents that are co~binati n a ~ r acl a l a ~ ~ t i(e.
es
n s , flaws andor h ~ a en~ o r s[
q ~ i ~ m e ~n at l ~ n c t ~ odesign
security assessment is to reduce the likelihood of catastrophic failures.
uch effort in the past decades has been devoted to the develop~entof c
for s y s t e ~§ e ~ ~ r i assessment.
ty These tools include state estima~ion,
select~on contingency evaluation, external network equivalents and 10
ustry evolves into a competitive environ~ent,system securi
~ n c t i o n .In this new env~ronmen~, the p~~~ responsible
or a similar entity. Since the e n v i r o n ~ ~isnm~
ical challenges. For example, the level of unce
as increased s i ~ i ~ c ~ tThis l y .is due to the fact that
~ e n e r a ~ patterns
on and the market outcome may not be easily p r e ~ ~ c ~ ~Cbo lne~.e q u e ~ ~al y ,
s y s ~ eng~neer
e~ at the IS0 who studies system security may find it d ~ ~ ~to upredict l t the
eneration and load conditions for evaluation of system security.
is defined fo city market
triC ity Gouncil nes ATG as
Competetive Wholesale Electricity 1
‘the Total Transfer Capability (TTC), less the Transmission ~eliabil~ty Margin ( T ~ less ~ ,
the sum of e ~ i s ~~ansmission
in~ c o ~ ~ t m e n(which
ts includes retail customer s e ~ ~ can e)
11061. Note that ATC is d e ~ n e dfor a ~ c t ~ t ~ o u
presents the amount of power that can be Van
ng the ~ a n s ~ i s s i osystem
n con§traints~such as line flow limits.
ing condit~onof a power system; the syste
de thermal, voltage and stability limits.
the effect o f various unce~intiesin system condi~ionson ATC,
smission ~ a n s f e rcapability reserved by load-serving entities to ensure ~ h e i ~
erations from interco~ectionsto meet the system r e l ~ a b irequirernents.
l~~
e x a ~ p of ~ ethe ~ o n on power flow c ~ ~ ~ ~ l can
d e t e ~ i n a ~ based ati~i~s
in Bergen and Vittal [ To determine the ATC for a path from X to Y, one can ~nject
an a ~ o ~ofn power t at node X and remove the same amount of power at Y and calculate
the power flows. v e d i s increased to a level that c
the i n j e c t e ~ r ~ ~ o amount
~ansin~ssion line h its capacity, the amount can no longer be increase
wer ~ a n s ~ise rthe TTG. hen a iven line cont~ngencyis ~ a ~ in en
flows of the post-continge~cy operating conditions also nee
transmission line conskaints. ~onsequeiit~y~ the ATC may not be as high
the ~oiitingencyconditio~i s not considered. The s ~ e a d y - s ~power te flow m e t h o ~can be
exte~dedto include s y s t e ~d y n a ~ ~ cTime s ~ domain simulatio~scan
various levels of power ~ a n s f eto r evaluate system stability including vo
s y ~ c h r o n i so~f the ~eneratorrotors. When dynamic security is considered in ad~itionto
the steady-state operating cons~aints~ the resu~t~ng ATC may further be
the availability of ancillary services such EIS reactive power sources can
T3
3.5.4 TechveicalIssues
~ e g ~ d l e of
s s wholesale electricity markets power system p l a ~ i n gand opera~~on has
many technical challenges. With the advent of wholesale electricity markets new and
d~fferenttechnical challenges may arise which need to be addressed. The comp~~ationa~
aspects of the electricity markets are one obvious area of interest [l09]. There are also
interesting technical challenges related to the management of a large number of
transactions [I 101. The OPF algorithm which i s at the heart of the marginal cost pricing
paradigm [ZS] and of power system security analysis will have to meet ever-~cr~asing
challenges [ 1 1 17.
In the m ~ ~ m a l iIS0
s t model with ~elf~schedu~ing the UC a l g o r i t ~is being implicitly
r the market particip~ts11121, which may or may not
solved in a d i s ~ b u t e dm a ~ e by
produce results which are as good as conventional UC algorithms. In the interest of
efficiency these decentralised UC approaches need to be analysed. In the r n ~ ~I S ~0 ~ ~
model a cen~alisedU ~ / ~ ~ F - t yalgorithm
pe is required [1131, Although s e c ~ t y -
constrained UC afgori~msexist [ 16,171 a UC algorithm with a full QPF formulation for a
practical-size power system is still a significant computational challenge. The UC
algorithm itself is still a very active research area with many issues unresolved [114,14].
In particular, solutions are invariably suboptimal and not robust [92].
In the short-term, regulators, system operators and market ~ a ~ c i p a nwill
t s have to face
the challenges described above. However, any actions need to allow market forces to push
the indusfxy towards possible long-term competitive solutions.
.6
The authors would like to thank ESB National Grid, UCD President Res~archA w ~ d and
s
Fu~brightfor their financial support. This work is partially supported by US ~ a t ~ o n a l
Science Foundation through Grant ECS-9612636 with matching funds fiom Alstom ESCA
Corp. The authors would also like to thank Prof. Richard Christie, Universi~of
Washington, and Mr John Kennedy, ES National Grid, for their useful c~mmentsand
insights.
.7
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retail business bulk hases both electricity and gas and supplies them to their
custo~ersover the electricity and gas networks. A great deal of work has been required to
the necessary systems to effect a competitive market.
of this ~ a r k e ~ l a the
c e retail businesses have taken responsib~li~ for meter
r e a d ~ gwith
, the intent that this service be procured from ~ ~ t e r - r e a d i nservice
g providers
on a compe~itivebasis. The development of competition in the mete~ngsector will
even~allysee the pr~visionof meters to suppliers by meter asset ana age^ and opera to^.
network. This
The distrib~tioncompanies manage and maintain the electricity d~stributio~
involves both the technical asset manage~entand planning services and the b ~ ~ofl use
~ g
of system charges from suppliers and the management and maintenance of the existing
meter assets.
12 Power System Restructuring and
a combined dis~bution
could disadvantage comp
charges to support the suppliers’ retail tariffs.
s pote~tiallyhas access to i n f o ~ a t i o nthat other ~upp~iers
will not
le, the names o f customers supp~~ed by a second-tier supplier.
intentions o f a dis~ibutionbusiness. For e x ~ p l e ad ,
ze and nature of changes to use of system
4. Cross-subsidisa~ionby a d i s ~ r o p o ~ o n aallocation
te of costs
overheads to the d i ~ ~ i b u ~business.
ion A small reallocat~onwill have
i ~ p a in
c ~a retail i n d u s ~that has very small ~ a r g i n s . The regul
this issue in the 1999 price control review by realloc
tion to supply before assessing the relative ef~ciencies
businesses.
ution business will in some way ~ o ~ g r the ~ service
d e to a custo
s ~ ~ p ~For ~ example,
er. the response to power o u ~ ~ ~ ~ .
required s e ~ ~ e ~ a t i o n
i s conkoiled via
on ~alf-hou~ly i o n for 1
c Q ~ s u ~ ~ tdata)
e s t i ~ a t ~for
s ) smaller (mainly quarterly
4.2.7 C ~ t oService
~ e ~
The ma~iagementof customer relations is another area where competition in supply cre~tes
a number o f options.
In New Zealand, the initial approach routed a11 customer contact throu
businesses. This simplifies the contact issues for the customer,
manage~entof the interface between suppliers and dis~butionb
the correct i n f o ~ a t i o nis available to inform the customer.
the UK, the distribution businesses have kept an interface with c u s t o ~ ine ~relation
ly outages. Hence customers have two points of contact. ~ l t ~ o this u gs ~i m ~ ~ i ~ e s
the m ~ a g e m e nof~ information flows on outages between istribution businesses and
suppliers (there is none) the management of the routing of calls to the wro
care. The future solution to some of these issues i s already apparent in
call systems. These are already being installed to provide i n f o ~ a ~ i oonn outages and are
of particular use in the extreme circumstances o f wide-scale power outages when call
centres become overwhelnied.
Internet technology will soon provide accurate supply of i n f o ~ a t i o non outages and
torat~ontimes to both customers and suppliers - the inte~ationof fault reporting
lephone network. It is possibie to generate specific y~ice-ac~~vated messages
g to postcodes or dialling code i n f ~ ~ a t i o nIt. may even go as f8r as pro
~ f o ~ i a t i o(i.e.
n ring the customer). London ~ l e c ~ hc i ~
d e ~ i c~~ ~e gnpowert outages on its internal web site for so
make this facility available via the Internet once suitable security safeguards h
proven.
To ensure the availability of these services, the PES energy retail businesses will
ovide a meter-~eadingservice of last resort and the
erat~onsservice of last resort.
d-side ~ ~ n a g e m e n ~
s to reduce the peak demand either
of more efficient usage or by mov elements of the 10
the system load factor.
real alternatives to
rcernent. In general terms these
the ~ansmissionand generation level where the cumulative effec
ema and-side ma~agementhas been encouraged by the use of tariffs, e.
peak tariffs for storage heating. In this i n s ~ c ethe move away
.
heat~ngto off-peak storage w impact on both generation and &arm
e installed c a p a c i ~require^. wever, at a distribution ievel the wi
ating has resulted in pe mand occurring at nig
4.3.3 ~~~~~~~~
s~stemsthe n e ~ o r must
~ s also:
A ~ a i l a b i l i ~S :y s t e ~average i n ~ e ~ p t i oduration
n ) or customer minu~es
These measures represent the average performance of the system and so do not a ~ c u r ~ ~ ~ l
ind~~idual c u s t o ~ e may
r e x ~ e ~ e n [2,3].
ce In the Of
than I minu~eis cou~tedtowards these statistic 3
rm to allow for the benefits of system automation.
dica~esthat customers prefer not to be ~ n t e ~ p tbut ~ din, the event of an
d of restorat~onand accurate i n f o ~ a t i o n kely outage times ~ e c o m e
The provision of such i ~ ~ o is ~po a ~ both ~ ~through
n call centre
Ristribution in a Deregulated Market 11
The p r e v ~ t of
~ o~ ~n t e ~ ~ t ~ o n ~
The restoration of supplies
4.3.4 Long-tt?m
int of l o n ~ - t ep~anning
~ is to d e t e r ~ ~ nhow
e extema~~n~uences,
of new business and changes in the regulatory env
f the network and the levels of i n v e s ~ e nthat
t will
-24 Power § y s t e ~R e s ~ ~ and
~ ~n ~gr e g ~ l a ~ i o
d use of a set of 10
on ~ ~ s c u s s ethe
A similar ~ e c ~using i q three
~ ~altem
ness ~ l a ~ n i n gThree
. views of all
ent and investment drivers are normally eve loped being:
she goes’ view: a sable environme~tbased on exi mic
ions encompassing a reasonable view of the effects of known de and
h t e ~ ~ i q u are
e s widely used
n i d e n t i key
~ ~long-term
~ le
d i f f ~ ~ c software
nt tools exist to aid the esign of power s y s t e ~ ~ .
a ~ a ~load i c and
~ Row ~ ~fault level s studies and a few
c a ~ ~ ~ a t hols.
ion use a fa^^^ rate
which does not, in
a fault rate a ~ p r o a is
c ~that it
on ofthe under~yingcausatioii
The asset ~ ~ a g e m ed~scip~ine
nt and network p l ~ n i n g ~most a ~ t i s in
s s i ~ i ~ ci~iter~ace
the planning of asset r e p l a c e ~ ~ n tThe
. developrnent of asset ~ ~ n a g e m e n ~
s is to convert these policies &to
covered in detail eIsewhere, The p l ~ e r ’ role
programmes. In doing this the lamer must consider the asset mana
objectives and the condition and
carried out.
up asset m a n a g e ~ ~ on rt ~ ~ n ~ s a t ithese
o r i ~have a
ng of the n ~ t w o r ~ It s . is e ~ i ~ e n t
incipal activiti~s,new c o n n e c ~ and ~~~s
en separated, the practical i m of ~ ~
E the staf~ngof these org
es a differ~n~
set of coi~petenciesthan
4.3.9 ~ e ~Design
~ r k
There are three elements to network planning that need to be conside~ed~these being the
connection of new load, the reinforcement of the system and improvements to meet quality
of supply targets,
ecision as to whether to fund this out of quality of supply monies will depend on
the number of customers, the distance from the main circuit and the additiona~e n e r ~
losses incurred. The advent of competition in connection services would further compl~cate
this issue. The network manager will have either to pay the contractor to hstall the
additiona~cable at the same time or retrofit the additional cable at a later date. The
customer will not be expected to pay for the additional costs related to the quality of s ~ p p l y
as part of his connec~oncharge.
This c o n ~ will m apply to the installation of spurs to feed a number of
~ ~ also
customers at low voltage (LV) where no alternative back-feed arrangements from o&er
n ~ ~ oare r ~available
s or where the installation of remote terminal units for SCA
remote control may be desirab~e.Evid~ntlythis becomes easier to manage as the size of the
load increases and the number of connection requests decreases.
Genernl load growth and the connection of new load drive the need for n e ~
reinforcement. Typically the impact affects the thermal ratings of the network appara~s,
security of supply or the voltage p e r f o ~ a n c eof the networks, but recently greater
is having to be given to managing power quality issues, particularly harmonics.
In most estab~ishednetworks the general growth of load is relatively low. In c e ~ a i n
areas, p a ~ i c u l ~ lhighly
y urbanised areas, redevelopment has seen prospective loads
increase owing to new office developments and the associated IT-related loads. At the
time of writing this would seem to be a developing trend, the forecasting of which
represents a significan~challenge.
The management of reinforcement with the connection of new load has become the
most s i ~ i f i ~ achallenge.
nt The management of the new connections process is b~coming
progressively more detached and this is likely to lead to an increased need for
manager to monitor connections activity and identify reinforcement requirements and
implement them in an appropriate time scale. The failure of this process will ultimately
impact upon a distributor’s ability to meet a customer’s connection requir$ments within its
schedule. In large urban areas this may have not simply a financial impact on the
distributor but also an economic one,
The present regulatory process in the UK which involves five-yearly reviews to fix
income for the following five-year period increases the risk of increased r e i n f o r c ~ ~ e n t
exp$ndi~reaffecting other capital programmes,
As discussed in the previous section distribution automation in its simplest form has begun
to be used to ~ m ~ r o vquality
e of supply. At this level the automation inst~lIedc~n§istsof
auto reclosers and auto change-over devices.
The ins~allation of remote terminal units provides the basis for a dist~buted
c o I ~ ~ u n i c a ~ i system
o n s that could be used to implement some degree of automa~io~. For
the convenienc~of the readers, an appendix is included below to detail ~ i s ~ b u t ~ o n
automation and comm~~nication systems under a competitive env~onment.
~ ~~e r~e ~n l ag ~ i o n
Power System ~ e s t ~ and
e ~ u ~ cO ~r ~~I on
o acontrol
~ engineer§,
data and the presentation ofuseful information to the control engineer as to the actions that
have been taken by the system. Improvements in the speed of restorat~onor securing of
supplies f o ~ ~ o wa ~netw
g fault may in fume allow increase asset utiiisat~onby
permitting higher short-time loading levels as the duration
automatically. 'This will of G Q U ~ Sdepend
~ upon the network configuration, but it increases
the potenti~~bene~tso f r n o v ~ ntowards
~ ~ e s h e dnetwork operation in the m e d i u ~to on^
term. A reduction in the need to carry out manual switching has a significant safety benefit,
particularly with ageing oil- itchgear, as an operative does not need to be in
~ ~ ~vicinity. e d Thisi is ~ ~ ed ~by the possibilities for local cond~tionm~nitor
and rcmote indication of alarms 1e:elatingto possible hazardous conditions.
se study considers the planning issues concerned with the 10 term d ~ v e ~ o p mofe~t
London ~ ~ e c t r i cnetworks,
i ~ ' ~ p a ~ ~ c u ~the
ar~changes
y m d e to i ve qua~ityof § u ~ p l ~ .
~ 5 ~ control and data acqui§ition system has been c
The ~ ~ ~ o d uofc at remote ~ to ~
lectricity's development lans €or its secondary (MV and LV) networks over the
operated radially or interconnected, i.e. operated as a mesh. The meshed LV systems are
typical of the centre of London and assist in coping with the hi
e r the City of London.
~ e § t ~ i n s tand
The greatest initial benefit in quality of supply performance was to be gained fiom
~ r g e ~ i nthe
g areas where the LV networks are operated radially (the radial areas)
no ~ u p p in o ~the event of an MV fault, which is a characteristi~of the in~erconnectedLV
system. The feeder groups supplying thc radial areas were ranked in order of their
e over the pervious years, bearing in mind any major asset repla~ment
to correct high fault rates.
U installation programme was then targeted in these networks at open points
urth ring main unit which offered suitable switching point. In order to
achieve the switching ~ n c t i o n in~ the i ~ existin ring main units a p r o g r ~ m eof retrofit
actuator solutions was developed to mitigate the ed to replace switchgear. Initially this
was t a r g e ~ eat~modern SF, ring main units and some of the more m o ~ oi~-fil~ed e ~ units
which were deemed suitable. This resulted in remote switching being ava~lab~e at an open
point and at the approximate mid point of each circuit. A fault passage indicator with
provision for remote indication was fitted with each ins~al~ation. This would allow
approx~matel~ 50% of each feeder to be restored by remote switching,
The second stage of the programme extended the provision of remote control facilities
to ~pproximatelyone in two ring main units, again with the initial concen on
the w o r s t - p e ~ o ~ i nfeeder
g groups, In turn this would allow up to 75% of be
restored by remote switching.
The third stage extended these facilities to those ne
interconn~ctedLV systems. This is a more complex task as ea
equipped with an LV air circuit breaker (ACB). This is installed to prevent network
collapse in the event of an MV feeder fault, due to either a fault infeed
or resulting network overloading (it being preferable for the ACB to op
network fuses which then have to be identified). It is operationally desirable for th
to be con~olledto reduce the number o f site visits by e ers in the event of a
supply. It is also necessary to know the status of the while a ~ e m p t i nto~ secure
~ i ~ sa fault, so remote indication had to be prov~ded.
s u ~ ~following
A one-in-two strategy was adopted as this was felt to be the m i n i ~ un ~e ~ s s to a~
e the degree of control required to secure supplies remotely without the need for an
eng~neerto be present in the field.
._.-_ _ . (HV)
trend. . " - . - ITrend.
- (Overall)
estorafion performance
The original vision for the development of the initial remote control system was to create
an n e ~ o ~r ~~a g e m esystem.nt The advance , e x ~ a n d a b and l ~ to a l~rnited
ent RTUs were chosen ta facilitate this deve ment. The ~ ~ i i te~l ea m l e n ~of
the ans &realready being i m p l e ~ ~ n t e dAn . auto change-over ~ ~ e c h a has ~ ~ been
sm
i m p l e ~ e n t ein~the s logic to allow supplies at open poi to be r e s t o ~ in e ~1
1 ~ ~ ufo~~owing t e ~ ~ ~ fault.o r Thisk de~iversan
1 as the customer minutes lost.
expanded to deliver ated res~orationo f
There are still many to be o v e r c o ~ einc
location logic and c o ~ ~ ~ ~ i c a t i The o n sneed
. t unicate to a ~ ~ m b
than ~ n c in e less than a minu~ewill pose a s i g ~ i ~ c achallen nt
There are, howe~er,other aspects of network ana age
R W was specified to cope
d ~ o n i t o ~ nandg con the LV s y s t e ~via ~ d ~ ~ t i o n
to inte~acewith the
e developed to include discharge levels in cables and v ~ r ~ ~
i n ~ ~ 6 a ~ofo rthe
s c o n ~ i ~ i oofn switchge~and
r n o ~ i t o ~ nofg the LV load on a s~ngle-phase
ns with remote
e ~ech~ology
require
134 structuring and ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l a t i
For d i s ~ b ~ i t i oautomation
n purposes, small, low-power, w of, c o ~ p aRTUs
~t
are available. These come in a variety of enclosure packages, fically cons~ained
points counts, direct CTNT inputs, AC analyser modules to give a variety of calcu~ated
i n f o ~ a ~ i o and
n , more. The units can p e ~ data o ~logging to m ~ i m ~ the
s e need for
constant polling via the communications system, In some applications, peer-to-peer
com~unicationshave been utilised to facilitate independen~islands of automation (
volta~e/varcontrol) that do not rely on the master stat~onfor decisio~~ a ~ i and n g
control actions.
initiated repo~-by-exceptjonprotocols are being utilised by sorne vendors to keep
power draw (from constant co~m~nications with the master stat~on)to a
~olar-poweredunits are in common usage. Compact, ~ow-mainte
er i s also available. With the advent of two-way commun~cat~on
its, a great future lies ahead for dis~butionautomation and
manage~entapp~icationsat the customer level for functions such as remote
selective control of customer loads, surveillance of customer installations,
choice of electricity rates.
The d e of modem
~ ~ ‘open~ systems’ SCADA c o n ~ ~ a t ~ makes o n s use of consid~~able
communic~~ons t e c ~ o l o g yto spread the risk that a single f a i ~ will
~ e wipe out or ~ s a b ~
a mission-c~tical system. odern ~~~A~ technology permits hi
processing and achievem of graceful degradation upon failure
works~ationsand personal computers give users ful hics d~pictionsof system assets,
often in proper ~ ~ o g r a porient~ti~n, ~c and prov very ex^^^^ win~owinto the
systems they are controlling. The dissem~nationof computing elements and the
~ e x i b i l ~of
t y full graphics interfaces have in~reasedthe b ~ r d e nupon the system
in a ~ e r e ~ ~ a Market
Risti~bu~io~i ted 135
Windows e n v ~ r o n ~ e n t ~
r ease of pro~rammingand p ~ ~ a b i l i ~ ;
t any language to
4.5.5
~ u n i c a t i osystem
~ u t ~ o ~is
for ~ ~ s ~ b auto~ation
s ~ i ~ e rrece~vers
s, and data links. The s y s t e ~s h o u be~ ~desi
nt~nancewill be as easy as possib~~. ~ersonnelwill have to b
involved and new tools will need to be purchased (the
o f a pote~tial system).
ent will s ~ ~ i ~ c a ni ~t lpyr o v e
use of s~andardisedcomponen
~ o ~ not $ donly allow better compati~i~ity with existing communicatio
also i ~ c ~ theu ~likelihood
e that the s y s t e ~will remain
and a ~ ~ o m ae~~i uo i~p mdeveloped
~~t in the future. This
a n ctoethe u t i i i ~ .
~ ~ i n ~ e ~costs
deve~opapprop~ate0
k m a n a g e m ~analysi
~~
roached by each u ~ i i ~ .
i oanDeregulated Market
~ i ~ ~ r i b u tin
ion automat~on~ u i ~ m e n t .
int-to-poin~’w ~ ~ between
ng the
and impossible to into fbture techo
addi~ion,an inexp solution i s needed
emote monito~ngand control.
nications ports with
n-line con~guration.
~ number of points while ~ a i n t a i n i ~real
~ d l i an large g
ion of SCADA s o ~ a r efield
, equipment, system integr ion, commun~ca~ons
au~omationhas to be
on of an integrat~dsystem with both high-voltage sub smissio~networks
feeders. This would help to optimise operations requirin
rew working at d~fferentvoltage levels.
of power n ~ ~ o diagrams,
r k plant data and teleme
ntrol (remote or manu
ltiple ~ a t a b a s ~and
s
Systems ~ n ~ g r a t is i ocritical
~ to the success o f any ~ e ~ e c o m m ~ ~ i c a tand
i o nns ~ ~ ~ o r k ~ n
~ e . most sy~temsare not developed in a vacuum, ~ntegrationo f ex is^^^ or
i n i t ~ a t ~ Since
essed. This ~ntegrationmust be
o n s which ensures that ex
r ~ ~ u n ~ c a t i level,
of working in the new system to e n s ~ integr
e
applica~~ons level, which ensures that ~ n f o ~ a t ~genera~ed on an
a p p l ~ c a can
~ o ~be accessed by another application. 0th levels are critic~lto the success of
the system and the organisation’s ope~ations.Access and a v a ~ ~ a b iolfi fflformat~on ~ in a
timely~accurate and user-fiiendly manner are necessary for the system to be a success. The
develop men^ and i m ~ l e m e n ~ ~ i oofn any t e l e c o ~ u n i c a t i 5 ~system will affect
o ~ ~ ~ ~ soperations. a t ~ o The ~ ~success
l of any project i s a direct result of the a~entionto
detail given to system specification, design and i ~ s ~ l l a t i oThis ~ i . ~nc~udes ~erificat~on that
what was specified and procured has been delivered, testing of system co~ponentsand
ap~~~ca~ and n s ~ that the system satisfies ~ ~ n p l e ~ ~ tr ~a ~t ui ~o r~e n i eand
~ oensuring ~its
r e ~ l a t guidelines.
o~
ana age men^ i n f o ~ a t i o nsystems (MIS) are becoming an ~ n c r e ~ i n g li y~ p ~ ~tool a n t
in the daily operations of electric ut~iities.The i n f o ~ a t ~ osystem n is more a
col~ec~or,r e p o s i ~ o and ~ transpo~ ~ e c for~ i n f~o ~ ~ ai ~ i o~An . w~ d
i n f o ~ a ~ i system
on is a combination of hardware, software and c o ~ n ~ ~ c a t i~o nas ~ a b j
rnis the foundation of efficient opera~ionsand dec~sionm ~ ~ i ~ ~ .
ode^ ~ntegrate~ network management s~stemis used to control
remotely and to supervise manual operations on MV distribution equipment. The system
au~omaticaliyprocesses topology and highlights d~-ener~ised feeders when devices change
state after telemetry input or manual dressing. System Alterations and s w i t c h i ~ sc~edules
~
are prepared in advance and operations can be a ~ t ~ n i a t i ~ ch a~ly
d ~ ~ safety n e ales.
~ Power analysis functions can ~ a l y s ethe
n e ~ o or r ~individual distribution feeders. One of the major ben
world-map schematic diagrams, plant parameters and network CO
one co~sis~ent system. Data is held at a variety of levels of de
analys~sand detailed device operation.
twork operation functions are ‘those functions which enable control an
d i s ~ ~ u t i onetwork
n facilities’ and inc~udecontrol, mon~toring,fault
erating statistics. ~perationalplanning functions are ‘facilities to de
optimise the sequence of operations required for carrying out maintenance work on the
system’ and include network s ~ u l a tand i ~switch
~ action ~ c ~ e d u[IO, l ~ 1g13.
The primary purpose of a network management system for network operations is to
patch o f field crew (people) to ~ a i n and ~ ri ~ the network, safely and
differs from an energy management s y s t e ~( whose primary ~ u r p o s ~
is the dispatch of power (MW and MVAr}. The modem ~ o m p e t ~ t ~market v e emphasises
that utilities need to monitor and improve levels of customer satisfac~ionas well as
o p t ~ ~ s i network
ng ~ p ~ r a t i o and
n s controlling operationa~costs.
ion creates a new wave of electronic brokering as electricity is bought and
odities market, Tracking of these ~ a n s a ~ t i o w n s~ t h ai given
~ utility should
be m a ~ a ~ e a b lheo; w ~ v emost
~ , of these ~ ~ s a c t i o will
n s span mul~plec o ~ p ~ i eIns order .
to achieve interoperability, implement of a common information
, The common information el has a data structure that is c
S p r o ~ r ~ esystems.
ta~
Most infornaation networks wil! be connected to the EMS to provide accurate real
data to stipport the available transfer c a p a b i ~ (ATC) i~ calcu~a~~ons. ~ ~ e r mar t e ~ ~
ge ~ ~ T will ~ beL used ) to present i n f o ~ a t i o nto customers.
d by the transmission services i for customers to use to request
~urchasesfrom a provider. The col ( ~ T T Pi s ~used for data
Distribution in a ~ e r ~ ~ l a t e d - x
increa~inglyc o ~ ~ e t i ~
recent ~ h a ~ g in
e sthe teleco
r~l~~ionsh~~s.
~ o ~ ~ u n ~requires
~ a t ~~ aon sn~ i § s i channels,
on which
and an a ~ ~ e ~ a t e
automation will be
e ~ ~ a s to
u ~adverse
e
o f the ~ u r n obf us
~~
I lation
roblern, b e c a u ~each
~ local set of
nctions such as feeder d e ~ ~ ~ y r nse n t
i s ~ ~ ~§yst~m,
~ ~ twi~Q ~
e r etr
energy is very close, ~~r~ is
Q V any
~ Qb~tacles that might be p r e s e ~ t ~byd the c o ~ v ~ ~ t i o n a l
a t i ~ ~to design a s
media. Fiber allows the c Q ~ u n ~ c engineer ~ that will
s meet ~ all~the ~
worst-case require ents, that can acce as many locations as n e c e s s a ~and can handle the
ee
~ e p a ~ a t i oofn bMsinesses: proposals and cons~tation.Office of Gas and E l e c ~ i c i ~
r e shows the evo~utionof the role of the TP in the industry (as at the time of
~ i ~ u5.1
writing).
~ ~ o ~ofuthe~role
i of
o tbe
~ TP
In the dependent phase the TP functions as a part of the vertically integrated utility. In
the ~ u phase ~ the TP~ stands
~ alone
Y and
~ oversees overall market activities, The ark et
pa~icipantsare ~equiredto submit their intended use of the system to the TP and based on
that i n f o ~ a t i o nthe TF allocates transmission capacities foIlowing strict ru'les set
e TP assumes no ~ n a n c ~respo~sibilities
al and has mi~imalinterac~~Q
ants. As shown in Figure 5.1 there are three differ nt s ~ c ~ rofe the
s TP
e utility is a an teed to ~ e ~ o v e
ning of the system by
lem of short-term generation sc
n to b ~ l a ~load ~ edemand devi~tio
and to do this at the lowes
~ 0 of this problem
~ is given
~ in [ 11:~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~
Trans~issionExpansion in the New E n v i r o ~ e n t I57
where
e a m o u ~ot ~ i n s ~ l l generation
ed capacity at node i and tec a
(t),PL~ t ) )the
: flow on line 1 as a function of system
) : the ~ a x i m ~a~~owable
m flow on line 1 as a function of the a ~ o u nof
t ~ns~~le
~ i s § ~ co anp a c ~owing
~ ; to secure c o n s ~ ~&max ~ t s <<~K,
rresponding cons~ain~§.
The o p t ~ ~ ~ ~p ~ e ~ is the longer of two time ~ n ~ e ~ov
e r§~ oa dtT~~ino ~~ r o b l (%I)* aIs
lion or ~ ~ s ~ i i s~ sv e~ ~o~ ~earen ~valued. § As the syste
ides the level of production and the rate of investment on ~ e ~ e ~ a ~ ~
and tra~sm~ssion,P,Jt), d a r serve as control variables in this fo
for the status of the system
o ~ ~ r a tcm
i ~ be
n accw ciated by ~ x a ~ ~ i nthese
i n g variables.
This ~ o ~ ~captures ~ ~many t iwell-&own
o ~ trade-offs relevant for the e ~ ~ c of~the~ n c
the r e ~ a t ~ ~ n sbemeen
hlp e ~ ~ and the balance o f the costs
the i n v e s t ~ timing
er time, the value of different ~ e c ~ o l o g i at es
produce powerl and C o i ~ ~ ~ e m e no ~~a~K e~ ~ ~e capacityr a t i ~and~~
There are two n ~ ~ ~ c features e a b ~~~o n s i ~ ethe~ i operation
~g
by the TP (as a p a t o f the v e ~ c ia~ t~e g~ ~~~utility) t e d as the
problem: the apparent compiexity of the problem (5.1) and the
G
on ~ ~ based on ~ costs e .,ag ~ e,,',, Owing
6J,Tand ~ to ~the ~ o n~ ~ lthe~ x j
~ nthe p r o b l e ~is not readily available, and thus the actual o p ~ ~ aand
s o ~ u t i to t~o~
m are performed s u b ~ p ~ i min~ lmany ~ y cases. Further, since the rate
nt is d e ~ ~ r based ~ ~ onn ecosts,
~ the o p t ~condition ~ ~ ~of ithe~ fom
limited to concern [fa 1: and e:(t). Nevertheless, problem (5.1) is B
ark in studying the e f ~ c i oef the ~ ~industry
~ as the r e s ~ c takes ~ ~place.
r ~ ~
15 structuring and Dere
~ ~ i l a t ~ansaction
e~a~ model
Tr~smis$ionExpansion in the New ~nvironment
UlU
~ o ~ usystem
~ ~ operator
r y model
bilat~raland c e ~ ~ a l i s e
r e s e ~ cof~ spot market ~ansact~ons is desired b
e ~ u swith u
a l a ~ ~o fe i ~ s ~ n t ~ supply
~ , direct access and custo~er
i n d ~ swhile
~ a n d a t osystem
~ operator model lead to an e q u i l ~ b ~ usolution
m of the
f o ~ l o woi ~ ~
t i ~ ~ s a~ tr io~bni e ~ :
(5.1 1)
i,o i
i $ a tini (5.8)
The ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ defined o ~
. The result of solving the
(5.12)
§ i o n in the New Environment
~ r ~ § ~ i ~Expansion 141
tive economic e n t in
~ ~ e energy market before such a prw
TP ta ~ d d .Therefore, the ~ a n § ~ ~ § § i
level the rate of re^^ reg~la~iQn,
l , TP sets the bundled energy and tran§mission price that ~ ~ n ~ ~thei so e §
m o ~ ~the
~ ~ i sthe ~ system iQn i
i n ~ load at each given instant. The ~ a n s ~ ~ s srevenue
first cut is specifie
to consumers and to sup
and the c o ~ ~ u t e
u§age charges a § s i ~ e d
In the ~ o ~ u n system
t a ~ operator model the
n , is
under strict r e g ~ a ~ othere
c o ~ i ~ i ton any
g major transmiss~onprQjec~
the
e 5.1. In the wti
only when th
~ i s s ~ o$ yn $ t e cong~~tion
~
e ~ ~ cost gof the ~investment.
~ Asa ~
1 structuring and Dere
total cost of ~ i s ~ b ~ t ~ d
maker.
5.3.I I ~ c e ~ RGal
~ ~te Des
ve
L'
i
(5.13)
where ,u,f 0 if and only if FXP,, PL) = F;"'". For si icity, we use DG power Raw in
u t ~ gthe flows on each line in the system. e DC power flow equations in
ix notation are written as
(5.14)
where &isthe voltage angle vector, Taking the first derivative of L with respect to Pi,, and
it equal to zero yields
4- &(t)= A ( t ) t i (5.15)
I
(5.17)
(5.18)
Finally, the ~ a ~ s ~ i srate ~ by the difference in the ,q, i.e. =,q -4.
s i iso set
The zonal pricing method consists of two steps: (I) aggregation of i n d i v i d ~nodes ~~
into zones and (2) compu~tionof zonal prices. The system is first divide^ i
of smaller markets by a ~ g r e g a t i ~individual
g nodes into zones w ~ e n
ectat~Q of~c ~ n g e s ~ within
~ o n each market. The ~ a n s m i s s ~ rate
a n is
so~vinga similar optlmisation prQblem as given in (5.8); the cost C,,@'~,~) n
the average cost of generation in zone i. The line Row constraints are now
c e limit c ~ n s ~ a i ni,e.
~ i t e ~ a flow , ower flow on any line I along on^^ the ~ ~ ~ g e s t
~ sthe
Transmission Expansion in the Mew Environment
interfaces is within the m imum rating o f the line. The transmission rate is ,U]
resent zones rat he^ than nodes.
ophistication may be requ~redin order to i ~ p ~ e m e
ective, a sign^^^^^ reduction in computat~Qn
rice~capr e ~ ~ a t i osince
n only a small
rather than many nodal prices as is
ricing. Further, there is a greater advanta~eto be gained in ~ m p l e m e ~ i ~
ccQm~odat~ng b~latera~ ~ a d as~issi ~ ~ u s ~ aint ethe
d su~sequentsection.
The a6cess fees are intended to recover the fixed part of the costs and are thus
~ndependentof actual usage. However, usage-ind~penden~ charging for the access fees is
impractical and may result in improp~rincentives for the ETC. In order to s t ~ ~ ua l ~ t ~
m e a n i n g ~ ~l h m e c h~~ i § m~
some
, measure
~ gof base-load capacity needs to be ~ v e n .
practical approach is to compute the access charges based on a coincidental peak
nsu~p~~ o foloads.
n The ‘12-CP’ method [3] i s one such approach. The p o ~ i o nof
a1 access fees is computed as
i
where S,(t> is the load i’s share of system coincident peak, and LXt} is the
load in month I at peak load~ngcon~itionof each day. As the total r ~ v e n u
charge is equal to the product of access charge and the coincidental peak o
approach provides the ITC with incentives to increase individual base-load ca
heref fore, price-cap r e ~ ~ a t i oand n the rate design consisting of
es and regulator-approved access fees o
ver the ~ v e s ~ ewith n t some incen~iv~s for improvement in ~ ~ c i e n c y ,
H o ~ e v e r 9the resul~ingrate structure does not i ~ e ~ ~ a tyield e l y prop~rincen~~ves
for
transmis§ion ex~anding.In the subsequent section, a market mechanism called the pr~ority
i ~ s u r a ~ service
ce is d ~ s c u s s ein~terns of compl~mentingprice-cap regulation in o
~rovidethe right set o f incent~vesto e ~ a n c the e t r ~ s m i ~ s i so yn s ~ e ~ ,
In r e a l - ~ i ~oper~tion~
e the ITG determi
relieve ~ a n ~ ~ i s §con~estion
ion along with
as long as the market can take it. s creates an a ~ a c t i v eincentive far
ss~on~ y s t ase ~a subs~ntialeffort by the ITC is expected in order to i
T base for priority insurance service. The advantage of this method is tha
of the spot arke et^ which is under strict regulation, the
w~liin~ness to take the ITC’s profit is well capped, Over time, the sho
the spot market or bi~a~eral trade is e x ~ e c ~ etodlev
meet the c ~ ~ g needs i n ~of the market. The I
t tn mark~tevolution is likely to have a ~ e ~ a ~ v~e l y g level~ e
priority insurance service and to enjoy profits from b u s ~ e s §
5.3.3 T r a ~ ~ ~ ~i s~ sp ia~n~s i ~ ~
The ~ e w ~ a r k eorg ~ e s c ~ ~ ~ate the
d ~ e g i ~ of ~ ~thn g
~ ~ n d a n ~ $s ~e t~a~l for s ~ o n This ta
n g s ~ s t e m a t~i ~~ s r n ~ §expansion.
Qf ~ s e dITG § ~ c ~ r A e .fo~ard-look in^ ~ a n s ~ s s i o n
S t r § on ~re¶uencyand r n a ~ i ~ of
of its c u s ~ o ~ ebased de
its ~ a ~ ~ ~ ~system, s s i o n
tools n e c e s s ~ yfor e rovides a basis for su
e n ~ a ~ c and e ~ ex~ ~ t of these ~ n h ~ c e ~ e ~ t
elopment of new market tools for operating the ~ansm~ssion s y s t e ~b
as the ITC moves into the active phase of m ~ a g e ~ e nInt this
~ phase
to make complex business decisions over a wide r a n ~ eof time scales: long-te
a
~ r e a s o ~ ~ borI e‘fair’ i ~ its cost.
q prooft ~ a r gabove
r e ~ u to~ operate
r ~ in a manner that m i n ~ m i s ~odv ~ r a rl ~e v e ~ u ~
~ove~ment-owned e ~ e ~indus~y
~ c i ~ n~ c o u r a ~ e
es not have to be part of a r e s ~ c ~ r i effort.
ng I
early 3990s several Western governments were
do a ~ e ~job e rof ~ n n i n gthe power ~ n d u s t ~ ,
r e d u c t i ~in~ l a b o ~ rcould be achieved by p
ise rates and have a greater interest in e l i n ~ ~ power ~a~~~g
lace i n e ~ ~ c ~ e n cIn~ eothers . countries either Qwnersh~por
to cooperative or to p r i v a ~o~r ~ ~ ~ s a tori oto~new s ~ types of
ions or ~uasi-gov~rn~ental entities
ts, ~ w n e r s hand ~ ~~nctionalre5
1 invo~~enient of private capit
d as private sector p ~ ~ ~ c i p
ut b e c o ~ more
e ~ol~~ile.
also a serious conb:
. Compe~i~on breeds imov
ism. A competitive powe
use of new technologi
~ o n o ~ o sl cy h e ~ ewas unable to ~rovidei n c e n ~
tiva~ionto use new ideas and ~ e c ~ o l o g ~ e
ework. Lack of compe~~tion also gave
in c~untriessuch as India and Chin
very low. A more b : o ~ ~ e r cethos i a ~ could be h
~u~to~~rs.
rate and transfer BOT; {or build, operate and own) plant of
ing, ~ s u a ~ I~ya t ~ o n a~l , ~ ~ i t~i Iea€yan
on in many f a s t - ~ ~ nsystems. g T
~ ~ r a c~ ~e e~are~ eoften ~ as an economic incentive to investors.
e ~in force
auction ~ o ~ a single
d ~i c ~ ~
~ a ~ ~This
d~~~~~~~~ e g occas~on
, p r o v i ~ ~a sc ~ ~ ~ ~ t i t i ~ ~
ta adjust their day~aheadsched~Iesin the lig
g~n$ra~ors
- ~md ~unit status.
s ~ ~load~forecasts ~ n
as well as the o ~ i ~ r s h
la the new ~ ~ k e ~
151.
Transmission Open Access
e s a few alte
1 the new ~ a d i n g§ ~ c ~ rinto
ion system is ~ ~ n ~ a ~ l y
I
a
T r a ~ s ~ i s s ~Open
o n Access 7
1 ower System Restruc lation
~ e no i ~ ~ e ~charges
ostage stamp ra~e,and ~ h e are ~ ~ ~if npower
a l is ~ ~ s p o ~ ~
in the ~ n g e s ~ zone
e d when con
E" usem to sei1 or buy
~~~~sare a d j ~ ~ ~ b
the flow ~ a in a ~ r ~ de
n e ~e owill
s a c ~ o at
~ sv ~ times
~. ~ ~ ~ s
cb line I;a meet the
n, the load of tine j
For each transaction, the rel~ab~Iity of ~ ~ ~ s m i swiths ~ oalln lines
but linej in $ e ~ ~ care
e , first calculate^. The r e ~ i a b i bl ~e n~e ~RJ:Ti
t
~ a n § ~ c T,~ ~isoc~lculated
n n t ~ a n s ~ fai~ure
as the i n ~ r c ~ e in ~ ~ i o ~
c ~the line. Similar ~ r o ~ ~ ~ are
a ~ s e n of te~ o
~ ~c ia t~i ce~s ~ina respect
s ~ jo, ~all
ect to line j . The e ~ b e d d e dcost of the ~ r ~ s r n i s line
based on ~eliabilityb e n e ~ oniy
~ s is now d e ~ n e das:
i 1
It § ~ ~ ubel dnoted that e ~ b ~ ~ ~d ae ~d § ~ ~ costs o ~ to ~ n c ~ u d~ea c ~ ~ isue
i s s iRave ~ie§
~ ~ t ~ear and shun~§eriesc acitors in additio~to
ers, § ~ ~ s ~ a tei o~ nu i p m switch
n and cables.
~ a n s ~ i s s i olines
and d~~ferent m ~ ~ ~ rno d s
~ ~ c t in^^
l y t ~ e ~ e ~the
o ~PSPe , is fixed on a r e v e n ~r ~e ~c o ~ ~ basis; t~ Po ~
~ ~ t~~ a is,
the e l e c ~ sold
~ c is~ made
~ equal to payment to generators p ~ other ~ s 60
i o ~ ~are also rolled into
ce, the costs o ~ t r ~ s m i s slosses
poiiy p o § ~ ~albeit
~ o ~regu~a~ed,
, the
ta ~ r o v i ~aaequat~
e srnission access are
~ o ~ s ~ ~Fur s . ~ea§onmd since average ~ 1 ~ ~ c a t of
e rthis ~ Quplns
~h~~~~to d ~ ~ users, e ~ ~ 11% ~ the prima^ focus of con
n been
~~~~~
.7
n is not a new prob~emin power s y ~ o~p ~e r ~~ t ~and
~ o n g e s ~ i o[21] o n was a r o ~ t ~ e
~rob~em for the ~ y § t eo ~p e r a ~ oin ~ the t r a d i ~ o nsystem.
~ In
e n v ~ r o ~ ~ ehowever,
n ~ s , pre~~ously established practices for dea~ingw
no longer be relied on since coo~erationbetween market p ~ i ~ i pcannot ~ t s be ~ a ~ n ~ e e d .
Any control ~ e a s u r e sadopted by the system o~eratorta eliminate c o n g ~ s t i omust ~ not
ody be t e c ~ ~ ~u s ~t ~a~ but a~ b also
~
1 ~~be
~ fair to users and c o ~ e r c~ia n~ s ~p ~ ~
some e ~ ~ ~markets i c with
i ~bilateral and multi~a~era~ o nps ~ o b is~ e ~
c o n ~ a c~t ~ s ~ c t ithis
more d ~ f ~ c utol tsolve since these contract transactions introduce additional c~nstra~nts on
the system o ~ e ~ t o For r . example, c u ~ a i l ~of~ an ~~ilateral ~ ~ s a c t i o~equires n
s i ~ u l ~ e o andu s equal reduction at the entry and exit points, All this makes CO
~ ~equiresa comb~ationof ~
~ a n a ~ e ~ae ~nhta l l e n g ~p ~r ol ~b ~ eand o pri ~ ~ c
o p ~ ~ ~ respo~se$. ~ ~ t in t r ~ ~ ~ i sope~ation.
o n a ~ It i s perhaps the t h o r n ~issue s~on
Boot md c o ~ ~ amodels
ct are s e ~ ~ r a t addressed
e~y first and an app~oachto reconcile h t h
models i s then explored. Conges~i~n ma~agement issues without C o n s ~ d e ~ ~ tof
~Qn
c o ~ ~ n g e n c y / s e c uproblems
ri~ are discussed in this subsection. A fbller ~ e a ~ ofe n ~
topics can be found in [22],
Mi
l ~the c
af y ~ i a bon
nt above is the $tipu~ation
ty. The demand-price elasticity issue, which was
I [25-271 is d e s i g ~ ~ aas
t e power
~ ~ i ~in ~a s a t ~ ~
b ~ l ~ and
~ emultilateral
~ a ~ ~ a n s ~ i s s i oc no ~ ~A cbilateral
~ . ~~sastion
Disco pair while a m ~ l ~ i ~transaction
a t e ~ ~ ~is 2ibp extens
s, such as broken or ~ o ~ a K CO d
~ a ~ s ~ be ~ ~ § ~ o I nf there is no con
provided.
d i s ~ a t c h all
~ s r e q ~ e ~ansactions
s ~ ~ ~ and makes
Transmission Open Access
As ~ ~ o ~ ~ t a ~ ~~ n ~ ~
. ~ o ~ s i ad p~ or ~ system
~ r
~Qsit~Q n r e s e ~ ~ford
1 is
ISQ pur~hasespower to ission losses. (There
ed with any one or
my aenG0 and Disc
ik z' E I,; i f
subject ta:
i s the desired or target YaIue of
ewed as a p o i ~ t - t o - ~ otransfer
~ n ~ s ~ ~to a~b iil a lt e ~ont
~ tract^
T*,i =o idG; kE
and the IS0 will dispatch pool power to make good t r ~ s ~ ~ slosses,
s i o ~kncludin
Transmission Open Access -
:The n o ~ condi~ion
a ~ is when all pool demand and all bila
ns me dispatched without system security violations.
o n sbe s ~ ~at ~ ircdes~red
~ a n s ~ c t ~will e ~ value and the ISSO only ~ i e e to
~ sop
~ i s ~ aandt ~ ah ~ ~ ice^.~ l ~ ceaa s ~~ ~ g~~ to ~ dy ~ ~a d~ ~eOPF
~ ~o~ n0 1~ ~ 0 ~ ~ :
T
PPL a PPPL (6.6)
subject to:
where is a c o vector
~ with~typical
~ element ,which is the
~ pppL,i
and bid price for this pool power; i s a vector of pool powers with e ~ e ~ ePPLI
~ts
~~~~~~ we the c ~ v ~ na b ~of ~e sthis~p ~~ ~ ~~ ~ e ~ ;
values of pool ~ o n s ~ n ~ and ~ ~ ibilaterailm
on~ arrd e x ~ ~ c ~ i~~h
on
elements DpL,i, Pq ,i and ,?Iq ,j , respectively~ tors o f r e a ~ t ~ ~o e~ a l
~ ~ w ebusr, v o l ~m ~ e a ~ ~ and ~ ~~~e~~
~ e sr~s~ectiyely.The ftrst ~ o ~ s ~ ~ n t
(6.6) is the c o n v e ~ t i o ~load
a ~ flow equation set plus the set of n o ~ power
a~
second c o n $ ~ a i nis~a set o f ineq~lities,incl~idinglimits on pool p~~~~ an
rating cons^^^^ such as bus voltage levels and line overloads.
subject to:
T)=
e first tern, within brackets, in the above objective r$pres~ntsthe net pool w ~ ~ f a r ~
pPTis a columi vector of elements ,the ~ a ~ s m i s charge
s ~ o ~for d e ~ ~ v PTkj
e r;~ ~
yo,, i s a c ~ vector
~ of e~I e ~ ~nn t s ~ . ~ ~ L ,where
i ~ woPLJ is a w ~ l ~ i n ~ ~ ~ s ~
pL,j =(D:L,i - D P L J ) ,the pool customer shortfall, w h ~ D~ &e j i s the
r e ~of
~ e s ~value s 5 B& ; y4. is a c
and s a t i s ~ ~DPL,] o v ~ ~~ of~ e~
o ~r e ~~ ~ ~
-
(w,,,,, AP<,~1 wher~ whs is also a willingness-to~pa~factor ,i -
,[ and satisfies F$;,,! 5 P; ,i .
It is worth mentioning that willin~ess"to-payfactors, which have been ~ n ~ 5 d u c eind
the above c o n ~ a cmodel
t a ~ ~ ~ m the o d a of~ ~
~ interests of and bila~erallmulsitaterd
p ~ c ~~~~n~ ~ n . is, any p ~ ~ ~ ~ j ~bea w
~ cpo ~ g~e s t ~~That n ~t l ~ i ntog make ex^^
~ ato avoid
~ c u ~ ~~ ~ m eThis
n~ t .a ~ ~a ~ g ehas
t ~ to e ~ the IS0 in a d v ~ c e
e ~bet ~ g r e with
and the 1S0 will d e t e ~ i m ~ ~e g n i ~ d for o ~factors in order to ration
e s the w i l l ~ ~ e s s - tay
~ a n s ~ ~ s saccess
i o n accordingly.
The first c o n s ~ in~ rob^^^
t (6.7) is ~ ~to the~ 5rst ~in ~ a~ ~but6r with ) 9
,r ~ s ~ ~ ~The v ~ c~ oy .~ ~in~(6.7)
t ~second ~ n t
b a ~ a equations
~~e and
ntract model. Th
bilat~r~l/~ultilatera~~ ~ ~ c ~ pina advance.
nts The i
~ ~ t e ~ of o in n e ~ u a ~~ xi ~p r e s ~in~(6.6),
s ~the ~ n obtai
Example system
Case 1 ~ s § u ~~e ~§ i n ~ i e s s - tfactors
o - ~ aof~the pool d e at b ~ ~ ~ ~
same as that of the ~ ~ ~ a~t ne s~~ afrom e ~r 3 to 4? namely 20 $1
~ o of
~ ~ ~ - €actors - ~all apool
~ ~ e n ~ we ~ d~ so u b while
~e~
unchanged. As expected, the pool d ~ ~ a n at d §buses 4 m d 5
case 2 ~ h a ncase I and the bilateral transfer from 3 to 4 was curta
consumers were willing to pay more.
Pool ~ e n ~ r a ~at~bus
o n1 54.6 56.1
Pool generation at bus 2 119.1 119.5
Pool demand at bus 4 94.5 95.2 1'
Pool demand at bus 5 73.8 75.2 1'
Transfer from bus 3 to 4 96-8 94.3 -k
105
100
95
90
85
- 80
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
W ~I iI ~ ~ ~ s s - ~( o -~~ a ~y ~ ~ ~ 1 )
_. _I__ __ I
67.4 Static $ ~ c u ~ i ~ - c o ~ ~ t ~ ~ i ~ ~ d
Cd
ion to the case where the
may be out o f sus der ~ i i ~ e ~ cono ~ t ons e deals wi
~ ~ and
reschedu~~ng t i ~ as~well as bilateral transactions. A new
o f pool ~ ~ ~ randa demand
nota~ionis i ~ ~ o d here.
~ ~ e d
where sGj,sni and sTI are sensitivities of the c o ~ e ~ p o ~n rda ~n ~ ~ ~theQsn §q ~ of~ e
s ~~~ to
e Enin ~the normal state.
the c ~ ~ in~line
Transmission Open Access 5
~ u p e r ~ c rpr'i pstands
~ for tbe values of variables in the final post-fault system confi~ration.
The a p ~ r o x i ~contro~~ing
at~ ~ ~ (8') is c a ~ ~ u ~ ausing
unstable e q u i l i b r ~point ted a
method which is used as s ~ r t ioint ~ ~for solving the post-fault system equ
~ e r i v a t ~ ofthese
on results can be found in [42$
e p r e s ~ c of
e b~latera~
contracts er increases the spot prices at the
d price e i a s ~ i issue
c ~ ~ [23,2
respect~ve~y,
as
tr - Eet r., G$r.2
Ic
-3 )* * 9 et,, I
(6%)
W at bus 5 is
Genco at bus 3, for c o ~ ~ ~ rreasons,
c ~ a l is ~ e s ~ Q ~ s for
i b l sup
e
~ e ~ r e s e by
~ ~~ansaction
ed TA (78 MW initially fiom bus 3 to 5),
atch. How ~ o o ~ ~ n a ~t ~ o n e ~ a~ r p ~ ~~a t ~~ ~ n ~ ~
Power System ~ ~ s ~;;andcDere~ i n ~
P
Lateral from 2 to 5 "" 22.7 2n.o 1
-- No data
apprQachestowards ~ ~ s m i s s i osystem
n ~ nangopea
operation in power ~ ~ r k ewt s~ r ~ in
skied ~ u u ~ Prmedikre
d i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
price ~ ~ ~issues d i §t c u~~ ~ ec Section ~ ~6.8.1 i s based on the ass
~ i ~ aare ~ ~ t es r ~ e c trational
ly able to respond p r o p e ~ ~and y
~ o w e v ed~ , e m elastic~~~e$
~ ~ of c ~ s t o ~ c r s
range from h ~ ~ elastic
h ~ yto h ~ ~ h ~l y e ~~ ~~s ~ ~o mwith ~e r ~shighc elastic~~~es
. will b
s e ~ stoi power
~ ~ ~prices while to tom er^ who are more ~ n ~ ~ awill s t be
i ~inert to
prices and fail to react in time.
~ r a n § a ~~.Qt o~r~d ~ n a iasi ~dn e ~ a n s ~ a t e&dQ V ~ explores an a ~ t e ~ a t a~ vp e~ r o to~c~~
n provides useful ~ u i d e l ~ nfor
ameliorate c o ~ g e s ~ oand e ~market pa~ic~pants to n ~ ~ ~
puwer e x c h ~ n ~that
e s avoid ~ ~ n ~ e sand t i learn
o ~ to d e ~ e on n ~geo h ~ c da ~ ~~ ~~ ~ s
~~~~rs u ~ ~(and l y d ~ m ~ ~n od ~~ f o ~~ ~~ ~o §t ~ a d .
An ~ n ~ ~ o~ n ~g e m as ~~a~ g~ee r ~~n ~~ ~o~ c [45] e das~$ ~ ~ in ~i~~ o ~
orates the ~ b o v etwo issues into the wiil~ngnes$~to-~a~ ~ ~ $ ~ a ate
tch
describe^.
~ # ~ i ~ e~0~~~
s~~on t ~ ~ e ~ tby n IS
i othe
R
e
U
arket response
~ ~ r ~ procedure
~ n afor~congestion
~ o ~ relief
sent a short time ~ e ~ which
~ o ids divided
~ in
e~ E need ~not be ~equal to
~ each ~ ~ $
~ y s t ee er ~ at ion conge§~ionis found
i n ~ o ~ ~ a i iwhich
o n , may
o p ~ r a t i nstatus
~ in~lu~~n
(6.7) during i n t e ~ a l
I 1.02 __
2 1-04 _-
3 1 .OS --
4 ** 20.0
4 ** 20.0
** Voltages are kept within the range of0.95-f.05.
-“ No data
21 Power System ~ e s ~ c ~andr Di enr e~~ I a ~ i o n
Transmission Open Access 239
S~ngapore,January 2000,
, On-line A l g o ~ for ~ sTransient S~abilityassess men^ and Security Control, P
Thesis, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 1995.
B.M. Anderson and A.A. Fouad, Power System Control and ~ t u Iowa ~ State
~ ~ n i ~v e r~s i ~,
Press, 1977.
P.W. Sauer md MA. Pai, POMW~ y s g ~ e ~ y n and a ~~ ~~ u~Prentice b ~ Hall, ~ Mew ~ ~Jersey,
,
1998.
S. Sterling, &LA, Pai and P.W. Sauer, ‘A ~ e t h o d o l oof~secure and 0 ~ opera~on
~ ~ a ~
of
power system for dynamic contingencies’, Electric Machines and Power Systems, Vol. 19,
1991, p~.639”6~5.
H. ~ l and F. aAlvarado, ~ ~ ~ a~n a ~ ofe~ ~~ e n u~~c ~ n g~~~s r ec~ do n d ip~ ~in~~n~ ~ ~ ~n d ~
ration of a power system’, IEEE ~ ~ u n s a c5n t ~Power
o ~ ~ y s Vo1.13, ~ e No.3,~ ~~ ~ ~
2998, p p . ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ O 1 9 .
.S. Fang and A.K. David, ‘&I i ~ ~ e congestion ~ a t ~manage men^ strategy for real-time
system operation’,IEEE Power ~ n g i n e e r ~Review, ~ g Vo1.19, No.5, May 1999, pp.52-54.
W,W, Nogan, ‘ ~ o n ~ r anetworks ct for electric power ~ ~ ~ s s iJ oo i ~~of~’ ~~a ~ e
~ ~ oV01.4,~ 1992,~ p@f1-242,
~ ~ ~ s ,
.P. Chao aid S.G. Peck, ‘A market m ~ h a n i for s ~ electsic power ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Ji os ~s ~oif of f~ ~~
La8~0ryECOPZOP~~CS, Vol. 10, 1996, pp.25-59.
Dr Loi Lei Lai
XYan ~ i a o T o U
n ~~ ~ v e r s i ~ City Universi~Lon
China UK
Since China ~ n ~ its~ first~ eac o~n oe~ ~r~ce ~ o in~ sjate 1978, e ~ c oe ~ s~ u has
~~ ~ ~ ~
oss don~e$~ic ~ r ~ d ~ c t
e ~ e r c~ y o ~ s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n
prices have p ~ ~ y e ~
ears or so. Before thaf strict but e ~ f ~ c ~ ~
h e l ~ hold ~ d and until r e ~ ~ te~l ye, c ~s ~h io ~~ ~ e s
e ~ ~ n e d~ e~ y~ in~check,
rion. Now that the market larg~lyd e t e ~ i n e ~e~~
s price
~ r ~has
~ e n planing ~ matured, economic forces are I
a ’ ~ power i n ~ u has
ent of ~ h i ~electric s ~gone t ~ o u g ha ~ e r y
that is, the power i n d u s ~is gradua~lyc
et economy c h ~ a c ~ e ~ s tand i c §the
i s also ~ h a from ~ the~ stle
n side
~
as the r~~~~ of the electric power ~ n d u goes s ~ on, the de
ectriciy sector i s cha~ginga great will have a great in~uence01p the f u ~ r e
~ v ~ ~ oofpChina’s
~ ~ nelectric
t
in effect and the e a v ~ o costs ~ ~of e ~ ~
energy use are not yet even p ~ i a l l y d for. These factors must
ricing s c ~ to~ promote
m ~ the ~ s ~ ~ $ ~ a ~ nuse l eenergy 13-61.
a bof
tran§pare~cy and legal r ~ ~ will ~ eu n s~~ ethat
e c ~ sh ~ n o ~ ~ ~ d
c o ~ ~ a are:
g is s ~ ~ a i ~ and ~ s the
e dde~i§~oa-mar~ing
~ a u ~ isoclear. ~ ~
i c of pollutio~needs to be con§i~eredso that true ‘kast 60
e c o ~ o ~cost
made. China’s e c a n ~ ~eifc~ ~ i e n andc y e~vironmentalquality ~ e p e n don
~ ~ ~ o ~ s .
The ~ l ~ ~ co w ~ ~~c r~ din ~ h ~~ has t ~ gone ~
n§ aalread~ h a t a ~~yc ~ ~ g
past ~ e ~ ~Atd ~e .r e ~its~~ ta n, s i t ~ o ~ a p l a ~~c o~n o~~ toyn
under way. On 16th ~~~~ 19 of Electric Power w
s e m ~ ~ State ~ ~u ~o C ~ ~ n e~ ~ e~r e s~~ o~n s ~ ~ ~w~ i t i e s
search. ~ i K grid
e man
reale a m ~ %hat
~will e ~
e n ~ cred~tab~e
~ e service a ard bgal r ~ ~of~~ tn sv e s t ~ ~ ~
The ~ s t a b ~ ~ $of~ ~ e n t Power ~ o ~ o r a ~ ~ omn ~ the ~r
(SP) e ~~ of ~
er i n ~ u ass it~ entered a new stage [7-161, Pilot bi
~ u n ~ c i p a~l i~~ e~ ~~ ih aa ~n d~~o rno~v ~ n and,
c~s
s in ~~~~, and thea ~ a ~ i o by n 2005.
~ ~ eAn
and order1~~eneratm ~ g ~ ~will t full
e be
~ o ~h ~~d reopower
s plant will allow a wi
The reform of China’s e l e c powe
~~~
of r e f o and
~ a satooth
e ~ e c ~~ c Q i W
~ d ~u o§~ ~
economy presents problems that demand further exploration and confro~ta~ion;
many
s ~ e to ~ a ~
be sa~s~actorily ~reso~ved~
from basic theory to ~ o n ~~r a ~c ~~i ~~a
This c h a ~ will
t ~ ~ ~ ~ o the
d u c ~ and ~ a ~ a g e m system
~ t of
s obstac
plan. The p r o b l e ~ and
of e l ~ c ~~ ~ c c ~and ~ ~n g
~ e v ~case
r a ~$ t ~ ~ ~ e s
Electric Power Industry ~ e s ~ c ~ inn China
n g
~is€ribution
of power network sewice areas
\Heavy ~~u~~~
58%
Others
Chemical Products 10% Coal
an ~ x large ~~ ~ ~ e~ -e o ~ ~ ~~r ~hase~assets
~~s eof ~,x 8 . 2 ~ yi ~ ~ ~ o n
t role in the fbture ~ e v e l o p ~ of
e n~hina’s
~ ~ o w e in
r
ng and ~ a ~ a g i nitsg assets well or not. In two y e w 9 pract~cemd
e SP has set its deveiopment objective o f creating a ~ r s ~ ~e ~ tl ea~~rins~ s e
the wor~din terns of h o ~ d ~ nstock g and g r o ~rn ~ agement, and this is a ~~~e~
de~elopmentof the policy of ~ o ~ o ~ t irs e~d s ~ c ~ ~ g ~
~ ~ g a l i §~~a~~~
~d Thus, the SP has made a strategic
§~~~~ for fhe fiime d~velo~ment of ~ h i n a electric
~s ~ o w e in
r
~ ~ Power
e J u ~i n ~ -~ ~ ~eo~c~ ~o r a~t iwo ~h ,~ are
~ h all exclusive~yowned s ~ ~ s i d i a r i e ~
Electric Power Industry Restructuringin China 1
under the SPC. ese state~owne~ assets, held by the Armed Police Hy
C o ~ s t ~ c t i oTroops
n (also as Anneng Corp.), belong to the SP’s ~ ~ a g e m e n t .
Other c o m p ~under i ~ ~the ~ i of Electric
~ Power ~ are the~ SP’s swholly ow
~
s~bsidiari~s, holding or jointly shared companies according to their property n
s ~ c ~ r eTheses . cQrporatiQnsand ins~i~tions under the SP include the fol~Qwing:
Engi~eerin~ Institute
ing & Design General Institute
Natio~alPower Control Centre of China
China Electric Power Information Centre
Electric Power Research Institute
Thermal Power Research Institute
Najing A u ~ o ~ a t i oResearch
n Institute
Wuhan High Voltage Research Institute
* North China Electric Power University
China Electric Power News
China Electric Power Press
22 Power System ~ e ~ ~ ~ c t uand
r i~fel~~~ ~ M l a t i o f l
equaI competition
high ~ansparency
0 sharing benefit
lowest cost
e opera~ionby laws and reg~la~ions
subject to supe~ision.
The concre~epractice is to separate generation from t r ~ n s ~ ~ i s s first,
i o n reorganise several
generation group companies, and adopt a hid price ~ e c h a n i sin~ genera~ionfor the
generating companies, but a few power plants, such as peak regulating units rhsrmal units
~ to the local area, are temporarily not included. For the sake
mainly used for s u p p ~ y i nheat
of transition, the electricity genera~ioncould be divided into two categories: one is the
basic part o f electricity generation, the account of which is sertled according to the current
electricity ~~neratioii price cons~deringthe repayment of principal with interest far newly
built power plants; and the other is the competitive part of electricity genera~io~~, which is
detemiined by the bidding price. As time goes on, the bidding part should be increased
gradually. Finally, the principle o f ‘an equal electricity price for the same network and the
same quality of electricity’ should be carried out.
( 3 ) To promote the implementation of the nationwide power network interconnection and
realise the o p t i ~ a disposition
l of resources. Owing to the distribution of energy ~ources
and loads in ~ h i n a ,implemen~ingthe nationwide power network interconnec~~~n and
realising the optimal disposition of resources is an inevitable option. The construction o f
the e x ~ r e m ~large ~ y Three Gorges hydro power station and its ~ a n s m system ~ s ~ ~ ~
motes the f o ~ a t ~ of o nthe nat~~nwide power network interco~nection.It is p~aff~edthat
inte~cannec~~on between the Northeast and North China power networks will be
acc~mplis~ed in 2 ~ 0 0 the
, in~erco~nec~ion between the Fujian provincial power network
and the East China power n e ~ o r kwill bc accompl~shedin 200 1 , and the inF~rconn~c~ion
between the Shantong provincial power network and the North China power network will
be accomp~i~hed i o n the Sichuan p r o v ~ n cpower
in 2003, the ~ n ~ e r c o ~ e c ~between ~~~
network and the N o ~ h w ~power st network will be accomplished in 2004. Three cross-
regional. interconnected power networks in northern, middls and southern China will be
basically ~ Q around~ 2010.~ The d ~ ~ i interconnec~ed
~ e d power network of the whole
c o u n ~will ~ be achieved between 2010 arid 2020. The decisions for the above large
engineer~ngprojects are all made on the basis of detailed preliminary feasibility studies of
the ~ e i i e f i ~and
s effect~vene~s of ~n~ereonn~ction. The f o ~ n a ~ i of
o ~the
i nat~onwi~e
power
network in~erconnec~~on will ~ ~ f i n ~accelera~e
~ e l y &hefuture develo
industry more e~Qnomica1 and effective way.
(4) To s~~~~ up mra r n a ~ ai ~~s t~i ~~~ ~~~ o ~n at~l ~ Q ~ .
I ~ p i e ~ e n rural
~in~ ~ a n a ~ ~ m~enns tt i ~ ~ i oreform,
nal technically r e n ~ v ~ ~rural
~ng
power nc’nvorks and reali~inga unified electricity price for urban and rural areas in the
same power n e ~ o r kwith the same q u a l i ~of electricity arc the current objectives of rural
power system deveiopmen~.It will take three to five years. The task o f this r e f o ~i s
mainly to s i m ~ ~ i fthe
y ~ ~ a n a g e structure ~ to solve the chaos in rural e l e c ~ ~ c i ~
n ~ e ~ ~ and
pricing, targeted at realising unified maIiagement, unified a c ~ o u n t i nand ~ ~ a uni~ed
electricity price for urban and rural power networks. Technical renovation of the rural
power network aim to e the losses of lines and transformers. The estimated
inves~men~ is 180 bill~on art. The line loss rate will be reduced to below IS % from
,
Q~~anisation
ofthe SP
gy of power ~ d de~e~oprnent,
~ sthe SP~will o ~ s ~ ~ e
le d e v e l o p ~ ~byn relying
~ on technical progress, mher d e e p e n ~ n ~
r ~ f ando ~~ d e n ~ open
n g policy.
In additio~to focusin n ~ d ~ eresearch n ~ and l staff t r a i n ~ nthe
~ ~SP ha
echnology pilot projects, namely clean coal power g
y c o i i s ~ ~ a t i oand
n e ~ e c t saving,
~ c ~ e~
as well as a ~ o ~ ~ u ~ e informati ~ised
the $16” has focused on bath international
omestic ~ n ~ c i sources.
ng
’s power i n d u s ~is still m ~ u o task. ~ s~~e r n ~ t i g a tin
i~~
d ~ ~ ~due ~ the
c to l t increase in electri
in 1997 in China was only 0.21 kW,
e i e c ~ i consu~ption
c~~ acco~te~
world average. It i s planned that the nation’s total installed capaci
W in 2010, the na~ionwidepower ne
ect being at the centre. In order to achieve the goals, SP will ~ u8 ~
policy of
change that must take place is that the electric power sector
ented to the market rnechanism. The
pr~vides8 good o p p o ~ for n ~the~power sector to make
itself. These ~nclude:
2. Low a ~ i n i s ~ a t i efficiency
on
~ u ~ the n gpast 20 years, r e f Q of ~ the Chinese economy has u ~ ~ ~ r ag rapi o ~ e
de~e~opment. Supplies o f c o ~ o d i t have
~ e ~become a b ~ d while ~ t prices
~
de~~eased. To compete in the market, manu no effort to i
a ~ ~ n ~ sand ~ ~a ~t oi ~ their
o~ t es e ~ ~ ~ e ever, Chi~a's
i n d ~ does s ~ not face such p~ssure.lt still o p ~ a ~ aecsc o r d ~ nto~ ~ l a ~ ~ n ~ ~ ~0
~ o d u ~and e s has a ~ ~ n oelectric
~ ~ pl ~y win~selling.
r
The gene ratio^ cost has been ~ ~ c ~ e a year s i ~ byg year. The g ~ e r a ~ oand n
~ r ~ ~ ~ i sindices
s i o nare very low: for ~ n s ~ n thec ~ na~~onal
, net ~ o n s u ~ rate~ ~ is~ o n
about 400 ~ W (standard h coal); the line loss rate is a b o 7%. e s fw
~ ~ These ~ n ~ i c are
b e h i n ~the world's average level.
3. ~ c i p r~~ bg~ e m
Under the ~ a d ~ t i omonopoli~s
~ ~ a ~ of the power i n ~ u tos gain ~ ~ more b e ~ e ~ t the
s,
o r s to ~ a i n t aaj higher
o p e ~ ~ ~strived ~ rate o f e ~ e ~ ~ At i ~ same
i c the . time, the cen
~ o v e ~ ~encourag~d
ent ~ ~ vin the e power
~ plant
~ by i ~ s~u ~t has~ ~
~ s ~~ o t ~ sgoiices
'anew p~~~~l ~ m rate', 'QW p ~ ~ one n t rate'. "bus the e ~ e ratec ~ ~o ~~ ~ ~~ n~ u
i n ~ ~ ~every
a s ~year
d with new power plants pat into
average rate in an areas was about 0.47 ~a~~~
0.67 ~ ~ ~ o r n ~p with~ d the~average ~ncome
h of .~ h ~ n epeop
se
other c o m ~ ~ d ~ t the
i e sprice
, of electricity in China is
If the power shortage was an obstacle to develop
the electricity rate gradually became a new barrier to the growth of China's ~ c Q ~ o ~
To maintain a sustainable development of the national economy thorough reform ofthe
electric power i n d ~issurgently
~ needed.
To ~mp~emen~ing reform, the SP has set forth a ‘four~s~ep’ r e s ~ c ~ r ~i na ~m e w The~ ~ ~ .
period from the e s t a b l i s ~ e n ot f the SP in 1997 to the t e ~ ~ ~ a of~ the ion
Electric Power was the first step in ~ e a l corporate ~ ~ ~ nr ~~ s ~ c ~From i n 19 ~ ,
the SP will c o n t ~ n ~toe i n t e n s i ~~~ s ~ ~ ~ w
~~~~~ gc ,~the
~ n~ period
v e ~ m e n~t n c t ~ o from
n s those of e n t e ~ ~ sas
e sf o ~ ~ o ~ s ~
2.
3.
4.
5.
In
to
ower plants, and a w e l l - r e ~ l a t ~ dt , e c ~ i ~ a ~ ~ ~
wifl be open to all power plants. The SP and a111
r~tionswill run the power n ~ ~ o r k
r i s ~ / l e person
~ ~ l and e c o n o ~ i e
after 2020, the f o ~ step
h of the reform, the Chinese power indus
~ a t ~ ational a ~ v a n e elevel,
will t~~~ a p p r ~ ~ i the ~ ~o~ing
~ a t i ~ topn alevel.
~
7.4.3 ~bstaclesip2 ~ ~ t ~ b l the
i ~Power
h i ~ ~
ow to acceIe~tethe pace of reform and smoothly make the ~ ~ s ~ t fkom i o ne ~ i s t ~ n g
~ o n d ~tot a~ ~~ ~~ ks e ~ - o ereetric ~ e ~ power
~ e d i n ~ u are s ~the q u ~ s t of~ otoday.
~ ~ The
c ~must
~ b s ~ athat e ~ be r e ~ o v to ~ dachieve the ~~0~ goals are as foI~ows"
plants are not real comp~n~es. In fact, they me just s
of their necessary powers held by other higher
e ~ o n g ~togthe SP+Thus many of the key ~ n c t ~ w o~s
run d i r ~ c t ~ory ~ ~ ~ ~ ebycthe t l SP
y and its s ~ b s i d i ~ ~ e
t cannot be estab~~shed* beca~ it ~ ~ e ~ ~ ~ e
d ~ ~ ~j ~n §g ~,and c er ~ ~ o n a b l ~ n e ~ § .
Here we face two major problems. The first one is the
rope^ right' issue i s based on the observable fact that un
the e n t e ~ r i § ~ins the power i n a ~ must s ~ be ~ ~ v o ~ v
aIloc~t~ ando ~~ ~ e ~of their t i property.
~ n In fact, it is a p~oblemof how the ~n~~~~~~will
be able to manage and operate itself. The second one i s the ~ r Q b of~ §eparatin e ~
t and e n t e ~ ~~s e~ c ~Upi to o now,
n ~ the ~ t~~aitional ad~inis~~t~ve
s basically u n c h ~ ~ e although
d, the SP was establish
wer was t e ~ ~ n a t e C d . ~ e ~ with
l y ~such
the s t ~ c of~ ~e ~ o rights, p e~ ~ ~ t o i ~m ~~ ~ ~ s a ~ ~
1also r e ~ unr~solv~d
~ n [I].
the ~ l e c ~ price c i ~ is quite c ~ n ~ s e
. ~ ~e$onomic c e reform began in ~ ~ i ~ a ,
s has been ~plementea.But the e ~ e c ~ ~ ~ ~
e ~ o v e ~ b~~ ce an~the s~e electric i n ~ u i ss consi
~
a ~ ~ the~ cOv~rall
t e c o ~ and ~ ~ syt ~ d a ~ofd living. T h e ~ e ~ ~ r ~ ~
r e ~ o ~ a t i oofn the power market is rigorously l ~ ~ to~the~ gene e a
f a ~ v e r s i ~~ni v~e ~s ~ e ndifferent
t,
hnts can be economicallycla
4. Small hydro power or thermal power p ~ a n constructed
~s s ~ are
by focal g o v e ~ m e n t They
y by local power ~ o m p ~and
u s u a ~ ~mn ~ esell
s electricity a c c o ~ d i ~to~the
g price audite
by local gove~ments.
5, n ~ to f o r e ~ ~e n~ ~ e ~ rTa~ get
a1 power p ~ a sold ~ . to ~ o ~ §n ~ c t
s efurads
in solme regions, several t h e ~ apower ~ plant8 have been sold
to the agreement of sale regional power companies tee
that this kind o f ~ e ~power a l plant will sell a certain amount of e i e c ~ ~ cto y grid
~ tthe
each year at a 6 e ~ i price.
n
~ ~ c ~peak
~ aload i ~.
s e c a p a ~ kt/,
t the cost of loss load, the second way is ~ r e ~ e ~Ue d .
Because it is d i ~ ~ utol get
above ~ o n ~ e ~~ u~ a o~ (7.5)
on n can be r e ~ ~ a asn g ~
5can be ap ~ i ~ a t e found
l y by the following ~ ~ o c e as
d~e in Fi ~~~~
~ ~ ( t )
LDC in the ~~~~e is the load ~ u r curve ~ t formed ~ ~ ~After~~ ) n. a n
~ ~ from
duration cuwe become C , With the same L O P A we can nd a point in ELDC, the
abscissa of which is erefore, the section of line A r e ~ r e ~ e the
~ t sc a ~ ~ i
~ ~ ~ ~ eAW i ~ Thus
e n we
I t can s ~ ~ s tthe~ f~ ~t e~ I equa~~on
o ~ ~ g
a ~ ~ to e r~ a ~ the~ n e~ c ei s s n~c ~ a c reserve
i ~ an
in[: ~ ~ ~ ~ acapaci~,
r i o nwe can draw up ~ ~ n ~with a c ~ s
~ a p aof~ the ~ system
t ~ is not eno
; in ~e~~ these ~ o n s will u ~s ~ ~
~ s ~ e n e ~ cost
af c o n ~ ~ r n ethe, a ~ s~ ~o ~onot
~ inch
l ~
cost b e ~ ~ ~ e ,
I
0.9 1 *
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 I7 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1
(a) September
~ e ~time i s T, . The n u ~ b of
is 27, and the set of s h o u ~ load e ~h ~ are~ t , ,r t, ~an
r e ~ ~ e c tand
~~~~y,
1, -t- I,, -t t, = 8760
~ l ~~ oc n ~s in~ the
i ~ peak,
~
e ~ ~s h o ~~ l ~and
~ f valley
: load ~ ~ r i are
o ~A,,s A, an
r ~ s p e c ~ i ~and , calculated as follows:
e ~ yare
242
I_-I-- ._. I
Power System Restructuring
___- and Deregulation
(7.10)
Mp id, tETV
ence we can d ~ t ~ ~the
i naverage
e cost of electricity for the peak, s h ~ u l ~and
e r valley
load p e ~ ~ as
o~s
~ of
The ~ v e cost ~ ~~ le ~ isc thus~
e for ~the year ~
(4.13)
ra and is,, are average marginal costs €or the p
s respectively, and are c a l ~ ~from o n The a ~ e time
l a e~ q~~ a~ ~ ~(7.6). ~ used
~ e
costs u ~ ~ ~ eforca real i ~ system are s ~ ~ in
~ cpower w Table
n 7.3.
7.5.3 ~ ~ e c ~~ ~ i~
~ ~ ~i i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~w~~
i~ ~Q~~~~
e~ r ~ - ~ ~ ~
~ w ~ ~~~e~
7 the ~ ~ t i ~ electric d e shortage which last
As a c ~ ~ s e q ~many c e , plants suffered a 1
~ ~ power
first t h e . T h e ~ f ~ the
r e income and ~ ~ of the
n plants
e were~ ~
of m a ~ the n ~p ~ v ~ n cp~oa~l e cr o ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ o
s and ~ i ihe
~dispat~h, ~ p ~ e ~ flows
e ~r alon
lly died off. Owing cap the emph
i n ~ l u d~~n~~~
~ ~ ~ n s~ui ,n ~ xand
i a i n ~ ~The ~ ~i i. ~ j ~ a n g ~ o ~~ ey sr ~ eisman
~~~~~c
isolated system. The ~ o source w mix~ of ~ the: n o ~ h power
w ~ ~system
~ iat the end of 19
shown in Table 7.4 and F i ~ 7.7. ~ ~Wee can see that in Shaanxi a d ~ i ~ ~ ~r ~ x~ ~ ~n cae s
electricity is mainly s~~~~~~~ by c o a ~ - ~power
r e ~ plants; in Gansu and ~ ~ n ~~ hr a~ i v ~ n ~
more than half the electricity is supplied by hydro power plants. Therefore9 u ~ ~
disp~~chiRg in the n ~ ~ power w esystem ~ make a significant profit.
~ can
i I
I 40%
(a) ~ e r ~power
a l
~ ~ a a 4025
~ i 44.6% 988 17.5% 5013 34.2%
Gansu 2668 29.7% 2285 40.4% 4953 33.7%
In@& 400 4.4% 2080 3 ~ * ~ % 2480 I&9%
~ ~ n
1924 ~ 21.3%
x ~ 302 ~ 5.3% 2224 15.2%
Total 9017 100% 5455 100% 14671 100%
e 7.5 ~ o nbenefits
~ ~ i ~
o f interco~ection~
39318
Gamu ~ ~ ~ ~Energy i a n g ~ 0 -24821
~ ~ @OSc e ~3 . 4 ~~ ~ 7 ~ ~ ~1.78287 Q ~
Fixed Cost 9.71239 ~ ~ ~ ~ -5 8
Lmd E n e r ~ I8747 f 8747
~ e n ~ r a tEnergy
in~ x 8747 8~49
~ i ~~ x~Energy~ a~ 0 ~ ~ ~ e-10078
~ ~ e r ~ tCost
;on 1,04226 0.19944
Fixed Cost 3.37173 1,19632
Load Energy 30079 30079
G e ~ e ~Energya t ~ ~ 3095 I 47088
ia E x ~ h a ~ Energy
ge 872 17009
~ ~ e rCost ~ t ~ o ~ I. ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ 36 D ~ ? ~
Fixed Cost 4.27124 ~ . ~ 9 8 ~ 4
Totat ~ ~ ~ ~Cost t i o 35,59297
n 33.294~4
Total
~ n ~ ~Benefits ~ ~ o ~0 e c ~ 2.29884- -
Electric Power Industry R e ~ t ~ incChina
~ ~ n ~ 2
Effects of prices on interconnecting benefit d i s ~ i b ~ ~ i ~ n
(7.15)
i othen same at the two nodes of a ~ r ~ n c ~ .
u ~ are
~ ~ s ~ ~factors
is obvious when we define f C k j fby cments as shown In ~~~a~~~~~ ~ , 2
because both I(,)! and IWt ~ a ~ nthe~ same
a i values
~ at the two nodes o f ~ ~ k~, c h
~ o w e ~ine powerr ~ s ~ s ~ ea m~ a ~ ywe I y power instead of c u ~ Thas
s ~us~ u a ~ use e ~we~ ~
§ ~ i op~~l ~~this v es ~ ~ ~is also
~ ~true n t we use power to defme d i s ~ i ~ u tfactors.
e when i~n
~ s s u m the s the initial and terminal nodes of branch k are U, and U , . Thus
e v o l ~ g e at
the r ~ s ~ e c t i powers
ve are
47-16)
Tlie powers at the W O nodes supplied by source I are
8 Power System Reshucturing and Deregulation
As ~ c n ~ above,
~ ~ there ~ rkvo ~ ~ o b l e m
n e are re~ated
$ to load flow a n ~ ~ y ~ ~ s
, namely the ~ i s ~ i bfactor ~ n and the loss ~llocatio~
~ t ~problem probl
the ~ i s ~ ~factor
~ ~~ ~~ i b5 ln e ~ .
For a s p ~ ~o i~ ~e e~ c~ao ~n ~~ ~gof
Q an ~ Q w e~r y ~one e o~ , ~the t
~ can ~ ~
Ihe or ~ ~ by a loa s ~ ~ ~
t i Q nof each g ~ ~ ~ r afor
e d i s ~ ~ ~ ~factors t o er
s N nodes, N , gene~at5rsand N, branc
ctars d e ~ n by~ de q ~ t i ~o7~. 1 $ ~ ,
&E the ~ ~o~erat~ng c ~ ~ o n ~~ i e ~ ~~ ~ ~
~ ~ e ~1afor~~Q r r k i s ~ ~ c ~
e~ ~ c o ~~~ o nee inn ~o~tgoing
ns ~ lines at
their c ~ ~ ~asnshown ~ s in , equa~~on (7.22).
vo~tageat node i yields
(7.26)
where
= [PiG,P? >.
*. ,P,G f'
b r a ~ ise ~~ Q W hence
~ ; the eIeme~ts
us i l l ~ ~ ~this
a t with
e a simple p
have the f Q l ~ Q wrelationship:
~g
c a l is ~ ~ o r Q uand
ove ~ a t h e ~ a t ~model
l~sslessbranch as adopted in [25].
1
s , does need not to ~ ~ thev ase
(7.28)
(7.30)
k=l
where is the loss allocated to generator 2.
~ Q w e v ethe r ~ loss allocation robleni can be an independent problem. ~ h ~ r e f ~
need a ~athematicalmodel for problem to allocate loss to each load or each gen
To allocate the loss to each load, the key step is to calculate the losses of
~ j ( j ~ 1 , 2 , . . . , N ) . consists of two parts, as follows:
Firstly, the sum o f loss APg in the incoming line i j E ( j ), where r- ( j )denotes the
set of the in~ominglines of node j . S~cond~y,
the loss of @, allocated "CO line ij
which can be calculated according to equation (7.24). Note that k ($ i j E l?- (9) . Tbe loss
balance equations are as follows:
(7.31)
(7.33~
We can use a similar approach to foimulate the problem of allocating the loss to
generators. Based on the discussion above, we may conclude that to solve the di
factor or loss allocation pro~lem,we should first build and solve the linear
equation (7.26) or equation (7.3 1). However, this approach is not ef~cientand not flexible,
We will develop a very simple and efficient algorithm by means o f graph theory in the next
section.
25 Power System ~ e ~ ~ cand~~ er r ei ~nu l ~a t i o ~
i
equation (7.35) take the values at the terminal node of branc
(~.35)
~ r o b ~ofe load
~ s Raw anaiysi
below, we will use PDF and P
location problem respec~ively~
Power System ~ e s ~ c ~and
i n~ ge r e ~ ~ ~ t i
i by equation (7.25).
LA: Calculate loss allocation to the load of node i by e ~ ~ a (7.33).
~ ~ o n
r+
Do the follow^^ for all j , ij E (i).
F: Transfer the power of each generator at node i to nodej
.7
This chapter has described the Chinese power market that is an embryo
which the state retains ownership of the generator§ and some of
i n f ~ s ~ cbut~ is
~ ~pening
e , up the market to limited c ~ ~ p e t i t iEle
~n.
transmission loss methods have been proposed and examples of a simplified Chinese
power system have been used to demons~atethe advantages derived from such ~ e t h o d s .
s
§uppo~edby the ey Project of ~ a t i o n a~cience
~ ~oundationof
China. The authors would also like to thank IEEE for granting permission to reproduce the
~ a t ~ r i aclo§~ t a ~ n in
e dreference [ 181.
Electric Power ~ n d u s structuring
~ in China 2
[I] S.Q. Gao and P.L. Chi, Several Issws Arising During the Retracking of the Chinese Economy,
Foreign Language Press, 1997,
[2] J.P. Sun, Electric Power Industry in China 1999, China Electric Power Information Center.
[3] W. Sweet and M. Hood, ‘Can China consume less coal?’, IEEE Spectrum, Vol.36, No.11,
November 1999, pp.39-47.
[4] M Hood and W Sweet, ‘Energy policy and politics in China’, IEEE Spectrum, “J01.36, No. 1 1,
November 1999, pp.34-38.
. .-
0.04
0.03
0.0
0.01
0
~
9 10 11 12- 13 14 15- 16 17 1
- -..
g for $ ~ a ~ and
~ e e l ~ ncost xi
rprise ~ ~ n a g eNo.
~ 1,z 1999,
~ ~ pp.
~ 16-1
, 8.
pp.~405-1413.
[21] CXgiRE Task Force 38.04.03, ‘ ethods and tools for transmission costs’, Elech, No. 174,
~ c t o b e 1997.
r
n p r o ~ d i~ngt e r c o ~ e c t eopera~ions
~ services by the end user Case
tioopral Science ~ o u n ~ a t ~ Workshop,
on Nove~ber1996.
aliana and Mark Phelan, ‘Al~oca~ion of transmission losses to
in a ~mpetitiveenviro~ent’,IEEE Transac~ionson Power stem^, Vol. 15, No. 1, ~ ~ b
2000, pp.143-150.
Tomas G o ~ a l e zGarc~a,and
er losses’, IEEE Xra~sactionon
Canada
In recent years, major changes have been introduced into the s ~ c ~ofr electric e power
utilities all over the world. The reason for this was to improve ef~ciencyin the
the power system by means of deregulating industry and opening it
e~tion.This is a global trend and similar ctural changes have o c ~ u ~ el~ewhere
ed
in other industries, i.e. in the teleco~unicationsand air~ine~ ~ s p o r t a ~indus~ies.
ion The
net effect of such changes will mean that the ~ansmissi5n~ generation and dis~ibution
syst~msmust now adapt to a new set of rules dictated by open r n ~ ~ eIn~ s .
trans~~ssion sector of the power utility, this adaptation may require th
~ o d i ~ c a ~ iofo ninterconnections between regions and countries. further more^ the
ptation to new generation patterns will also necessitate a ~ p ~ t i and o n require in~reased
xibility and availability o f the transmission system. Addin to these problems has been
the growing env~ronmen~al concern and constraint upon he righ~s-of-way for new
i n $ ~ l a t i ~ and
n § facil~ties.Yet further d e m ~ d are l ~ made upon u t ~ ~t i ~ ~ e
§ c o n t ~ u a lbeing
supply increased loads, improve reliability, delivery energy at
with ~ ~ ~ power ~ ~ quality.
v The e dpower industry has respon
the ~ e c ~ o l oof~ flexible
y AC ~ansmission systems or
e n c o ~ ~ ~ sas whole
e$ family of ower electronic controll
achieved maturity within the industry whilst some others are as yet in the design stage.
FACTS have been d e ~ n e dby the IEEE [4] as:
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
A power efectroiiic based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more ac
transmission system parameters to enhance con~ol~abi~ity
and increase power transfer capability.
F a ~ i c u l ~for
l y transmission systems, FACTS technology offers the f o ~ l o w i n~ossibilit~es:
~
6p Preve~t~on of cascading outages by limiting the ef3ects of faults and equip men^ f a i l ~ e .
ampi in^ of power system oscillations.
Static var compensators (SVC) is an example of a mature FACTS applica~io~. Other more
novel ap~lications(i.e. STATCOM, UPFC) are being developed and tested to provid~
increased flexibility, enhance stability arid transmission capacity in the operation of power
systems. The present environment of deregulation and constraints on building of more
tra~smiss~on ~aci~itiesprovide compelling reasons to develop FACTS c o n t r o ~ ~The ~~s~
~ p r o v e m e n tof a deteriorating power quality will be an additional focus for FACTS
controllers of the future,
* to i n c r e a ~the
~ power transfer c a p a b of networks, and
~ tr~smission
~~~
260 Power System Restmcturing and ~ ~ r ~ ~ l a
Power flow over a transmission system is limited by one or more o f the f o ~ l o w i n[4]:
~
system stability,
loop flows,
vol~agelimits,
1 limits of either lines or terminal equi
hart circuit level limits.
V o ~ t a c~ eo ~ is~accomplis~ed
o ~ by a c o ~ b i n a t ~ oofn genera~orreactive ent,
fixed or mechanica~ly s w ~ ~ c ~reac~o~s~ca~acitors
ed and m e c ~ a ~ ~ c a ~ On
r s . reactive equipment is used for coarse control while the ~ e n e ~ ~ ~ o r
~ a n s f ~ ~ e~~~t
prov~dev e ~ i con~ol.
e~
8.2.5 i ~ Limits
High ~ ~ o r t - ~Level c ~ ~ t
~ ~ can be quite difficult and expen§ive to c o ~ e c ~
The p r o ~ ~ eofmexce$sive s h o ~ - c i r c ulevel
dition is made to the ~ a n s m i s s i ~system.
n This can result in
sho~-ci~cuit levefs c r ~ e ~ i up
n g in sub-~ansmiss~on equipment.
262 Power System Restructuring and
Y
The IEEE definition of a FACTS controller is:
A power electronic based system and other static equipment that provides control of one or more ac
transmission system parameters.
The technology concerning FACTS is well known in the low-power industrial applications
field, but is relatively less well known in the utility power field. This technology is
intimately concerned with developments in the follow~ngtwo areas [S]:
Power electronic switching devices and pulse width modulated (PWM) converters.
Control methods using digital signal processor (DSP) and ~icroprocessortechnology.
Developments in both areas are advancing rapidly, and need to occur further before
a~plicationsin the power utility field appear econo~callyattractive. App~icationsof PE in
the power utility field still need further research in the following areas:
active harmonic filtering and reactive/active power support,
single-node or area-wide application,
c~mpensationof non-linear loads, and
transient performance of the controller.
Th~~~st~r ThyristQ~
Max. voltage 8000 6000 1700 2500 3000 1000
rating (V)
Max. current 4000 6000 800 800 400 100
rating (A)
Voltage Sym./ Sym./ Asym. Asym. Sym./ Asym.
blocking Asym. Asym. Asym.
Gating pulse Current Voltage Current Voltage Vo~~ge
Conduction 1.2 2.5 3 4 1 .a Resistive
drop 0')
Switching 1 5 20 20 20 100
frequency
(kw
~evelopment 10000 10000 3500 5000 5000 2000
target max.
voltage rating
(V)
Development 8000 8000 2000 2000 2000 200
target max.
current rating
T r a ~ ~ ~ ~power
o n a lconverters used line-commuta~edthyristors as their active switch~ng
elements, but next-generation converters will exploit self-commutated CTO thyristors in
the near-term future, and will probably exploit lGBT and/or MCT devices in the long- re^
future. The basic PE building blocks will comprise either the:
Control ~ e ~ and
h Do~ P~/ ~ ~
i c r ~ ~ r ~ cTechnology
essor
Control eth hods based on either the time or freque~cydomain are feasible. These ~ e q ~ i $ e
i n s ~ n ~ n e o monitoring
us techniques and complex computation of switching ~ n c t i o n sfor
the firing of the converter switches. A comparison of the control methods in the two
d o ~ a i is
n~ made in Table 8-3.
wing to the complex switching functions required and the c o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ tburden ional
necessa~,exten~iveuse of DSPs and microprocessor technology will be required in a
power system environment. Utilities have some experience with HVDC ~ e c ~ o l oSVCs g~,
rotection relays which use microprocessor-based controls. However, the
application of FACTS devices is likely to be at a greater level of complexity than anything
Flexible AC ~ r a ~ ~ ~ i sSystems
s i o n (FACTS)
known previously within the utility environment. This will require careful considera~ions
of r e l ~ a b i land
i ~ ease of use within the utility environment.
8.4.P ~ ~ n Concepts
~ ofa~~ansmission
~ e ~ ~ ~ ~
A simplified example of power flow in a loss-less transmission line, with inductive
i n gac systems with voltages V , and V, is shown in F i g ~ r e8.1.
impedance X,, c o ~ n e ~ ~two
The transmi~edpower P is given by equation (8.1) and also shown in the figure. From
equation (8.1) it is evident that power flow can be controlled by varying 5, Y,, X, or the
angles 6, and 6,:
P = (V,. VJX,) sin(&,- 6,) (8.1)
n
~ l spower transmission
.1 F u ~ ~ d ~ r n eonf AC
Transmitted power P can be regulated by control of any system parameter by a FACTS
controller, or any combination o f controllers, as indicated in Table 8.4.
66 Power System Restructuring and Deregulatbn
voltage support,
and
transient s ~ b ~ lim~rovement,
~ty
power system oscillation damping.
A l ~ ~ o u gmany
h versions of SVCs exist [9] (i.e. variants are TSR, TG
common one (Figure 8.2a) usually employs (either thyristor or mec~a~ically) switch
capacitors and ~ ~ ~ s t o r - c o nreactors
~ o l ~ e(TCRs).
~ With an appro
the capacitor switching and reactor control (Figure 8.2b), the var
continuo~sl~ and rapidly ~ e ~ ~apacitive/inductive
~ e n values. It maintains the steady state
and dynamic voltage at a bus within bounds, and has some ability to control stabili~,but
not much to control active power flow.
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) 267
S ~ a t ~ cQ n ~ ~ (ST e ~ s ~ t o ~
The S T A ~ aCsolid-state ~ ~ ~ voltage source inverter coupled with a transformer, is tied to
a transmission line. A STATCOM injects an almost sinusoidal current, of variable
, the point of connection. This injected current is almost in quadrarure with the
m a ~ i t u d eat
line voltage, thereby e ~ u l a t i ~ang inductive or a capacitive reactance at the point of
connection with the transmission line. The hnctionality of the S ~ A T C Omodel ~ is
verified by regulating the reactive current flow through it. This is useh1 for r e g u l a ~ ~the n~
fine voltage.
An advanced static var compensator (ASVC) [ 101 using a voltage source inverter (VST)
is shown in Figure 8.3a and its V-i characteristic is shown in Fi 8.3b. The VSI is
storage capacitor to generate an output AC voltage V,. When V, equals
AC bus, the VSX draws no current; when Vo > V, the current drawn by
the leakage impedance of the transformer is purely capacitive. On the other hand, when V,
< V then the c ~ e ndrawnt is purely inductive. The ~ n c t ~ o npael ~ o ~ a n ocf ethe A
superior to the t r ~ d ~ t i o nSVC.
a~
DC storage capacitor
(a)
Figure 8.3 (a) STATCOM application and (b) its I/-I characteristic
2 Power System ~ e 5 ~ and
c ~ e~ r ~n ~ ~l a ~ i o n
The ~ ~ isValso C
superior to the conventional SVC for the fo~lowingreasons:
on and to prod~cepra~ticallysinus0
is s h o ~8.3b.Tlie
~ ~STATC
~ i ~ ~
mat~hingthe ~ ~ r ~ i
mechanical power and the generator electrical power during system faults. This can be
done by i n t r o d u c ~either
~ ~ a series or shunt braking resistor. Shunt resistors are p r ~ ~ e r a b ~ e
because they are less expensiv~and easier to coordinate in a system with any
and lines. Moreover, a §hun~-connecte~ thyristor-controlled resistor with a radial
transm~ssionline can be used effec~~ve~y to damp power swing oscillations [13] in a
transmission system.
These systems are esigned to provide post-fault AC system speed control by
compensatin~for fault accelerating power by dissipation in a shunt resistor. A pair ofback-
to-back ~ y ~(Figure ~ s8.4)~ doeso the~ application of the shunt resistor, The application of
braking resistors should take place as soon as possible after fault detection and they should
not be switched out until the derivative of the swing curve becomes negative. The ~atingof
70 Power System R ~ s ~ and
~ D c~ ~~l a nt i o~ n
the resistor should be such that the kinetic energy injected by the fault sho~ldbe
before the generators slip the first pole.
-&
.4 Dynamic brake application
asically LT changers regulate the output voltage when subjected to variations in the input
voltage due to c h ~ g i n gsystem conditions. M e c h ~ i c aversions
~ were used widely in the
i n d ~ fors ~many years. These mechanically operated load-tap hanging transfo
now have t h ~ § ~ o r - o p e r a ~switches
ed (Figure 8.5) to do the same function faster [14]. This
permits the improvement of system stability and damping of the power system osci~l~tions.
suggested the use of a SMES system for SSR damping of turbine generator units. A SMES
unit has been in com~ercialuse on the BPA system.
I Superconducting
Coil
8.4.3 Series C o ~ t r ~ l l e ~ ~
ach~evedwith minimal losses and harmonics. There also exists the possibi~ityof op~ra~ing
in a vernier mode where partial conduction of the lhyristor path during each-kalf-cycle is
used to circulate inductive current through the capacitor and boost its effective ohmic
value. One advantage of such small-signal ~ o d u ~ a ~isi othen control of S
Transmission line
5% sections
Breaker switched
VCS
The SSSC, a solid-state voltage source inverter [21,43,44], coupled with a transfornm, i s
connected in series with a transmission line. An SSSC (Figure 8.9) injects an almost
sinusoidal voltage, o f variable m a g n ~ ~ din
e ,series with a transmission line. This injected
voltage is almost in quadrature with the line current, thereby emulating an inductive or
capacitive reactance in series with the transmission line. This emulated variable reactance,
inserted by the injected voltage source, influences the electric power flow in the
transmission line.
dc bus
er c o ~ ~ r o ~cu~ently
ler in use is the ~ ~ ampe~ ~ [22] to ~~ o ~ n t eS r S
was first o b s ~ ~ ate dthe $quare utte ~roject.SSR ins~bilitiesare at. times an
side effect of us~ngmec~anical~y controIled series capacitors to a t r ~ n s m i s s ~ ~
The ~ e n e of~ a~ ~ s ~series
i ~ ca~acitors
g are to lower the line’s i m p ~ ~~ ~~ cc ~r ~e, oa w~ ~~ r
crossover. Earlier firing causes the impedance of the combined circuit to be more negative
than that with the capacitor alone, thus de-tuning the circuit. F u r t h e ~ o r eb~modulation
~
of the firing angle, the impedance can have a powerful damping effect at any unwanted
frequency below the main frequency. Similar effects can be achieved with HVDC controls.
A l ~ e ~ a t i v eactive
l ~ , filters can also be used.
Transm
-set time
resonance damper
he team at the Kayenta ASC [24] showed similar results that the TCSC
exhibits an inductive impedance at sub-synchronous frequencies~and the danger from SSR
problems was alleviated. However, the main SSR danger resulted from the unco~troiled
portion of the series capacitance in the transmission tine.
PE switches (either thyristors or GTO thyistors) can be used to interrupt AC currents. The
thyristor depends on current interruption at the natural zero crossover point of the fault
current, whereas the GTO thyristor may intempt at a specified current setting (which is
below its interruption capability). Such static switches have been applied mainly to
distribution systems where the switch ratings are lower [25]. The static breaker can have
two parts in it, one a static switch and another a current limiter (Figure 8.1 1). When a fault
is experienced, the c~rrent-~imiting switch is firstly triggered to take over the fault current,
and the main static switch is opened. This forces the fault cment into the current-limiting
path owing to the series inductive element. The non-linear arrestor across the static switch
is used to contain the overvoltages [26].
arrestor
P
I V’
Parallel lransformer V’ I
h
V’
line I
.13 I ~ ~ ~power
r ~ flow
i ~controller
e (IPFC)
fS
A s c h e n i ~ t i~~~ a g r aof
m a phase shifter 1311 is sho
a ~ c o r n p l by h ~ ~ or subtracting a variable vol
~ ~adding
o ~ e isn o~tained
~ fkom a
VB
4 - -
V'
V'
V - Input voltage
i - Linecurrent
back c o n f i ~ ~ t i considered
on in Section 8.4.6. The advanced phase s h i ~ ehas
r the ability
to control all three parameters affecting power ~ansmission:phase angle, voltage and
edance. For this reason, it has also been called u n i ~ e dpower flow contro~ler~ ~ P F C )
Il28l.
Strictly speaking, HVDC transmission does not fit in with the definition provided for
ACTS controllers. However, HVDC systems have been a dominant player for such a long
time in the usage of PE controllers for transmission that their role in promoting high PE
c o n ~ o ~ l ecannot
rs be overlooked. With the latest developments in PE t e c ~ o l H
oV~ ~C
sys~emswill play an even greater role embedded in AC systems. Trad~tiona~ly, HV
~ r ~ s m i s s i oisnused only for special situations and applications:
~ong-distancebulk power ~an§missionwhere it was cheaper than the AC a l ~ e ~ a t i v e ~
back~~o-backasynchronous interconnections, and
in~~rconnect~onsusing a submarine (or underground) cabie,
ace ~ a f i s ~ ~ ~ s i ~ ~
iona transmission, power is electronically controlled, and hence an
~~~C line can be used to its fill thermal c e converters are adequate~yrated.
F u ~ h ~ ~ oowing r e , to its high-speed control, line can help a p ~ a l ~AC e l line to
maintain stability (as long as the E'NDC con not sustain ~ ~ u ~ failures). a ~ o n
~ o w e v e r owing
, to its expensive impleme C ~ n s m i s s i o nis used only for
special situations and appiications. An alternative a ~ ~ g e m with e n ~a con~olledseries
capacitor in an owing transmission line may provide similar advantages at a lower cost.
~ o w e v ein ~ ,i n t e ~ a AC-DC
~d systems, it is now possible to have a DC link in parallel
an ac link, Ln such systems, and there are a n ~ ~ b ofe rsuch instances (i.e.
e h e DC link can be used to increase the power
~ hetc.),
Intertie, C h ~ d r ~ p u r - P ~ dtie,
~ a n s ~ i over ~ e the
d AC system and provide additional d ~ p i n wheng requ~redfor stability
ac~-~o- ~ ~ ~ v ~ ~ e ~ s
Up rill now both converters have been line-cominu~tedand therefore havs had control
only over the direction of active power flow. With the use of self-commutated GTO
converters (Figure 8.15), reactive and active power flow can now be controlted in any one
of four ~uadrants,since there is no restriction &om the commutation voltage of the valves.
Additionally, use of PWM techniques will assist in the minimisation of harmonics
generated by the converters and lowering the overall cost of the terminal equipment. We
can expect further applications o f BB ties at Iower cost and improved performance.
I J
AC systm1 I AC system 2
Active and reactive power can
flow in either direction
.I5 Force-commutafed BB link
In this respect, two recent deve~opi~ents
that will have significant reper~uss~ons
for
future ties are:
capacitor commu~atedconverters (CCC) [36], and
controlled series capacitor converters (CSCC) 1373.
Both these t e c ~ i q u e srely on utilising capacitors in series with the converter wit
effect that the reactive power demande~by the converter is effectively compensat
the series capacitors. This i s a ~ u n d ~ e n tdeparture
al from the previous HVDC converter
practice o f empIoying shunt capacitors for reactive power compensation. The beneficial
impacts o f the series capacitor are as follows:
The capacitor voltage assists in the commutation voltage for the converter which
allows operation with a very weak AC system.
Since the reactive power flow through the converter t r a n s f o ~ e ris reduc~d,the
d~mension$of the converter t r a n s f o ~ ecan
r be reduced.
The valve short circuit current is reduced to about 50% when ~omparedwith a
c o n v ~ n ~ o nconverter.
al
Since the AC filter is reduced in size, the load rejection overvolfages are much smaller.
Coupled with these trends, ~ a n u f a c ~ r eare
r s now offering more efficient, cont~nuously
tuned AC filters, active AC and DC filters, compact and modular outdoor valves and fully
digital controls. These new concepts are going to reduce the cost of converters and improve
reliability.
A new g e n ~ r a t ~of~DC
n cables is available based on polymeric i ~ s u ~ a tmater~a~
i n ~ instead
of the classic paper-oil insulation. The mechanical strength, flexibility and low weight of
the cables make them suitable for severe installation conditions. The cables use copper
conductors for submarine usage and aluminium conductors for land usage. Land cables
be inst~lledunder~oundby plough~ngtec iques or go overhea
2 Gotland 50 i80
65 Async~~~ou§
~terco~~6~ion
s
8.5.1 svc
bus voltage during the daily load bu~ld-upso that the 500/161 kV
m e r bank can be used less often.
bus at Sullivan during off-peak periods.
are c o ~ s i d e r ~STATCON
n~ a p p ~ ~ c aon
~ ithe
o ~C Q ~ O ~ W ~
d Electric Co. Some cost evaluations have been reported at
3 ~onference[ 121.
8.5.3 TCS
Power A u t h o r i ~(
e first t~ee-phaseTCSC 230 kV, 33
in Arizona [40]. For the requirement of inc
~ a n s i ~ i s s line
~ o nb e ~ e e nShiprock Subs~a~ion
and Siemens~okiajointly agreed t
yenta substation. In addition to the benefit of adjastable i ~ p e d a n c ethe
~
ed reactor can provide high-speed pro~ectionof the 15 ohm capacitor
section.
ith n ~ a n u f a ~ ~GB
~ r esuccessfully
r managed the install
ptember 1993 on a 500 kV line at Slatt subs~tionof the
TCSC consists of six series capacitor modules. Each modu~ehas
ohms at 60 Hz, in parallel with a ~~yr~sto~*control~ed inductor of 0.
of the ~ o d ~isiachieved
e by firing angle control.
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Z$~
regulates the substation 138 kV bus voltage by controlling six capacitor banks
Ars to reduce daily and seasonal voltage fluc~ationsto within acceptab~elimits.
The controllable rea~tivepower range of the shunt converter is from -160 to t-160 ~ V A r s
to Compensate for dynamic system disturbances.
The PFC is maintained at a level of 300 N W on the line between ig Sandy and Inez to
minimise system losses. Under severe contingency conditions, the UPFC controlle~line i s
capable of ~ a n s f e 950~ n MVA.
~
In order to increase the system reliability and provide flexibility
changes, the UPFC installa~ion allows the operation of the shunt
~ d e ~ e n d e nS tT A T ~ ~and
M the series converter as an independent
ible to couple both converters together either in shunt or series over a double control
e ~ o n c e ~ study
s, tools are require^ to test. the FACTS con~o~lers
as c o n c e p ~prototypes
~~ or before the er c o ~ ~ e service),
r ~ ~ The a ~
on ~ l e c ~ o m a ~ etransient
tic pro ) and the red-time power
ly available. Noweve these c o n ~ o l l e r sare still
Owing to the capital costs involved, FACTS d e s ~ ~ ewill r s seek to add featur
FACT^ c o n ~ o ~morel e ~viable, such as the feature of fault c ~ ~ l iem ~n t i~nwith
~
FOP the a p ~ ~ ~ c a t of
i o nS~T A T ~ O N ~ ,
value may be % ~ d if~ fde a ~ r e ssuch
ondition~ng(I.e. h a ~ i ~ n cancellation)
ic can also be provided along with
ower.
The author pays tribute to the many pioneers whose vision o f the FA
led to the rapid evolution of the power industry. Although it i
o f them i n d i v i d ~ a l ~ y ~c o n ~ ~ b ~ t iof
o nDrs
s N, ~ i n ~ o ~ ~ i
The author also than s wife Vinay for her considerabIe
this ~ a ~ ~ s c r i ~ ~ .
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[41] J.Urbank et al., ‘Thyristor controlled series compensation prototype installation at the Slatt 500
substation’, IEEE Transactions on Power Deliwy, Vo1.8, No.3, July 1993, pp. 1460-1469.
enderson, ‘Operating issues for FACTS devices An operations p l ~ i n pg e ~ ~ e c ~ i v e ’ ,
~
Asset management has been one of the most debated topics over the past decade, yet ofien
those words are used to label some very different processes. Asset management can range
from the ma~ntenanc~ and renewal regime associated with a specific indiv~dualor group of
assets to the management of a multi-billion-pound international portfolio of networks of
assets spanning a range of industries. This introduction explores the drivers of the
development of asset m ~ a g ~ m efrom n ~ a UK electricity distribution ~erspective.The
drivers for change have most often arisen from regulatory initiatives or from the ~nancial
position of new owners, with asset management evolving to meet each new challenge.
U n d e r s ~ d i n gthe drivers gives an insight as to why asset manage men^ means ~ ~ f f e r e n t
things to different players depending on where they are in the resmchtring of their
business.
In the years i~mediatelybefore privatisation, the electricity indushy 's finances and
investments were very much Treasury driven to meet the public sector borrowing
requirements. Compet~ngdemands for government investment meant that most e l ~ c ~ i c i ~
companies were required to curtail capital investment and were given annual targets to
return cash to the Treasury.
At this stage of developm~n~asset management was normally considered synon
with time-based planned maintenance. However, the constraint on the capital expendi~re
(Capex) investment meant that as little in the way of reinforcement or renewal was possible
and this brought about a focus of improving asset utilisation. U n s a t i s f a ~ t oassets
~ were
2 lation
Asset ~ a m a ~ ~ r l s eprovider
~ i c e business models beg^ to be a d o ~ ~ e
but in a variety o f ~ o ~Often s . initi~~lywith service level a g r e e ~ e n
relatively small asset ~ ~ a g group e ~and~ i nn~ e~~semial provider conb-actors, some
a ~ i moved
~ ~ s to adopt ~ o ~ c ao n1~ a c b~ se ~ e the e ~p ies and ou~ourcenon~core
a c ~ ~ v ito~ei x~ ts e ~ c~mpanies.
a~ b e n e ~ t were
s seen to be:
g ~ p e r a ~ i n~ gx p e n d i ~(r e
rent ~ v e sdeci ~ ~ t
ecisions from the doing,
ed a d~~ferent skill set f ~ o mthe ~xecut~on.
changes in pract~cesan
g to be contracted out b the ~ ~ o $ t
fied gets done (or
These chan~esmeant that comp to acquire additional s
ision making enabled a
i d expertise enabling Iarg
t e c ~ i c astaff.
l
The asset manager/servi~eprovider model has met with mixed su
become ~onfron~ationa~ drivers o f the service provider not neces
with those of the asset m 0th sides need experts, one to specify and o
d successive year-on-ye
o f unspeci~edpena~tiesan
e achievement of (c~mp~y- set^ per
Data mining, fault causation analysis and targeting of worst-s customers and most
ve to operate n e ~ o r k s .
dition monitoring to inforni selective refurbishment or renewal.
abi~i~-cen~ design,
e d engineer~ngand mainten~ce.
ing dormant and problem assets and imprQvingasset
y capital project management for smaller and smatle
~ a l u e - b a ~ procL~remen~.
ed
ovation in technology and processes.
for past i n v e s ~ e n t an
some 9 m o n t ~ sahead
end of the five year review period. At the same time indications of future income caps and
c e were published with 50% of the savings from mergers clawed back.
~ e r f o ~ a ntargets
The im~ediatereaction by PESs to the regulator’s initial tho~ghtsdepen~edupon the
robustness of their asset management scenario planning and their long-term strategic intent.
Some cQntinued much as before but overall the publication of the initial r~viewresults
created a drama~~c fall in capital i n v e s ~ e n orders
t and in the asset replacement con~acts
inarket with Gompanies that do least well in meeting their agreed targets financially
r e w ~ d i n gthose com~aniesthat do best by an exchange of penalty payments.
The uncertainty posed by Ofgem’s Information and Incentives Project in terms of what
will be incentivised, how p e r f o ~ a n c ewill be defined and measured has for many
companies effectively extended the moratorium in investment.
Companies need to consider how the required scale economies can be effected whilst at
the same time d e ~ i v e ~improving
i~g p ~ r f o ~ ~Somec e . companies may choose to ~ e f e ~
major new ~ n v e s ~ ~ commitments
ent and perhaps org~isationalchanges until there is
greater clarity about the rules of the next round of the regulatory game, but this brin
own risks of failure to deliver required improve~entssufficiently quickly. The u n c e ~ ~ n ~
high~i~hts the need for a robust frameworks for modelling and valuing the impacts of the
various organisational and investment opportunities against a range of scenarios.
The scope of asset management has developed with each previous sta
business and is therefore set to do so again.
r e s t r ~ c ~ r i nofgthe d~stributio~
For companies already recognised by the regulator as being frontier efEcient or as
leaders in effective asset management, but still being presented with a very si
in r~gula~ed income, a her radical change is essential to achieve the r
change in results and still remain at the frontier.
~ o ~ b i n i the n g manage~entof the two power distribution networks
v e n ~ r ecompany (2~seven)is LE’S and TXU’s innovative response
~ e r f o ~ challenge.
~ ~ c e Creating an outsourcing a ~ a n g e ~ withe n ~ the tran
vehicles and tools, etc., allows the shaxing of expensive ~esou~ces, S U G ~as
offices, IT, control, s~ategicana~ys~s and research, applying best practice
optimum solutions and delivering a range of services at best value for
allowing each company to retain is ownership, distribution licence and to
unique com~etitivearke et position should this be appropriate.
Such an approach creates the driver for the next evolutionary phase of asset
m ~ a g e m e n tand requires the separa~ingout and future comp~titiveassignme~tof the
responsibilit~esb e ~ e e assetn owner, asset governor, asset manager and operators.
ASS nc
~ e p ~ a t i nout
g the respons~bilities of governance from those of o ~ e r s h
management and operations to an organ~$ationdedicated to the creation and release of
value t ~ o u g hthe effective m ~ a g e m e nand
t exploitation of the assets.
92 ower System ~ e § ~ ~ c ~and
r ~i Ie ir ~~ ~ l a t i o ~
se, a v a i l ~ b i l i ~capacity
, and income ge~erationfrom
allows economies of
d maxim~s~ngthe returns from
sibly unique arke et p~sition
ent and operations to be ~ o n ~ a cout
t e to
~ the mo
a l of the asset governor is ~ e ~ e f oas
r ~ c i ~role r ean
e ~ ~ e ~ tand
i v eefficient
r require ntier u ~ d e r s t ~ ~of:
the g o v e ~ owill ing
vol~mesof servic
As has been seen, asset manage men^ is given a wide variety of int
industry and even within the electricity supply industry. Even with
i n t e ~ r ~ t ~may
~ i ochange
n -
with time particularly as the com~anylearn
~ypically,asset manage men^ has been seen as the core of the d
being p~marilyresponsible for the strategy of the network and
both are derived through teamwork and cooperation throughout
main areas of focus are asset and network p e r f o ~ a n c epolicy
~ and s t a n ~ ~ di sn ,v e s ~ e n t
and operating costs. The focus on the latter is t ~ o u g hwork reduction and a v o i d ~ c ewith
,
the operational groups focusing on productivity issues.
it or in^ is carried out and records collated, a ‘foo I’ for each item of
established and trends monitored.
This can be useful for predicting potential f a ~ l ~ ~ s correct~vem a i ~ ~ n ~ c e
Lace, which is normal~yless expensive than g a catas~ophicf a i l ~ e .
ines for ~ n a c c ~ ~ tperformance
~ble are unavai~able,collati
pu~ationenables ‘Qut~iers’to be identi~edand e x a ~ i n e d
~ e g r e eof comp~exityof the rnonito
remain %hesame - decide on the criteria for perfomm
ind~catorof po&entialv ~ i a t i o nfrom this s ~ and ~ ~ d
point in con~~nuousl
or of wear is the time it take
continuously loaded
profile in Outer ~ o ~ ~ o n .
trials are now in progress to s i ~ u ~ amany
t e yews' w o ~ ho€
onths. ~ n s p ~ of
~ othen oil and contacts at various i n t ~ ~ ~
within these trials s enable us to c o ~ our i initial
~ ~ asse~ionand d e ~ ~
e t e ~ ~ n i ma~ntenance
ng intervals for diffe~entlyloaded ~ a n § f o ~ ~ r ~ "
9.13.3
Apart from the routine oil condition tests mentioned ~ r e v i o u s l ~
circuit
, breaker t~mers
e arnoun~of wear on the o ~ e r a ~ imec~anism
n to be ~ o n ~ t o r e~d .~ n d ~o n~ e c ~ i
se of a simple and inex~ensivee ctronic timer when carrying out op
ry ins~ection(~ressureVessel
9.13.
Understand~~g
Long-term Asset Costs
If we are to ~nders~and the long-term costs of employing assets, then we must have a good
~ d ~ r s ~ dofi nhow g they perform in service and what t e c ~ i ~ u can e s be e ~ p ~ o y etod
xtend asset life or reduce the level of main~enancerequired, to them in service. As
ind~cated in the previous section, purely ti~e-basedmainten
ent being ma~ntainedtoo early or too late. In both case
u n n e c e s ~ ea ~x ~ ~ n d i ~ r e ,
therefore need to develop a data model of the asset, which can a c c ~ ~ t ereflectl y Its
n, m a i n ~ e n ~requirements
ce and life span. In many cases this can be
wealth of historical data, coupled with on-line indication of performance. ~ n f o ~ a t e l y
this is not a~waysthe case and we are left with the problem of developing a model based on
tions and very little feedback from the asset itself.
toring of assets is not
of the pop~ation,accessi
sampling techniques to e
n based on tests performed on
~ I e c t ~iscthe i ~~ d e ~ g r co ~ d
~ ~ d e ~ g Cables
r ~ ~ n d
d a ~ consists of 8500
The s ~ ~ o n network V and 17500 km of LV under
t which it exists makes it difficult to mon~tor,~ l n e r a b to
cable. The e n v i r o ~ e nin ~ e~hird-
ularly with the high level of excavation a c ~ vwi i~t ~ i nLon~on,and
10 ;13 3 40 50 txl
How long?
9.13.7 bles
lem is to analyse the fau~ts
cable or joint being an
to lead to similar failur
s provides the crucial key
d where they are most likely to occur.
o ~ r ~ modes
m a of~ failure:
3
i v eh
re ~ x ~ ~ n stests
e ~ e a s u r e ~ ~Then t . Q ~ j e c ~ of
v e these 0th
p e ~ f o ~ a n of
c e the re~ainderof the circuit,
contin~i~y.
9.13.
.3 Partial discharge map of 1i kV circuit
the circuits in ~ o ~ ~ i s s ~ o n ~
302 Power System Restructuring and ~ere~ulation
~ r ~ d u c t iLevel
vi~
~~~~~e9.5 ~ e n c ~ m a r kperformance
in~ matrix for subsration m a i n t ~ n a n c ~
~ a n a g ~ of ~ ea nlarge
~ portfolio of assets also necessitates tbe ~ a f l a g ~ of ~ ~risk.
e~r
~ y , in usage of electricity has not been linear and we should not be
a lgrowth
~ ~ i s ~ o ~ cthe
Pised to find that our asset base has not been c o n s ~ c t e dat a c o n t ~ ~ u o rate.
us
9.6 details the a ~ ~ r o x i age ~ a profile
~e of London Electricity’s major assets, i n d i ~ ~
peaks of i n v ~ s ~ ~~ f ~l t rthei 1960s.
~ g
30 Power System R e s ~ c ~ and
~ nDeregulation
g
Age-related replacement of assets will clearly lead to similar peaks in invest men^ in the
future. Asset management techniques, such as condition based monitoring ( C ~ ~can ) ,be
used to extend the life of individual assets - assuming that they are in good condition. C
can similarly warn of the need for early repIacement without the need for failure to occur.
Another useful technique which is available to companies with dynamic networks is to use
other work as a driver for replacement.
This is best illustrated by the following example. A ‘typical’ substat~onconstructed in
n t of the 1960s would be a 4x 15 MVA transformer site with 16 1 1
the peak i ~ v e s ~ eperiod
kQ feeders. Its modem-day equivalent would be a 3x60 MVA double secondary
transformer site with 36 feeders. Reinforcement of one substation in an area can normally
enabfe a hrthex two similar substations to be removed, thus avoiding the need for
replacement. Extensive use of this technique normally requires an element of load growth.
Even if we do opt for an age-related replacement programm~,we need to plan for R
more gradual replacement programme. The easy option is to replace assets before they
reach the end of their useful life. Our task as asset managers is to manage the risks
associated with pushing assets closer towards the end of their usef~llife by i n ~ o d ~ c i n g
alternative options, or devising ways of closely monitoring their performance.
The actual life in service of assets may frequently be observed to be lower than the
accoun~inglife of plant, as used for depreciation by compan~es,or the much higher
assigned service life. This difference has normally been driven by reasons other than
replacement needs such as: upgrade for load growth, faults, change of b ~ i l d ~ noccupancy,
g
diversions, etc
Figures 9.7.and 9.8 show examples of actual life in service where this has been less
than the assigned service life. The data represents all secondary transformers and
secondary switchgear removed from the London network since 1991.
-
Actual life in service 5 e c ~ n d ~ransfor~er§
a~
(average age at ~ecQrnis~iQ~ing -
36 years)
F ~ 9.7 Actual
~ ~ life in e - secondary transfomler
~ service
07
8.0%
6.0%
40%
2.~94
0.0%
43 48 37 34 31 28 25 22 19 16 13 10 7
Ex
31 Power System ~ ~ s ~and~~ e ~
c e ~~ l a it i onn ~
"12Cumulative c o s ~ e n eanalysis
~t of project portfolio
The steep slope at the beginning o f the curve indicates that the projects at this end
efit to cost ratio, whilst those at the other end appear
need to recognise the impoi~anc~ o f a less b ~ e ~ c ~ a l
her, more beneficial, project upon it. This is illus
in the c m e .
Asset ~ a n a ~ e ~ e n t 11
London Electricity has been developing a technology strategy to ensure that all pot~n~ial
for the network are c o m p l e ~ e n tto~ each 0th
ogy strategy has been to ensure that state-of-tl~e-~
evaluated and potential operating cost savings are i d e ~ t ~ ~ e d .
The various s t r ~ d of s the t e c ~ o l o g ystrategy all need to build tow
objective o f p r o v i d ~ ~the
g degree of network p e r f o ~ a n c erequi
can be evaluated on its own merits but, in general, those projects
eluded in the i n v e s ~ e npo~folio.
t
of the remote t e ~ i n aunit
l (RTU) ~ u ~ e n t ~ y
he 1 1 kV network. ~ d d i t i o n afeatures
~ have
been built into these units to facilitate the transfer of data from the LV s y s t e ~when
s u ~ ~ bdev~ces
ie have been ~ a n u f a c ~ r toe dobtain the required ~ n f o ~ a t i o This
n . kin
specification would nob be possible without such a cohesive strategy.
Much o f the monitoring experirnen~l’but it is already possible to install power
outage d i s ~ ~ a n csensors
e ) in the premises of a customer who has s ~ f f e r e ~
will contact the control centre in the event of a s
failure via a telephone line. Fault passage ind~catorsinstalled at on the LV
n e ~ o r kp r ~ v ~ dmoree localised i n f o ~ a t i o nabout the positio which will
eventually be relayed back to the office via the RTU. These RTUs also have the ability to
~rovideon-line loading and status information for the subs~tiQn,which can provide
inval~bl~ e n f o ~ a t to
~ othe
n network planners and analysts.
Other work has c o n ~ e ~ t r aon t e ~ensuring that many of the i n ~ e p e n d e ~ developed
t~y
i n f o ~ a t i o nsystems, for con~ol,n e ~ o r kdesign and analysis, etc., are able to share
i n ~ o ~ a t i via
o n a ‘data hub’.
A ~ ~ o ~majorh e r task has been the development o f a more proactive version of the partial
harge mapping ~ e c ~ i q mentioned
ue previously. Continuous d i s c h ~ g emoni~orin
and EHV f e e d e ~is economic and this, coupled with the ability to switch the
network remotely, could facilitate the isolation of potentially faulty sections without
' re' injection of gas an silicone fluid into the circul
core cables to remove mo re and fill voids is esrablis
w ~ e r ed ~ e c t - l a ~ d les can be re~rbishedfor ~ i c a l ~less y than a
r e p l a c e ~ ~ cost.
~nt ently most HV cables in the UM have generally be
paper insulate^ with lead or c o ~ g a t e da l ~ n i u msheaths which are u ~ for this§
e . prese~there are no v~abler e ~ r b i s ~t e c~~ti q u e sfor
t e c h ~ i q ~At
cables but p r e ~ ~ research a ~ is under way to establish the
~ ~ n work
.16
~ ~ ewill n tinclu assessment of the rel
c relati~nscQnse~uencesto the who1
iate risk control n~easures.
For power s y s t ~ ~risk
s may be consi~e
variables:
e its o w mix
~ of the co~ponentsof ris
nt.
f~~1tS . ~ ~ e c t i asset
ve m
risks o
A u ~ o ~ a t esecurement
d and/or remote restorat~on of supplie§ with r e a l ~ t i ~ e
telemetry, which can significantly reduce the p o s s i b i l ~of ~ overloading and
g ~ the
s e c o n d a ~failure which if sustained may cause far more exte~sived a ~ a than
erhaps simple, failure.
9.163 Type ~ ~ i ~ u ~ ~ s
The economics of purchasing often meam that large ~uantitiesof the Same ty
sw~~chgear, ~ a n s f o or ~ ea ~n c i ~ l aequipment
~ are p u r c h ~ eand
~ ~ n § t a ~ ~ine d
p r o x i m ~on~ networks hat are being built, e x ~ e n d eor~ ref~rbishedat the
Experience has shown that whilst the widespread catastrophic failure o
equipment is rare, problems that could lead to longer term failure
identi~edcons~derab~y more often. ~ e a ~and t h safety consid~rationsm
live operation o f the plant to be restricted until after it can
ection and modi~cation.
e failures can present the operator with very
e sections of networks could be rendered hop
con~~tiQns. This is icularly the case with wholly ~ d e r ~ Q u n d
where the oppo~uni u n d e ~ k live e line overhead work does not e
repeated outages CO Is0 be necessary to effect the necessary re
~ e l e c ~ enqgu i ~ m ~with
nt roven excellent p e r f o ~ a n c erecord.
Actively maintaining a d sity of ~ a k e types s ~ and versions o f e q u i ~ ~ et n t ~ o ~
networks so that a type failure of one e does not result in widesprea
ne~orks.
For new types of equipment and changes to existing desi
m ~ u f a c ~ r toe r participate in formal and independent failure
can ~ d e n tand
i ~ addre$s the probabili~and consequ
e from frre in a $ w i t c ~ ~
tive regimes that are increas
r e d of se
liver r ~ ~ u ~levels
loss arising from IOSS
rcial tower block coul
be found liable for the
~ ~ m ~ time,
t e d in order to
r factors can be a simpl
Power System ~ e s ~ c and
~ m g
e s a n u ~ e r o u asset
cally dis~ibutionc Q r n ~ ~ ihave s r n ~ a ~ e m eIT
n t s y ~ t ew~ s~ ~ c h
aged effectively can exhibit ~ r o b l e in
~ sthe f o ~ ~ o w areas:
~ng
~ n t with IEC-61968-com~liantim~erfacea r c h i t ~ c ~ r ~
Distribution ~ a n a g ~ msystem
Asset ~ a n a g e ~ e n t
Asset management systems typically hold data, including ownership costs, on all the
electrical assets, linking them together via parenuchild relationships. These s y s t e ~ s
normally share a comprehensive power system model with other app~icationsso that
operational and planni tools and data can be employed as part of asset manag~men~.
a t ~ d are mparatively new in many companies and
~ n ~ e ~ r systems scale of the data
collection va~idationcan be immense, SO many systems have not yet a chance to prove
their full worth in monitoring lifecycle costs etc. Proven uses at th ment are as plant
database and ma~n~enance schedulers Iising network analysis and continge~cy
tools. ~ a r i a b l ema~tenance~ g g e r cs be set within the database and co~dition
and defects recorded from mainten r inspection visits,
The p e r f o ~ a n c eand effective life of otherwise identical assets is largely driv
duty they are required to perform and the environment in which they operate. An
benefit o f inte~atedi n f o ~ a t i o nsystems is the ability to download large secti
for ‘off-line’ analysis and data mining to understand and exploit the re~ations~i
p e r f o ~ a n c eduty
, and environmen~.
The data required by asset managers typically resides in several s te databases each of
which has to be desi opulated and mainta~nedby an ve set of busi~ess
pr~cesses.
The equipment database contains information about the items of plant and circuits
which make up the dis~ibut~on network. The volume of the assets and the varie
o ~ i s a~ailableabout each and every type are very jar
i n f o ~ a t i that
are p a ~ c u l a r lcomplex,
~ ofcen requiring multiple spatial repre
potential users of the data to access the i n f o ~ a t i o nthey need
manufac~rer,speci~cation,age, insta~lationmethod, condition,
loading, electrical parameters, etc. The recording of costs again
ard as cables are continuously being cut into n
the ~ n v i ~ o n ~ e f l t
~u~ circuits and
21
y no ~ e a exhaustive.
~ s
e areas of o ~ t ~ t ~natural
n d i beauty
~ ~
is also es§~n~ial.
As operating margins become smaller and further efficiencks becomes more difficult to
~ e ~~ ~~ ~~ r~q~~ $ aa, lsof
i ~~i ndf o ~ a t ~ obecomes
n ever more essential for the eff~ctive
~ o m p a r a bacross
l ~ companies
onsistent over time
Collectable at reasonable cost.
ata c o l ~ e c ~will
d be used for asset r e g u ~ a t o ~
c regimes, there will be a need to be able to demon
and timeliness of the data. One way of managing
q u a ~m i ~a n a ~ e ~ e n t cesses such as those QE the IS0 900
sequenc~sof data audits that run s ~ c ~ e d
studies, ~ o ~ ~ results a ~ withn gthose p~viouslyobt
for ~nvestiga~ion, can also be used to s ~ ~ i ~ cadv
ant
None of the above examples indiv~duallycan provide the solution to the problem o f how
we ana age our assets. A combination of all, or at least so^^^ of th
n , matches the point on the e v o ~ u t ~ o cn au~~ which
s o l ~ t i ~which e L
at this moment in time. The only ~~~~~g that is certain is that '
overall model will continue to change as more information bec
ome more e s ~ b l ~ s h eord more varied, or if p r ~ s s u r ~
other s~keholderspushes investment decisions in a new
i y b e n e ~ t sof in&
is to eva~uatec Q n t i ~ ~ a l the
inst the cost of installation and operation. We
the principle of condition ~ o n i t o ~ and
n g data collection, lest we forget to
en~~allyhigh cost associated with both the co~~ection and an
~eaTingin mind that the most effect~veway of i ~ e n t i ~ i when ng
of a ~ a ~ u a l~l y~ ~ e n item
d e of
n ~ ~ u ~ p msuch e n ~as, an isolator, requires m a i ~ t ~ n aisn to
c~
ask tbe last p~rsonwho o ~ e r a ~ it. ed
Asset Management 23
sis t
9.19.1 The~~CD
, the IEG codes have been used for several decades and eonsiderable ~ x p e ~ e n c ~
a c c u ~ u I a ~ ethroughout
d the world to diagnose incipient faults in t r a n s f o ~ e
used to determine each ratio and its assigned limits are shown i
s are then allocated according to the value obtained for each ratio
corresponding fault characterised,
1 or2
1
1~0-330kV power ~ a n s f o ~ ewere
rs
nspectian of anothei
re d ~ due to
a e ~ ~
____
F(0)=0.525 Normal ageing IEC cannot diagnose
F( 1)=0.053 PD of low energy but FIK indicates a
F~2)=0.231
I00 No match F(3)=0.045 Discharge of low energy which could be at an
F(4)=0.050 Discharge of high energy early stage.
F(5)=0.000 Thermal fault (450°C)
F(6)=0.047 Thermal fault (150-300°C)
F(7)=0.000 Thermal fault (30O-70O0C)
F( S)=O .050 Thermal fault (>700"C) Actual fault will be
checked during the
next overhaul.
F(0)=0.005 Normal ageing IEC cannot diagnose
F( 1)=0.052 PD of low energy probably due to the
F(2)=0.052 PD of high energy e x ~ s ~ ~ n of
c e more
121 No match F(3)=0.000 Discharge of low energy than one fault. The
Discharge of high energy fuzzy compo~ent of
Thermal fault (<150°C) the early thermal
Thermal fault (150-300'C) fault indicated by
F(7)=0.161 Thermal fault (300-700°C) FIK is useful for
Thermal fault (~700°C) future trend analysis.
P -
F(0)=0.479 Normal Although the gas
F( 1)=0.005 PD of low energy level is below the
PD of high energy guide value, an early
Low No Discharge of low energy indication of low.
values diagnosis F(4)=0.0 13 Discharge of high energy energy discharge by
F(5)=0.000 Thermal fault (450°C) FIK should be useful
F(q=o.ooo Thermal fault (I 50-300°C) for trend analysis in
F(7)=0.000 Thermal fault (300-700'C) the future.
F(S)=0.005 Thermal fault (>700"C)
In FIK ~agnosis,a fault can be more accurately determiiied by its fuzzy component that
indicates the likelihood or dominance of the fault. Deterioration of the fault may eref fore
be closely monitored from trend analysis. This technique has been used for a
that was tested over a 15-month period. ermal faults of medium- and high
(300-700°C and >7OO"C) were diagnose y the FIK method and the fuzzy
agaiiist the test time are plotted in Figure . The graph clearly shows the de
each thermal fault in this t r ~ s f o ~ eItr ,can be seen that at the begi
monitoring period, the medium ~ e m p e ~thermal ~ r e fault F(7) was the main p r o b l e ~o f
this ~ a n s f o ~and e r the fi~zzycomponent of the high-tempera~retherm
mall, i.e. below 0.05. The high-tempera~rethermal fault F(
14 onwards and then become stable until Day 406 when the
ssing, because the ~ ~ efaults ~ remained,
a l the fuzzy compo
went up again from Day 453. It took a few weeks for the gases to be re1
in the oil to a sufficient level for accurate diagnosis. A small fluctuation of F(8) was
recorded on Day 178, which might be due to the lighter load during the s p e c ~ ~time c
period.
It must be noted that if a transformer has no fault, th mponent F(0) always
gives a large value in th anga of 0.6-1. For example, results for a hea~thy
e r (in ppm}
t r a n ~ f o ~ are - 95, N2 - 73000, 02 - 11000,
-
- 25, C,H, 45 and C2H2 2. The fuzzy component o f no-fault ~ ( 0 ) ~ . $ 4 3
~
+.=.
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 114 147 178 191 218 406 413 453 469 471
a1 fault ~ 0 ~ ~ degree
7 0 0C
The trend of tv.70 types of thermal fault in a 330 kV transformer determined by the FI
methad
n a c o ~ p e t i t ~ environ
ve t there will be reluctance to expand distribution sys~em,
customer interaction, And, at the loads ~ h e m s e l ~i ~ § ~
costs will create an emphasis on local co~pensati
or active coan~onents. Some of these changes tend to de
loads of a cons~ant-powertype.
more c u ~ ~wh nt ltage drops causing additional vo
use of Compensation equipment may even become
Voltage d ~ s ~ r b a n ~ e s
.2 Voltage transients
k . main cau$e
supply ~ e ~ o rThe
xtinction of discharge 1
of control devices; speed variation or s ~ o p p i nof~motors; trippin CQntactorS; c o ~ p u t e r
i o ~ in line commutated inve~ers.The effect of a v o ~ ~ g e
system crash; or c o ~ ~ u t a tfail~re
Power System Restructuring and ~ ~ r e ~ ~ a t i o n
dip on equipment depends on both its magnitude and its duration; in about 40% o f the
cases observed to date, they are severe enough to exceed the tolerance standard ado~tedby
er manufac~rers.Brief interruptions can be considered as voltage sags with 100%
de. The cause may be a blown h s e or breaker opening and the effect an expensive
~ . a given system design and fault location, a certain number of c u s t o ~ ~wili
s h u ~ d oFor rs
be ~ ~ e cand ~ i s no way to prevent this process without major system s ~ c ~ r a
t ethere
changes.
n s to over~oadare somewhat more ~redictab~e.
I-lowever, i n t e ~ p t ~ o due These include
overload of the whole system (due to lack of generation) as well as ind~vidua~ lines and
cables, Voltage collapse can also be view as an overload situation, but in this case load
shedding can alleviate it. In the pre-dere~lationera, load shedding took place accord~ngto
utility ides. ~ e r e ~ ~ a t aIlows
i o n utilities to offer i n t e ~ u p t i ~ land
e non-inte~ptible
supply. During Limes of overload or overload risk, utilities may decide to increase the
inc~ntivefor customers to be i n ~ e ~ u p ~[8,9]. e d At present, this action only covers a very
s r n ~ fracti~n
i~ n s this will obviously change if the congestion in the
of the ~ n t e ~ p t i o but
system increases,
Voltage swells are brief increases in r.m,s. voltage that sometimes a c ~ o m p voltage ~y
sags. They appear on the unfaulted phases of a three-phase circuit that has developed a
single-p~aseshort circuit. They also occur following load rejection, Swells can upset
electric controls and electric motor drives, pa~cularlythe adjus~b~e-speed drives, which
can trip because of their built-in protective circuitry. Swells may also stress delicate
computer components and shorten their life. Voltage disturbances
swells are classified as transients arid are caused by s u ~ d e nchanges
cw.
According to their duration, transient overvoltages can be di into sw~tchingsurges
(du~ationin the range of ~ ~ ~ i i s e c o n dand
s ) , ~mpuIsespikes ion in the range o f
microseconds), Surges are high-energy pulses sing from power s y s t e ~switchin
s , directly or as a result o f resonating circ
d i s ~ r b ~ c eeither ssociated with swit
devices. They also occur during step load changes. In parti capacitor s w ~ ~ h i n
cause resonant oscillations leading to an o v e ~ o l some~ ~ ethree to four times the n o ~ i n a l
,causing tripping or even damaging protective devices and equipment. ~ l e c ~ o n i c a l l y
based controls for ~ n d u s ~motorsa ~ are pa~icularly suscep~ibleto these ~ansients.
Impulses result from direct or indirect lightning strikes, arcing, insulation b r e ~ ~ detc.
o~,
10.I . 3 Volta~e
Sags
scheme for all customers as part of the connection fee [I 11. However, some customers may
not be satisfied with any compensation scheme, safety being their main consideration. The
option in this case is for the utility to offer high-quality power to a small
customers. These customers will experience less voltage sags than similar customers
elsewhere. This special service will require the installation of m ~ ~ g a t i oequipment,
n which
may be offered by the dis~butioncompany, by the supplier, or by any other player in the
market. Additio~a~ regulations are needed to guarantee a minimum level of ~ o m p a t i b i l ~ ~
between equ~pmentand supply:
R e ~ u i r e m e n for
~ equipment immunity must be produced by standard-se~ng
organisations. The IEC is obviously the best platform for the development of such a
s~andard.In the USA, the IEEE may take the lead. Standards for equipment test~ng,like
IEC 6 1000-4-11 [ 121, are also needed to obtain and verify equipment immunity.
As a complement to equipment immunity requirements, voltage characteristics for the
supply must be made available to the customers. The E u r o p e ~s ~ d a r dEN 50160
should be extended with voltage characteristics for voltage sags and other events.
Equivalent documents should be written for other parts of the world as well as local
s t ~ d ~for d sindivid~dlcountries [13].
latory bodies should pub~ishstatistics on the PQ performance of uti~~ties. Such a
e is already in place in the UK for long i n ~ e ~ p t i o[14].
ns
Voltage sag ch~acterisat~on is an important basis for the above s ~ d ~ d
regulations. At the time of writing, standardisation on this issue is under develo
both in the IEC [4] and in the IEEE [lSJ. However, current activities concen
sags experienced by sin~le~phase equipment.
A technique has been proposed for the characterisation of voltage sags [16] e x ~ e ~ e n c be d
three-phase equipment. It enables the characterisation through one complex vol
wi~houtsign~ficantfoss of information. The method is based on the decomposition o
voltage phasors into symmetrical components. An additional characteristic is introduc
e n ~ b l the
e exact recons~ctionof the three complex voltages. The m a ~ e ~ a t ibehind cs the
method and additional examples is described in references [2,17-20].
The ITIC (Information Technology Industry Council) curve [21] shown in Figure 10.3
can be used to evaluate the voltage quality of a power system with respect to voltage
i n t e ~ p t i o n ssags
, or unde~oltagesand swells or overvoltage. This curve was ori
deline in the design of the power supply for computer and electronic
in the 60 Hz, 120 V distribution voltage system. By noting the changes
of power supply voltage on the curve, it is ossible to assess if the supply is reliable for
operating electronic equipment, which is generally the most susceptive equipment in the
power system.
The curve shows the m a g ~ i ~ and d e duration of voltage var~ationson the power system.
The region between the WO sides of the curve is the tolerance envelope within which
electronic e ~ u i p m e nis~expected to operate reliably. Rather than noting a point on the plot
for every measured d i s ~ b ~ cthe e ,plot can be divided into small regions with a certain
range of magnitude and duration. The number o f occurrences within each small region can
be record~dto provide a reasonable indication of the quality of the system.
33 Power System ~ e s t ~ c and
~ n g
110
90
Y
Ims 3ms 2Oms 0.5s 1OS State
Fi ETIG curve
elet ~ a n s f (WT)
o~ ides a fast way of an
c u ~ ~ wav
nt the ~~~~~r ~ r a ~ ~
f r ~ q u ~ re
n~y
(10.1)
Power Quality 9
(10.2)
he WT of a ~ o n t ~ u siQ ~ s
are ~ i $ c r e t i ~but
~ dnot the i
Power System ~ e ~ and ~~ e ~ ~
c ~ l ~a t i o~ n
(10.6)
Although the ~ a n s f o ~ a t i is
o nover continuous time, the wavelets represen~tionis discrete
and the discrete wavelet coefficients represent the c o ~ e l a ~ i obetween
n the original signal
and wavelets for different combinations ofm and n.
The inverse DWT is given by:
= (A + B)/2, and A and B are the f i m e bounds (maximum values of a and b).
10.2.2 W a v Analysis
~ ~ ~ ~
xi31 scale 2
scale
. I .
M u I ~ i ~ ~ ~ s osignal
l u ~ odne ~ o m p o s i ~implementation
~o~ of wavelet analysis
In doing SO, higher scale signal decomposi~ionis needed. At the lowest scale the
mother wavelet is most localised in time and oscillates rapidly within a very short p e ~ o dof
time. As the wavele oes to ~ ~ g hscales,
e r the analysing wavelets becom~less loc~lisedin
time and oscillate 1 owing to the dilation nature of the WT analysis. As a result of
higher scale signal decomposition¶ fast and short transient d i s ~ b a n c e sare de~ectedat
lower scales, whereas slow and long transient d i s ~ b a n c e swill be detec~e
scales.
10.2.3
F i g ~ r e10.6a shows a s ~ u e n c of e voltage dis~rbances.To remove the noise prese~tin the
waveform, squared wavelet ~ a n s f coef~cients o~ (SWTCs) are used at scales rn = I 2 3
and 4, ~ ~ s p e c t ~ (v se ~h yo in
~F 10,6b, c, d and e; these are analysed U
wavelet. Figure 10.6a contains rapid oscillation disturbance (high fre
time 30 ms, and is ~ o ~ l o wby e d a siow oscillation dis~rbance(low freque
ms. The SWTCs at scales I, 2 and 3 catch these rapid oscillations, while scale 4 cat
slow osci~latin~ d i s ~ r b a n which
c ~ ~ o c ~ u ~ after
e d time 30 ms. Note that the h i ~ h
persist at the same t e ~ p o r alocation
l over scales 1 , 2 and 4.
It must be pointed out that the same technique can be used to det
waveform distortion (like no~chesand h a ~ o n ~ cand s ) other
momen~aryinter~ptions,sags and surges. ~ o w e v e r rig ¶
must be developed for each stutbance for the WT to be accepted as
au~omatic~ ~ a s s i ~ cof a ~P o n
Power System ~ e s t ~ c t u ~and
ing
200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
e Voltage disturbance signal (0 1996, iEEQ
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
The SWTCs at scale I (0 1996,Z E ~ ~
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
The S~~~~ at scale 2 (0 1 9 ~ 6IEEQ
,
0 10 20 30 40 50 40 70 80 90 100
42 Power System Restructuring and ~ e r e ~ ~ a t i o n
.3 istor
W a v e f o ~d ~ s t o ~ i oisn generally disc~ssedin terms of h ~ o n i c s which
, are s
voltages or currents having frequencies that are w frequency at which
the supply system is d e s i to~ operate ~ (e.g. 50 the ~e¶uenciesof
these voltages and currents are not an integer of they are termed
I U,3. I ~ a ~ ~ o Sources
nic
Lower order odd h ~ o n i c ares the most proli~camong consumer e~ectronic$yste~s.
I~owever,the third harmonic (of zero sequence) is usually p r ~ v e ~ t efrom
d en~erin
high voltage system by the use of appropriate transformer connections. The fifth harmonic
(in the UK) has been identified as the harmonic order exhibit in^ the highest peak levels of
high v o ~ ~ systems,
ge with values between 2.5% and 3.0%at some locations. The fifth also
most ~ e ~ ~ e npresents
t l y the highest mean harmonic levels, a characteristic which has been
found to be consistent both g e o ~ p h i c a l l yand with time.
Power Quality 3
-n
m 1.0
-7
r4
2 0.8
X
I
8 0.6
@) -g
.-a
0.4
5.
0.2
01 11 13 23 25
Frequency (x fundamental frequency)
igure 10.9 12-pulse converter current: (a) waveform, (b) harmonic spectrum
‘The § t ~ d a cr o~ ~ ~ g u r a t for
i o ~i ~ ~ u s a~ i a ~ ations is the ~ 2 ~ ~ u l s e
cQnve~er,shown in igure 10.8. The c~aracteristic
ation are o~orders12k-t-1 (of positive s e q ~ e n cand ~ ) 1%-
~ othe~ ~a ~a ~ o ~ i c
d ei ns v ~ r § ~ pl yr o ~ o ~ to
a ~ ~ l i ~ are
s ~ e c of m 10.9b which c o ~ e s p o n dto~the time wavvefo
~ ~Figure
of course, ~ a ~ i 1 r 1s n for~ ideal system conditions,
e d ~ c eAC ~ s y s ~ e ~ a per~ectly flat direct c u ~ ~ (i.e. n t i ~ ~ n si~ to o~t h i n g
en the AC system is weak and the o erfectly s y m m e ~ ~ a l
~ a r ~ o nappear.
~cs
ile t~~ c~aracteristich ~ o n i c s
it is not e~onornica~ to reduce in that way the un
h e ~ ex amp^^ of u n c ~ a r a c ~
~ o ~ common
3
he
10.3.3 ~ ~ r ~ o Flows
n i c (301
In its simples~form the frequency domain provides a direct solution of the effect of
d in~ividua~ h a ~ o ~ ori c~ o n ~ h a ~ o~equency
nic injec~~ons t~oughouta linear
system, without explicit consideration of the harmonic interaction between the network and
the n o n ~ l i c~oem~p ~ ~ e n ~ ( s ) .
The sources of h ~ ~ o ninjection,
ic depending on the available info
s , be current sources or Norton or Thevenin harmonic ~ ~ u ~ v a l eAn t ~ ,
linear c ~ ~ p o n e n tcan
c o ~ r n ~experience
n derived from harmonic field tests i s the asyrnme~ica1n a ~ r eof the
readin~s.
,being the mle rather than tbe exc justifies the need for three
s. The basic compon~n~ of a t h e
~ ~ s m i s s line,
~ o nwhich can be accurate~yrepresented
model, including mutual effects a as earth return, skin
~ s then combi~edw
n line m o d ~ are other n e ~ opassive
r ~
c o ~ p o n ~ ntot sobtain t~ee-phaseequivalent h a ~ o n i ic
The system harmonic voltages are calculated by direct solution oflhe linear equation
n c ex of order equal to (
is a reduced system a d ~ ~ ~ a rn
n u ~ b of
e~ inject~onbusbar§,
where the power ~equencyis denoted as cooand E[.]denotes the calculation of the ener
of a time signal. The prime on th D indicates that this is not quite
con~entionalTHD ca~cu~atiQn. Of e, TMD degenerates to TIID for the p e ~ o d i ccase.
With re~erenceto the flicker disturbance, the measurement and frequency windows in
which flicker exists is d e ~ n e d inte~ationalstandards, mainly thro
~ l e c ~ r o ~ e cCommission
~ica~ C). Generally, flicker i s limited to
fluctuations in the supply voltage.
A proble~aticf ~ ~of ~thisr index e is how the flicker is to be m sured. As an examp~e,
should the flicker energy (i.e. sideband energy in the vicinity of power frequency) be
measured in root mean square a m p ~ i ~ dore ,zero to peak?
m e a n i n ~ to
~ lintegra~ethe sideband energy over a
latter appears to have less phys~ological implic
mathemat~cal properties. Also, the integration of energy
physiologic~~ weigh~~ng factor as specified by the IEC stand
tran§form, short-time Fourier transform, and Fourier linear combiner have been sugges~ed
as possible solutions to the problem.
[ 121 ‘Voltage dips, short intemptions and voltage variations immunity tests’, IEC Standard
~ocument61000-4- 11.
[ 131 ‘Basnivo fdr elkvalitet’, (Basic level for power quality, in Swedish), Gdtborg Energi Ndt AB,
~ o t ~ e n b u rSweden,
g, 1997.
port on distribution and transmission system perfo~ance’,pub~ishedannually by Office of
Electricity Regulation, Birmingham, UK.
[ 151 IEEE Project Group 1159.2: Power quality event characterization.
llen, J. Svensson and L.D. Zhang, ‘Testing of ~d-connectedpower”e~ec~onics
for the effects of short circuits in the European Power Electronics
Confer~nce, Lausatme, Switzerland, 1999.
. Bollen, ‘A method for characterizing unbalanced voltage dips (sags)
onents’, IEEE Power Engineering Letters, July 1998.
[l8] L.D. Zhang and M.H.J. Bollen, ‘Characteristics of voltage dips (sags) in power systems’,
I n t e ~ a ~ ~ Conference
onu~ on Harmonics and Quality of Power, Athens, Greece, October 1998.
[19] M.H.J. Bollen, ‘Characterization of voltage sags experienced by three-phase adjustable-speed
drives’, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, V01.12, No.4, 1997, pp.1666-1671.
[20] L.D. Zhang and M.H.J. Bollen, ‘A method for characterisation of three-phase unbalanced dips
(sags) from recorded voltage waveshapes’, International Telecon~municu~ions EneW
Conference ~ ~ T E ~ ECopenhagen,
C), Denmark, June 1999.
221) m a ~ o ~ Industry Council, formerly known as the Co~puter& siness ss
ITIC ( ~ ~ ~ o r Technology
Equipment. Manufacturer’s Association), ITIC Curve Application Note, available at
liaga, N.R. Watson, J.F. Eggleston and C.D. Callaghan, ‘Comparison of steady state and
dynamic models for the calculation of a.c./d.c. system harmonics’, IEE Proceed~ngs,Vol. I 34C,
No.1, 1987, pp.31-37.
R. ~ a c a m i n iand J.C. Oliveira, ‘~armonicsin multiple converter systems: a genera~~sed
approach’, IEE Proceedings, V01.127, 1980, pp.96-106.
6. Carpinelli, et al., ‘Gener sed converter models for iterative harmonic analysis in power
systems’, IEE Proceedings Generation, Transmission and Dis~ributi~n, Vol. 14 1, No.5, 1994,
pp.445-45 1.
C.D. Callaghan and J. Arrilla~a,‘A double iterative algorithm for the analysis of power and
~ a ~ flows o at ~ ac-dc
c converter terminals’, 115%:Proceedings, Vol.136, No.6, 1989,
. Smith et al., ‘A Newton solution for the harmonic phasor analysis of ac-dc c o n ~ e ~ e r s ‘ ,
IEEE PES S ~ m ~Meeting er ‘95, SM 379-8.
C.D. Callaghan and J. Arrillaga, ‘Convergence criteria for iterative harmonic analysis and its
application to static converters’, ICHPS IV, Budapest, 1990, pp.38-43.
G.T. Heydt, ‘Problematic power quality indices’, Panel Session on ~ ~ ~ t a n d a~~ dIEEE
s, ~
Winter Power Meeting, Singapore, 2000.
R. Ott (Chairman), IEC 77A Low Frequency Phenomena, Working Group 9, ‘Power qua~ity
measuremen~s’,Draft in progress, 1999.
IEEE 141:1986, Recommended Br ctric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants.
IEEE 1159: 1995, lEEE R e c o ~ e n d e dPractice on Monitoring Electric Power
IEC 61000-2-5: 1995, E l e c ~ o m a ~ eCompatibility
~ic (E~C), Part 2: E n v ~ o ~ e n$ectiont, 5:
Classifications o f ElectromagneticEnvironments.
IEC 61000-2-1: 1990, Electroma~eticCompatibili~(EMC), Part 2: E n v i r o ~ e n t Section , 1:
D e s c ~ p ~ i oofnthe E n v ~ o ~ e-nElectroma~etic
t Environment for Low-~requen~y Con~ucted
Disturbances and Signalling in Public Power Supply Systems.
IEC 61000-2-2: 1990, E l e c ~ m a ~ e tCompa~ibifity
ic (EMC), Part 2: E n v i r o ~ e n t Sect~on
, 2:
Compa~~bility Levels for ~ow-~requency Conducted Disturbances md S i ~ a l I i n gin Public
Power Supply Systems.
IEEE c62.41: 1991, IEEE R e c o ~ e n d e dPractice on Surge Voltages in Low-Vo~~age AC
Power Circuits.
IEG 816: 1984, Guide on Methods of Measurement of Short Duration Transients on Low
IEEE 519: 1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electric Power Systems (ANSI).
IEC 61000-4-7, 1991, E ~ e c t r o m a ~ e ~
Compatibility
ic (EMC), Part 4: Limits, Section 7:
General pi& on harmonics and inter-harmonics measurements and ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ u m efor n power
~a~~on,
supply systems and equipment c o ~ e ~ t thereto.
ed
estructtaring and ~ e r e ~ l a ~ ~ Q n
i c Power
Group, ~ n t e r - h a ~ Q n in s Systems, January 1997.
[571 Ec 868: 1986,F ~ ~ ~ k e-Functional ~ e t ~ T and design spe~i~cations.
[58] IEC 868-0: 1992, Flickermeter - Evaluation of flicker severity,
4: Limits, Section 15:
Relevant Standards.
E631 lEEE 100:1992, IEEE Standard Dictionary ofEIecCrica1 and Electronics Te
1641 ET4 50160 1994, Voltage ~ h ~ a c t e ~ s tofi cEs l e c ~ i csupplied
i~ by Public
G analysis in real-time’,
r Loi Lei Lai
Iowa State Univer§~ty University of'~ e § t Australia
e ~ City ~ n ~ v e ~ § ~i t oy .n d ~ n
USA A~§t~lia UK
3 Power System ~ e ~ and D~ ~ r ~c~ l a t~i o n ~
S o ~ a r agents
e have evolved from multi-agent ~ y s t e ~ s
three broad areas which fall under distributed artificial
being dis~ibutedproblem solving (DPS) and parallel arti
~ e ~ascwith ~ ~ulti-agent
, systems, they i ~ e r i many
t
potential benefits. For example, s o h a r e agents inherit
~ , (due to parallelism) and reliability (due to redundancy). It also i ~ ~ r i t s
m o d u ~ a r i speed
those due to AI such as operation at the ~ o w ~ e d level, g e easier mainte~ance,r e u s a b i ~ i ~
and p l a ~ f independence.
o~~ The concept of an agent can be traced back to the early days of
research into DAI in the 1970s.
tudy of mu~t~ple collaborat~v~ agents includes intera~tionand c o ~ ~ n i c a t i o n
be agents9 d~compositionand dis~butionof ta coordina~ionand cooperation,
conflict resolution via negotiation. These resulted in work such as I planning and game
~ht:Qr~es [17]. ‘ s m a ~ e s s ’derives from the fact that the ‘value’ gained from
~nd~vidual stan agents c o o r ~ ~ n a ~their
~ n gactions by working in coo~erutionis
greater than that gained from any individual agent. A p p ~ i ~ a ~ domains ion [ 1x1 in which
agent solutions are being applied to or investigated include work~owmanagement,
network management, a i r - ~ a f ~control, c business process r e - e n g i n e e ~ ~
i n f o ~ a t i o n re~eval/management, electronic commerce, educat~on, perso
~ s i s t ~ n t sas), e-mail, digital l ~ b r ~ i e sc ,o r n r n ~and~ ~ontrol, ~ m a ~
s~heduIing/dia~ m a n a ~ e ~ e netc.
t,
It is important to note that most agent-based s are still ~ ~ m o n s ~ ronly: ~t~rs
c Q n ~ e ~ ithemn g into real usable appiications would e even greater cliallenges, some
of wh~chhave been ant~cipatedbut, currently, many reseen. The essential ~ e s s ~ g e
of this section is that agents are here to stay, not least because of thei ity9their wide
r a n ~ eof a ~ ~ ~ i c a and
b i lthe
i ~broad spectrum of companies investing
first^^, agents may be classified by their mobility, i.e. by their ability to move a ~ ~ ~ n
. yields the classes of static or bile a~ents.
some n e ~ o r kThis
~ y , may be classed m either ~ e ~ i b e r a or
~ e c o n ~they ~ ~reactive.
ve
derive from the deliberative thinking p~adigm:that is, the agents
symbolic, reasoning model and they engage in p l a ~ i n gand neg~tiationin order to achie~e
with other agents. Work on reactive agents o r i ~ i n ~ t from
e s research carrie
oks [19]. These agents on the contrary do not
odds of their environment, and they act using a stimulus
state of the env~onmentin whi
that intelligent behaviour can
olic re~resenta~~ons of traditional AI [21].
Information Technolonv A ~ ~ ~ i c a ~ i o n 355
Thirdly, agents may be classified along several ideals and pfimary attributes that agents
should exhibit. At T Labs, three main attributes, namely autonomy, le
cooperat~oi~, have been ~ d e n t i ~ e~d . ~ ~ refers
o to~the oprincip~e
~ ythat agents can operate
on their own without the need for human guidance, even though this would sQmetime§be
invaluable. Hence agents have individual internal states and goals, and they act in such a
manner as to meet their goals on behalf of their user. A key element of their autonomy is
activeness, i.e. their ability to ‘take the initiative’ rather than acting s
to their environme~~ [22], Cooperation with other agents is paramoun~.
to cooperate, agents need to possess a social ability, i.e. the ability to interact
agents and possibly humans via some communication language [22]. Having said this it is
possible for agents to coordinate their actions without cooperation [23]. Lastly, fo
systems to be truly ‘smart’, they would have to learn as they react and/or interact w
external environment. Agents are (or should be) disembodied bits of ‘intelligenc
these three minimal es, Figure I 1.1 was used to derive four types o f agents, namely
c~llaborativeagents, collabo~ativeleaming agents, interface agents and smart ~ ~ e ~ t ~
smart \ / Collabo~at~ve
agent^ Agents
It must be emphasised that these distinctions are not definitive. For ~ x ~ p l with
e,
ative agents, there is more emphasis on cooperation and au~onomy
; hence, it is not i ~ p ~ i ethat
d collaborative agents never learn. Like
ere is more emphasis on autonomy and learning than o
Ise which lies Q u ~ s ~the areas’ is not con
d e ‘~ntersecti~g
most expert syste~nsare largely ‘autonomous’ but,
~ i ~ h ltwo
y , or more age^^ ~hiloso~hies are combined in a
~ y ~agent.
r i ~There are Qther a ~ b u of~ agents,~ s which we
already m e n t i ~ For
~ ~example,
~. is an agen~versatile (i.e. does it h
in a variety of tas Is an agent benevolent or non-help
Does an agent lie wingly or is it always ~ u t h f u(&is
~
Can you trust the agent enough to (risk) delegate task
in contrast to failing ast tic ally at the b o ~ ~ ~Pee s ?
Power System ~ e s ~ c t u and
~ n Dere
g
so~utionsto i~herent~y
dis~buted
e solu~onswhich draw from
speed (due to p ~ a ~ ~ e ~ ~ s r n
~ h a r e a bof
i ~resources);
~~
to re~earchinto other issues, e.g. understanding ~nteractions
o b s e ~ ~ and
n g imitating the user (i.e. l e ~ n i n g
h r e c e i v ~ nposit~ve
~ and ~egativefeedb
wn to other agents.
~ a ~[28]e lists
r the ~ a j co~ a~l l e ~ g eThey
s . ~ ~ c l u at
d eleast the ~ o l ~ o w i ~ ~ :
o ~ thow ~ an
~ does ~ ~ : ~move ~ place
e .From t to place? How does it
move?
3 Power System Restructuring and ~ e ~ e ~ I a t i o n
Au~hentication:how does the user ensure the agent is who it says it is, and that it is
represent~ngwho it claims to be represent in^? does the user know it has navi
various networks without being infected by a v
Secrecy: how does the user ensure that the agents maintain privacy? How does the user
ensure someone else has not read the personal agent and executed it for their own gains?
How does the user ensure that the agent is not killed?
Security: how does the user protect against viruses? How does the user prevent an
i~comingagent from entering an endless loop and c o n s ~ n all g the CPU cycles?
Cash: how will the agent pay for services? How does the user ensure that it does not run
up an outrageous bill on the user’s behalf?
rmance issues: what would be the effect of having hundreds, thou$ands or millions
f such agents on a WAN?
Inte~operabi~i~/com~unication~rokeri~~g services: how does the user provide
e ~ n g / d i r e c t o r y ” ~services
e for locating engines andor s p e c i ~services?
~ How
the user publish QT subscribe to services, or support broadcasti~gnecessary for
some other coordina~~on approaches?
The ~ ~ for developing
~ iin f o ~ a t ivo ~ i n t e r~nagents
et ~ simply ~a n e e ~~ d e for
is ~~ ~ d
tools to manage such information explosion. Everyone on the WWW would benefit from
~~e~ agents are going to search the Intern~t,becaus matter how ~ u c h
ernet may be organised, it cannot keep pace with the
also contain one or more hybrid agents. ~eneserethand Ketchpel 1291 a~iculatec ~ e the ~ ~ y
~otivat~ori for heterogeneous agent systems. The essential argument is that the wosl
abounds with a rich divessity of s o ~ ~ a~rreo ~ u cproviding
ts a wide range of services for a
r ~ y range of d o ~ a i n s .hough these psograms work in ~sola~ion,
s i ~ ~ l a wide there i s an
increasing demand to have them i n t e ~ o p e ~ ~ hopefully,
~ te in such a manner that they
provide ‘added value’ as an ensemble than they do individually. A new domain called
b a ~ ee ~
a ~ ~ ~ t -software n g i n e ~ ~has
i ~ gbeen invented in order to facilitate t%ieinteroperation
of misce~~aneoussoftware agents. A key r e ~ u ~ e m e nfor t interope~ation
nts is having an agent ~ o ~ m ~ i c a t language
ion (ACL) via which the
‘agents’ can comm~icatewith each other. The potential ~ e for ~
having heterogeneous agent technology are several:
S~andaloneapplications can be made to provide ‘value added’ services by enhancin~
them in order to pa~icipateand intero in cooperative hetesogeneo~ss
The legacy software problem may b orated because it could obv
costly s o ~ a r rewrites
e as agents ‘new leases of life’ by
~ntesopesatewith other systems. At the very least, heterogeneous agent t e c ~ o l o g ymay
lessen the effect of routine s o h a r e maintenance, upgrade OS rewrites.
Agent-based software engine~singprovides a radical new approach to so
i~plementationand mainte~ancein gener~l,and software i ~ ~ s o ~in ep a~~ cb~ li a ~ s. ~ ~
~ e n e s e r ~ tand
h Ketchpei [29] e that agent-based sofeware engi
~ o ~ p a r etod object-oriented pro ing in that an agent, like an Q
~es§age-ba§edinterface to its int a structures and algorithms. H
ey distinction: in object-oriented p r ~ g r a ~ i
may differ from object to object (this is the ~rincipleof po
s o ~ a r enginee~ng,
e agents use a common language with
They h~ghligh~ three ~ m p o ~ questions
nt raised by the new agen~-osi~nted
so~wae
e n ~ ~ n e e n n~ ga r a d i gThey
~ . inciude:
Agent Agent
I I
1-2 A federated system (adapted from 1293)
figure shows how the ‘put’ works. The long trader pays a premium to lock-in a maxi^^^
price (exercise price) that he/§he will have . The short trader
prem~~im in return for promising to sell the
9 Terminal
Price Price
11.3.2 A g e n ~ - ~ a ~s e ~~ r n p ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n a l
arket p a ~ i c i ~( ~s u
t s~ ~ ~ ~ e r s
comp~ex,c h a n g i with
~ ~ time
modify their behaviour as time goes along,
~ o s ~ ~Ai~o~ h~o.u gsome
h res
m a r ~ e res~onses
t using control theory, it is g
t~ 5 with~ usin~ s
is relatively smooth
s are another search
~ n f o ~ t i Technology
on Applica~on
c r e ~ e nthe
t generation cou~terand go to step 2.
s Agents
~ p t i o n with
lack-Scholes prices. Implicit in the ge~ierationof buy and sell signals is a valua~on
of the put options by each of the agents.
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
3350
0 20 40 60 Bo 100 120 140
Demand
Generator parameters
The marginal cost is found by taking the derivative of the cost curve ( A = b + 2cp).
The m a ~ ~ i ncost
a $ curves for each generator are shown in ~ ~ g u 11r e‘7. Note that each
genera to^ has both a minimum and a m ~ i m opera u ~ tin^ level. ( § t a ~ pand s h u ~ d o ~
costs, ramp rates, and minimum up and down time constraints were not G
this ~ i ~ ~ ~ a tIfi the
~ n market
.) price is below the mini mu^ ~ ~ ~ i n a l
Information Technology Application 7
generator, that generator is removed from consideration and the market price
recalculated. This process is repeated until demand is balanced by a set of genera~ors
for whom it is p r o ~ ~ to b produce
~e at the discovered price. If price d ~ 5 c o does
v ~ not
occur after 20 iterations, the market price from the 20th iteration is taken as the ~~~~t
price. (Under this simple scheduling scheme, it is possible that a unit could be forced CO
produce below its minimum marginal cost but a check showed that this never
A brief c~ari~cation at this point may be in order to prevent confusion in the use of
the term ‘spot’. The market price is referred to here as the
~ ~ ewith p thei terminology
~ ~ used in finance (i.e. options prices
prices); this is not to imply that the hourly market here is the s
market (i.e. the ‘spot’ e l e c ~ cmarket
i~ as the real-time ele
price data for a typical week is shown in Figure 11.8.
3 . Standard deviation of spot price: The standard deviation (s
used when calculating the B1 oles formula. For a given hour, sigma is ca~cula~ed
using a window of the last period hours prices. The s ~ n d a r ddev~ationof the
market price is shown in Fi
ut options price data: There are four put options, which c m be bought and sold,
aving strike prices of $15, $20, $25 and $30. The market valuation (price) of each o f
these is calculated using the lack-Scholes formula for put options, as pres~ntedearlier.
Note that the risk-free rate is taken to be constant t ~ o u g h o u the
t simulat~onand
that T-t is a constant 90 days. This was done to prevent having to ‘roll over’ the
options position because the expiration date was reached.
~aluationsfor the put options are shown in Figure 1 1.10. ne can see that they go
up and down with swings in the underlying spot price of electricity and that the put
options with higher strike prices have higher market valuations, as would be expected.
PEP
Each agent in the population buys andor sells the four put options. These agents act
according to i n t e ~ a l ~gene~ated
y buy and sell signals. These signals are ~eneratedu s ~ ag
GA to vary the coe~cientsin a mQdified ~ ~ a c k - ~ c h ocalculation.
les ~ p t i o n §could be
traded only for peak periods on weekdays, i.e. Monday-Friday, 1l.OOa.~.-4.0O~.m.
GA val~ationof options and buyhell signals: The GA is as a string of real
number genes. The number of genes is determined by the c on being p e r f o ~ e d
by the GA (described next). For these simulations each GA has eight genes, each of
which is a real n ~ b e r ,
The equation currently used by the GA to generate a buy or sell signal is a
modified ~ ~ a c ~ - S c h ovaluation.
les A signal to buy or sell an option will be generated if
the GA valuation minus the market valuation is greater than some tbes
dl and d2 in the lack-~choles formula are recalculated using a modifi
a’, where CT‘ = (Gene2).CT and where LT is the ‘standard’ calculation
deviation of the spot price. A buy signal is genera~ed if
-
[Gene0 * X exp( --r * (2‘ - t ) ) N(- d1)- (Gene 1). S N(- d2)] + (Gene 2 ) is
greater than the Market Price. Similarly, if a new d l and d2 are calculate
gene^).^ and the Market Price is rea ate^
[(Gene4)-x . e x ~ - r . ( T - t ) ) . N ( - d l ) - ( G e ~ e 5 ) . $N(-d2)f+(Gem7)
. then a sell
is generated.
3 Power System Restructuring and ~ e r e ~ l a ~ o n
IQ
__ 1
29
0 20 40 60 Bo 100 120 140
0.
20
0 0
0 28 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
V ~ l u a t i ofar
~ Put 2 (strike=$25)
$
$
0 0
Hours
1.10 Market valuation for the put options ($ vs. hours)
rodu~tion: AAer fitness is calculated, the agen~sare sorted accord~ngto their
ss. Reproduction is performed using single-point crossover of two parents selected
from the best half of the population using r selection, One child is created and
~ e ~ l a can
e sagent in the worst half of the popu
Each child’s genes can be mutated in four different ways (bearing in mind that the
genes are real-valued):
1, 2% of the time the gene is r e ~ ~ a c erandomly.
d
2. 5% of the time the gene is multiplied or d
. 10% of the time the gene is multiplied or
. 1% of the time the sign of the gene is ch
1.5
0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Maximum Fitness
-15 .
-20 .
3
Minimum Fitness
5r----- ' 1
1
0 20 40 60 a0 100
Average Fitness
igure 11.11 Maximum, mini mu^ and average fitness over a typical run. The vertical axis m ~ a ~ r e s
profit per generation; the horizontal axis counts generations.
na wer
m
Solving the optimal power flow (0 m is ~ n d a to~ the~ ~ n b u~n d~l i nof~
associated with n open access and is of increasing
dereguiated environment of the electricity
ension n o n - l i ~ ~optimisation
r
which is difficult to solve. The ~ o ~ p u t a ~ ~difficulties
onal in solving the OPF prob
its use in power system o p e ~ t ~ o n s .
gene0 -2.7386
gene1 :-I 4.23i
gme2: 4 . ~ ~ 9 6
g~ne5:-6.441 1
gene& 2.6333
g e n ~ 7-6.97
~ 17
Fitness = 1.7178
11.4.1
minf(x, U) (1 1.1)
subject to
s Q l ~ ~An o individual
~: in a pop~~ation re~resentsa candidate
ts o f that solution consist of the co~trollableand uncontrol
v ~ ~ a b S~ ~e e~ c. ~ ~the c ac ~o l~~~ o ~ v~aa~ ba b~~eeare
s ~ p e c i ~ epower
d on at all
o r nodes other than the slack node, the specified voltage m
g e ~ ~ r a t (PV) at all PV
nodes and tap positions for variable tap t r ~ s f o ~ e rEach s . candidate solution also stores
depe~dentvaria~lessuch as the most recent load flow solution for subsequent use in
~ i t ~ a l i s i nthe
g load flow on the next iteratio~to reduce c o ~ p u ~ t i otime n within the
loadflow algorithm.
(1 1.2)
where U{Pm,, 1
P,, is a ~ i f r o~ ~d numbe~
o~ ~ b e ~ e e nP,," and P,. In additio~to this,
one cand~datesoiution will have its specified active power generation for all PV nodes
excluding the slack node set to the economic dispatc~solu~ionfor the system
active power load as the aggregate active power load of all nodes plus 2% to appr
~ ~ s ~ ~ losses.
§ s ~This
o neconomic dispatch solution is obtained using the
otherwise
~ n ~ o ~ aTechnology
~ i o n ~pplicat~oi~
I initialise Population
I
~ ~ uA new t ~ ~ ~ of
population : OFF solutions is produced
from the existing population through the mutation operator. A new indivi
from each ~ndividua~ p i , where thejth OPF variable in the new ind
calc~~~ated
as
where x:> denot~sthe value of variable j in pIr. x, is the value of variablej in the parent
~ ( O , ~ is
~ ,a )Gaussian random n u ~ ~ ~ with
ber a me^ of zero and a s
deviation of oJ,The e x ~ r e s s i ~esigned
I o~ for c,,i s
(1 I .5)
w ~ e r eJi is the ~ ~ eofsi ~s d i v ~ d ui; af~,,, is the m ~ i m u mfitness wit hi^ the po~ulation;
xY,x;ltn denote the er and lower limits of variable j ; a is a ~ o s i ~ ~ v ~
tly less than unity; and r is the iteration counter. The term a'
ation of~setthe rate of which depends on the value of a
(1 1.5) that a solution that has a much lower fitness than th
value fora,,; hence it will be moved further by r n u ~ ~ i oton a
loc
~~~~~~~: To help in the satisfaction o f the slack node active
c o ~ § ~ a i ~allt sunits
, other than the slack are assigned R loadi
their dispatc~esi s then compared with the total generati
of that indiv~dua~. If the difference between them is with
the slack unit, then the candi~ateis ~ c e p ~ eIfd .not, the process
five a~empts.If with~nthese a~emptsa feasible assignment is n
c o n s ~ a i n ~tod force satisfaction by sharing the ~xcessive
r ~ ~ a i generators
n ~ g as follows.
ing the slack node active power in an i n d i v ~ d has ~l
e slack unit is unit 1, the total available capacity o f uni
-N (1 1.6)
i=2
~xce$sivegeneration of the slack node is
2
(11.7)
is the SUM of the active power demand an the tran~rnissionloss the value of
e ~ y load flow s ~ ~ u t i oofn
which is set to that found in the i ~ e d ~ a t prev~ous
The loading of unit 2 is then modified according to
(11.8)
The above proceditre is repeated to modify the loadings of the units 3 to N. After all b:
Ioadings of the units are ~ o d ~the ~ slack
~ d node
, active power will be on its
power limit is viola~~a.
: In the corn~etition stage, a s e ~ e ~ ~ ~ o n
~ ~ ~ h a n iiss ruse
n on from the two
I so~utionss h o u l ~
selection*The selection t e ~ ~ n i used q u ~is a ~ ~ ~ ~ n aschemern~nt
their co~espondi
series of N, t o ~ ~ n ~ m
~ ~ p o nEach ~ ~j ~ d§i v. i d i~isa a~s s i ~ ~ ae wore
d s, according to
j=1
(I 3 * 10)
method o f switching which is applied within the load flow stage. When a PY node ha
node, it is no longer possible to control the voltage at that bus
result the algorith~does not adjust the voltage o f a switched PVnode.
11.4.5 ~ r ~ ~ iAccelerat~o~
ent
to the large dimens~onali~ of the OPF p r ~ ~ ~ ee m v o, ~ u ~ o nca ~
ues such as EP can take an ~ a c c e p ~number le of iterations to c ~ n v e
e speed of convergence of the EP-BPF algorithm, acceleration t e c ~ ~ ~ ~
rovide an inte~ediater e ~ m a ~ pof i ncandidates
~ to a more optimal ~osition,
led. To achieve this acceleration, a ~ r o p o ~ of o nthe popu~ationis moved in
the dir~ct~on of the negative gradient. This is achi
o ~ ~ hofm1431. As the gradient step forms only
choice o f step size is not as critical as it is in a
to a constant sniall step size to enswe convergence.
The sens~tivityo f the s o ~ u ~ otonc h ~ g e s ent variab~esvaries
solution is less sens~tiveto changes in activ than to ~ h ~ g ine s
magnitudes and iransfo ap settings. As a result of this, di
has a large step size while
r step sizes. These variable-
11.4.6 A ~ p l ~ c ~ tSfu
ion
The EP-OPF a l g o ~was t ~applied to the IEEE 30-bus test system. Three sets of
cost curves were used to illustrate the robustness of the technique. The fust case
is where all curves are quadratic 1471; in cases (b) and (c) some of the cost
cewise quadratics or quadratics with sine components. Ther~forein
are many local optimal solutions for the dispatch p
thm cannot d e ~ ~ i the n e global o p t ~ msolution^
~
e for va~~dating the developed algorithm.
lemented using the 6: ~ ~ g u ~ g e
pro~ramwas execu ~entiL~mFro computer. The speci
~ system data are s u ~ a ~ i s in
a l g o ~ t hand e dthe Append~x, In all cases, the standard
IEEE 30-bus loading is used.
as^
In thi are represented by quadratic functions from [
s ~ m a ~ s ine dTable 11.2. The program was run 100 times with the se
i ~ .average cost of solution obtained was $803.51 with the mi
A p ~ e n ~The
$802.62 and ~ a x ~ m $805.61.
u ~ The average execution time was 51.4
i o ~ for the ~ i n i m u mcost are provided in Table 11.2.
s o ~ ~ tdetails
For this case, a solution of $802.40 was reported in [471. This was obtained using
penalty functions for generator reactive power limits. The EP-OPF returned a solution with
no PV nodes being switched. ~ o w e v ~the r , solution from [47] violates the slack
-limit s~ightlyby approximately 1.7
le 11.2. Generator data and cost coeficients for base case (a)
d ~ ~ o n s ~that
a t ethe~ D has d~~ficultieswith n ~ n - c o n vs~o ~l u t i ~surfaces.
~ It is
global o ~ t i if~ the u ~ o d i ~ c a ~di e~s nc s~ b e ~
ever, the global o p t i ~ u mwill
ing intervals for units 1
entire solution space unlike
The voltage profile at the solution is shown in
I -
- -
5 10 15 20 25 30
Node
h4 (11.11)
fi E
/ k
KJ(vk
-1.0)~ if V, $1.0, k aP
VFk=
othe~ise
The ~~r~ VF, denotes a penalty term on a load node k and K,is a constant penalty
he ~ ~ ~w ~i ~ ~then ~SD if o ~e u l as t i o n v ~ o ~ w~ ~tr e~also
~ n
to the form of VFkabove. With this penalty the 1 a ~ ~to ~m ipn ~t~ i s e
the cost o~generationwhile trying to ~ a i ~thet load a ~ fl
To ~ e m ~ n sthe ~ teffect
e of this change, case (b)
The voltage profile achieved is shown in Pi
ge level to load nodes
51.54, which is close to th
able 11.5. Of the 10
a b e ~ e profile
r than that found in (b
~ i f ~ cinu~lr ~o v ~ daidne~q u a ~solutions.
~
ble 111.5 ~i~~~ solution found by EP-OPF ia case (c)
11 be s h o that
~ this new ‘ c ~ m ~ I e x ’
i=l
(1 1.12)
- 1
i n
i = l , ..., rn
J=I
y f ~ n c t i E,
~ nis~being ~ i n i ~ i s e d
to obtain an o ~ t i ~set
a lof values o f w usin the ~ h ~ l l - c l i ~ bai n ~~' ~so that
o at~ ~ t ~
,the ~ o l ~ ~ w holds:
~ng
(1 1.15)
where j =
(11.116)
(11.17)
In order to test the p e r f o ~ ~ of c e the newly deve~Qped‘co~plex’ versus the
co~ventiona~ ‘real’ in handling complex numbers, a simple ~ n c t i o nshown in
e q u a t ~ o(1~1.18) is A data set with nine ~~~~g ex les ape ~vailableand ~~0~
uring the training process, we ~ o ~ t i n u o u keep
s ~ y track of the total s ~ u ~ e d
t from the nine training sets.
0 = x+-1
x
(11.18)
0 x
5.1 - j4.9 0.1 -+ j0.l
2.1 -j3.8 0.1 +j0.2
1.1 -j2.7 0.1 +j0.3
4.2 j1.9
~
0.2 +j O . l
-
2.7 j2.3 0.2 +j0.2
I .74 - j Z 0.2 +j0.3
3.3 j0.9 0.3 +j0.l
2.61 - j1.34 0.3 +j0.2
1.97 -.j1.37 0.3 Cj0.3
Info~at~~
o n~ c ~ nApp~icat~on
o i o ~ 3
0 0
In order to make a fair comparison, the computer sim~lationhas been carried out again
by us in^ thee d~fferentnetwork con~gurations. The same functi
as shown in equation (1 1.18) and Table 11.6 have been used
consists of two separa~ereal NNs, each consisting of one real input node,
node and one real o u ~ unode,t thus t e ~ ‘Two
e ~S e p a ~ W~ es ’ . The sec0
ut nodes, two real hidden nodes and two real
The third c o n ~ g u ~ a t consists
io~ of one
complex hidden node and one ~omplex
bjective of this simulation is for detailed
reduced by 10 times CO e
Figure 1 1.21. It can be seen e
b e h a v i ~ ~ofr two separate NNs ery poor, as expected came there is no cross-
i n ~ Q ~ a t ib~tween
on the two real
error a l ~ o u g hit takes more iter
whenever ANNs are applied to electric power systems. One typical example of a ~ p ~ y ~ g
the 'complex' ANN to load flow analysis is shown in the following section.
0 35 ................................................................................................................................
7 ....................
\ ...........................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
..................................
~ i 11.21gError~history~of three
~ N s for comparison
bu
14 training examples, shown in Table 11.8, have been generated by the sofhvare
g the two ANNs. In this case, the voltage at bus-
for l e ~ i n by
e three gener~torsmaintain constant voltages at the c o ~ e s ~ o n d i
The limit of iterations for both ANNs is set to 230000 as in the case of Section 11.5.3.
Figure 1 1.23 shows the variation of the total squared error of the two ANNs with r ~ ~ etoc t
the number of iteration.
0.08
0.07
b
U
2 0.05 ~
(B
0.04 -
0.03 - C~nventionalNN
0.01
0
1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181 201 221
.4
Since the 1980s’ formation process in^ has exploded. Process power has doubled
every two years. Today, the Intel Pentium I11 runs at a clock spee
Et is expected that by 2002, the chip could run at a clock speed of 3 t
the technology could create, sto search and process vast amounts o
’have yet to advance the techno y further to access and interface
easily. Tra~it~onal~y, interactio ith a comp~terhas involved
mouse or j o y s t i c ~ ~ a c k b aevicc to input information and the us
(VDU) to receive output m the system. With the development of virtual re
syst~ms7 new intera~~ion ods have been developed that allow the user to
computer- generate^, or virtual, environments (VEs). VR can be considered an e x t ~ s i o nof
ideas which have been around for some considerable time, such as flight s ~ ~ u l a tand io~
wide screen ~ i n e m aUsing~ such systems, the viewer i s presen~edwith a ~ c r which e ~ ~ ~
on of the visual field giving a powerful s
ite of technologies which permit human
resen~tionsof i n f o ~ a t i o nheld in c
, a u d i t o ~and tactile stimuli, eac
cant extension to the way the users kte
shared unders~nding,lead
to simulate inacc
allowing the user to extract the lessons to be learned without the inherent risk, This alltsws
the user to i ~ ~ t ~ rin a crte a ~ - ~ ~with
m e a computer-generated e~vi~onment in a s i ~ p l ~ ,
‘natural’ m ~ n e rw7 ~ t ~ othe u t need for extensive mining. Pres
av~i~able budget and
requires high levels of
nts in low-cost desktop
e technology more
of smaller ~ompanies.The strength of VEs is in
ion of the n a t u int~ractive
~~ skills of the human. As
esktop’ VEs systems, inte~ratingnovel display
widely used. The po~ential
and a great deal of research is currently
develop these technologies into effective useable
eaply on a conventional desktop
large-screen display for mult~~user pa~icipation.A l ~ o ~ not g h always re~evantto
use, i ~ e r s i v erepresen~a~~ons can involve the use of head-mou~teddisplays
tactile gloves, and other devices to enhance the effect. Ap~licationsrange from simulations
cal items ~ ~ a n g ~from n g buil~ingsto mole~ulars ~ c ~ r e to s )more abs~act
such as the disp~ayof large amounts of t ~ ~ e - v data ~ ~ (e.g.
n g analysis of world
lex databases) or illus~a~ing intan~ib~e concepts [54].
11.6.1’ Types of
A l ~ ~ o u githis dif~cultto catego~seall V systems, most con~guratio
gory can be ranked by the sense
sion or presence can be regard
3 Power stem ~ e ~ ~andcDere
~ i n ~
II.~.6 Cave
Gave is a small room where a computer"generated world is
ro~ect~on is made on 0th the front and side walls. This soluti
collective VK experience because it allows different people to share the same e x ~ e r i ~ nat
ce
the same time. It seems that this t ~ c ~ o l o g i c solution
al i s p ~ i c u I ~ appropriate
ly for
cockpit simu~a~ions as it allows views from differ~ntsides of an i ~ a ~vehicle. i n ~
and the creative expression of ideas. Note that a VE can represent any 3-D world that is
either real or abstract. This ~ncludesreal systems like buildings, landscapes, spacecra
e s ~ scene recons~ctions,solar systems, and so on. Of special jnteres~are the
s c u ~ p ~ rcrime
visual and sensual representation of abstract systems like magnetic fields, turbulent flow
s t r ~ ~ t ~molecular
es, models, mathematical systems, auditorium acoustics, stock
behaviour, population densities, and any other artistic and creative work of abstract nature.
These virtual worlds can be animated, interactive, shared, and can expose behaviour and
~nctiQnality.
"hough still relatively new, VR has already been put to use in a number of different,
iniiovative ways. In the world of industrial design, engineers are using CO
simula~ionsof prQto~pesto speed up the time required to take a new product from the
drawing board to the productioii line. In the world of science and medicine, doctors are
computer-simulated pathologies to determine the outcome of ~o~entially risky
cedures before these procedures are actually p e ~ o ~ on e d
il e ~ ~ i n e e ~architects
ng, and interior designers are using VR s
realistic, computer-genera~edsimulatjons of proposed environmen~.The
can then be ~ o d i ~ eindreal-time based on client input, zoning ordinances, ~ e s t h e ~ i c
concerns and budgetary considerations.
In the world of weather fore casting^ VR is being used to predict weather p a ~ e and ~ sto
create h ~ r i ~ a mn e o ~ wh~ch
~ ~ can
s accu~atelyd where a storm will make 1
and when. In the world of higher education, s astronomy students tour
galaxies and physiol students tour the innermost workings of the human body. A VR
sim~lationof a CO pip~workla~out,for example, could allow access, main~nance
and safety aspects to be examined at the design stage, more effectively than by mode~~ing.
It imi~ediateIypermits the evaluati~nof routing and accessibili~~ thereby avoiding
expensive, t~~e-consuming correction during or even after c o n s ~ c t i o nT~h e r ~are many
portunities that have yet to be explored.
In the ~ n ~ o ~ a t iage,o n VR has been identified as one of the romising
de~~elopment areas. There is a constant improvement in marketing per of both
quality of appl~cat~ve VR systems and receptiveness of potential customers, T h i s is due to
decrease of the cost of VR systems and devices, (2) the
rmance r e l i a b ~ l iof
~ the t e c h ~ o l o (3)
~ , the extKeme~y
ed from VR use in its various forms and purposes such as
gh the t e c ~ o l o g yis mature enough to have d~fferentappli~atio~s, there
resolved for its use for practical app~ications.
The sensational press cov associated with some of these t e c ~ o l o ~ has e s led
many ~ o t e n ~ iusers
a l to overe e the actual capabi~~ties of existing systems. Many of
them must a~tuallydevelop the t e c ~ o l significantly
o~ for their specific tasks. Unless
their expertise includes ~ ~ o w l e of ~ gthee human-machine interface requi
application^ their res~ltingproduct will rarely get beyond a 'conceptual
~racticalapplications. Current VR products employ proprietary hardw
There is little doubt that incompatibility between different systems is restricting market
growth at present. It is probable that as the market matures, certain s t ~ d a ~will d s emerge.
The premise of VE seems to be to enhance the interaction between people and their
systems. It thus becomes very important to understand how people perceive and inte
events in their environments, both in and out of virtual represen~tion of reality,
n t a l remain about how people interact wi the SYs~ems,b v h e y may
~ u n d ~ ~ ~questions
ce and a u g ~ e n cognitive
t c esuch e n v ~ o
p ~ r f o ~ a n in
n ~ p l o for
y ~i n s ~ c t i o n~, i n i n and
g other ~ ~ o p l e - o ~ e
The t ~ e system
~ a consists
~ of an infrared camera, shown in Figure 1 1.24, a
shown in Figure 11.25. The ~nfrareddetectors inside the camera are cooled
argon to and they sense ds p ~ c ~ in m
the range betwee
while floppy disks and h i g ~ - s ~ e e d
proce~singon a PC,
DMK with pannin~tiltinghnctions can give the absolute c o o r d ~ ~ tof e seach grid point on
e n ~ the thermal system can give the rea~-times u ~ a c tee ~ p e r a ~ r e
the power e ~ u i p ~ while
of that grid point. When this information is fed into a tailor-made ~ - b a s software
~ d
e, a 3-D thermal image can be displayed and manipulated. The major prob~emhere
is with the co~espQndence between the DMK and the thermal system, i.e. matching eve^
~ g on the thermal image.
point sensed by the DMK lo a c o ~ e s p o n d i point
2 6 Laser-based ~ s t a n c e - m e a kit
s~~~
where
( I 1.24)
Y w j
Xwj
Information T ~ c h ~ o A
~ ~ g~ y~ ~ c a t i ~ n
xwj
Ywj
z wj
1
4 Power System R e s ~ c and
~ D~ enr ~ ~ l a ~ i o ~
object has the same spatial resolution with respect to the original one. Inte~olation
surface temperat~eis by means of a similar process.
The grid points are generated in appropriate sequence by the two ~ ~ - c o n stepper ~ ~ ~ ~ e
m o t o ~ ,For each of the n number of 8, within the specified ran^^, there are m n ~ b e r of s
8, ~ i ~ h another
in specified range. Hence, the grid points can be viewed as elements of
es where n x m = M , each representing the x, y and z coordinates of
ely. For the (ij)grid point where i = 1, ..., n-1,a n d j = 1, ..., rn-1,
nts, namely (i+lj), (ij+l) and (i+lj+I)> are conside
ing ( i j ) , (i+lj) and (ij+l) and the other hav
(i+Xj+l). The equation of the first plane is given by the followin
(1 1.27)
L
I
(11.28)
~ rany
The ~ e ~ p e r a of e point on the three sides of the tri
~ n t e ~ ~ of~ the
~ t two~ overtices,
n i.e. the two end points
a ~ ~ ~ t i omatrix
n a l ~~nsist~ ofnnine
g r must be s
o ~1.29).
the e q ~ a t i (1 ~
(1 1.29)
~ f o r m a ~ i oTechnology
n Application 7
11-7.4 I ~ p ~ e ~ e~ ~ ~~ ~
a t ~i op ~ ~ e
The competitive electricity market: raises utility cost consciousness.
n o ~ a i l yassociated with equi~menti n v e § ~ e and
n ~ continuous niai
system. Power trans~orm are one of the most expensive elements in the s ~ s ~ e m .
~ d e n t i f i ~ a ~of n hot ots, i.e. potential faults, could provide benefits inclu
~ oany
extended ~ ~ n s f o Ii ~ e r es, reduc~ion in risk of failures and i
maintenance s ~ a t e ~ i e A e r shown in Figure 1 1 2 8 , housing three 1500
s , t r ~ s f o ~room,
kVA 11 kV/380 V ~ ~ s f o ~ ewas r sused
, for implement in^ the developed system.
m e3~under i ~ a g i ~ g
9 T r a ~ ~ ~ o rNo.
The c a ~ i ecover has a ower t e m p e r a ~ e , All these fe
0
c_
E -0.2
cc
N
-0.4
3.5
s for ~ a i n t ~ n a n c this
e,
e optical and thermal
Iiifomatioii Technology Appl~ca~~on
The authors would also like to thank IEE and IEEE for granting p e ~ i s s ~ otonEeproduce
the materials contained in references [4,61] and [9,1 13 respectivley.
fa: The load Row data for the system is that of the s t ~ ~ a r d
hes ll,lZ315 and 36 are in phase tap-ch
tap pin^ ranges of &lO% with a step size of 1%. The
busses is 0.95 p.u, while the upper limit is 1.05 p.u.
generation nodes have an upper limit of 1.10 p.u.
[I] ~ i a and
M.P. Wong, ‘ ~ ~ ~int~lligence l neural network applications in power system^', Invited
Paper, Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in Power system Control,
e n 1943,
Operation & ~ ~ n a g e ~IEE, ~ , pp.37-46.
41 Power System Restructiiriiig and Deregulation
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r Lsi Lei Lai
City U n ~ v e r sLondon
i~~
UK UK
12.2.1 at Is fheI ~ t @ ~ n e ~ ?
A p ~ ~ ~ofthe ~ n to Power ~ y s t e onitoring
c a ~Internet ~ and Tradi~g 7
The Internet allows compiiters to talk to each other via a cable or wireless CO
order to allow computers m i n g differearl operating systems to communic
l a n ~ u a gor
~ , ~ a n s ~ ~ s sprotocol,
ion is ~ e ~ u i rThe
e ~ .most comm
on the I n t e ~ ei s~TCPIICP. The use of a protocol ensures that a user
information on the Internet regardless of the computer, operating rryste
~ n f o ~ a t i oonn the Internet to be universa~~y accessibl
vided in a f o ~ a that t can be displayed success~llyan
veloped to allow data to be received in a
presen~bIelayout [2,3]. d o c ~ e n t are
s plain text d o c u ~ e n t sCO
allow software to display the text in a ~ o r m a ~ elayout. d For active pages,
languages such as J cript or Java allow software to be included in a
added interactivi~. s o ~ a r products
e used to display Web doc
~rowsersbecause they assist the user in browsing or surfing the I
most common Internet browsers are Internet Explorer by M
~ a v i g a t by
o ~~etscape.
i n d u s has
~ been utilised by the power ~ n d u for
s ~s ~ e ~ l i n ~
cing ~roductivity.The best power plants are not the plants with
their computers. The best power plants will be the ones w h ~ arec ~using the right IT tools
and using them appropriate^^.
There are many benefits to the power ~ n d u by s ~accessing the largest resource of IT
tools, the Internet and some of them are listed below:
e r e ~ l a ~ of
~ oenergy
n market
formation on power privatisation available for customers
esentation of private e ~ e r g ysupply companies
ice c ~ m p ~ i s for
o n energy custome~
-up to electricity suppli
ised supply chain by cing supply chain costs
t of remote e - p ~ e r s h i p s
tomer relationship management
d control for manag~ngpeak demand energy ~ ~ c i n g
for teleco~municat~ons
ice provider (ISP) services
o f c o ~ o d i t i e and
s equipment
of the Inte~etto Power System ~ o n i ~ o rand
~pp~ication i ~ Trading
g 19
12.3.I ~ ~ i e nUse
t ~for
~ ~c e s e u r ~ h e r s
Originally, in addition to the US military effort, universities created the Intemet to share
infQrmationon research p r o ~ a ~ eIns other
. words, the I n t e ~ itself
e ~ has been a research
p r o ~ a m m ebetween universities in the USA. With the Internet in place, research p~ojects
can be continued where other research projects have stopped. This is p ~ i c u ~true ~ l for
y
open governmen~land ~ n i v ~projects, s i ~ avoiding duplication of rese
private research projects are executed behind closed doors for economic
reasons although there are exceptions.
esearch software projects which are sponsored by universities or the public sector for
evelopment on the frontier of technology are often open source and accessible to
ch projects often benefit from the input of hundreds of con~ibutingp r o g r ~ e r s
from all over the world. One example of such a collective effort is the Linm operating
e d an countable number of c Q n ~ i b u tand
system, It has been ~ e v e ~ o p by o ~ ~ a ~into r ~ d
a very stable and reliable system. Most importantly, its source code is freely available on
the I n ~ e ~ e ~ .
4120 Power System Restrur;turing and
12.3.2 ~ ~ u c u t ~Use
~nal
The Internet can be used to access information on schools, universities, scho~ars~ip9
fellows~ips9 and others. It is able to improve inte~ctionsb e ~ e insti~tions
~ n by sharin
i n f o ~ a t i o nabout events, projects, timetables, resources and act~vities,wh~chmay pro
the usability of resources, such as sharing transportation or avoiding overcrowding in the
local s w i m m ~ gpool. The Internet can even help reduce the ~ ~ i costs n gof schools, e,
ent to be bought in bulk and shared by several institution§.
als can be made available to students on-line, which saves on material
costs, cannot be lost or left at home and allow students to get pr~pared.F ~ h e ~ o rthey e,
allow p ~ t e students~ ~ a to ~ gather more detailed i n f o ~ a t i o nabout a course
up for it.
There are several on-line training courses avaiIable on the I n ~ e ~ eThey t . allow people
who live in ~ e m o locations
~e to continue their education after leaving school. With the help
of an on-line tutor, which monitors the progress of students remotely, queries can be sent
and answer~dvia e-mail within minutes, On-line exam~ationsand o n - ~ i nmu~tip~e-choice ~
questions generally follow such studies, includ~ngthe publishing o f exam~nationres~lts.
12.3.3 Inte~net
Prior to ~ ~ i a ndecision
g on which product to purchase, extensive i n f o ~ a t i o
fact sheets and general opinions can be analysed. The I n ~ e ~ ~e nt a ~ lusers
es t
product or component performance by being able to access dir
competing companies. Good starting points for obtaining lists of CO
sp~cialise~ on-line magazines, virtual ~xhibitionsor virtual shopping centxs.
usinesses can compete with on-line quotes for services and goods to a ~ c pto s ~ ~ b l e
cu~tomers.They can show detailed statistics on their busine5s p e r f o ~ a n c eto a ~ a c t
pot~n~iali n v ~ s ~ and
o r ~shareholders, ~usines€escan pu~lishi n f ~ ~ a t i oand
n co~~icate
via a secure Internet connection and firewalls to improve c o ~ u n ~ c a between
~ o n remote
of the Internet to Power System Monitoring and Trading
Ap~li~ation
~ u l t i m ~ dmeans
ia the simui~neoususe of more than one medium. A single medium can
be text, image, video and sound. ~ ~ i ~ t i m edevices
dia are able to play music, animated
images, motion p i c ~ r e sand videos. But multimedia technology is not just about playing
multiple media, it also includes storing, transmitting and presenting information from
multiple sources. Uses for such technology include e n t e ~ i ~ e nvideot , conferencing,
video on demand (VOD), close circuit television (CCTV) and distance learning.
These are many different formats in which multimedia contents can be stored. The most
common ones found on the Internet are listed in Table 12.1.
This list s ~ a r ~ s only e s a fraction of available file types. There are many more file
types for images, sound or movies and new ones emerge constantly.
If the Internet browser receives a multimedia file, it identifies its contents by the
type, which is related to the file extension. Once the content i s identified, the browser
executes somVare to use the file as intended by the originator. In cases where the brow~er
does not include software for opening a file type, e.g. MOV (Windows
browser invokes a helper appl~cation,e.g. a movie player. For an unknown or
a browser plug-in or an external helper application may be required.
and ability of the Internet to distribute multimedia content, c
ed music and video occur. Without copy protection it is ve
convert music or video tracks into an Internet distributable format. But there are obvious
advan~gesfor selling music electronically over the Internet, e.g. no record c o ~ p no ~ y ~
i n t ~ ~ e d i a ~low
e s cost,
, large audience and many more.
Internet on-line services such as Internet banking and account managing, s h o p p ~in~ ~
virtual hopp pin^ malls, live news and trading floors, just to name a few, have become very
popular. On-line shop~inghas become very popular for light goods (sma~lpos~agecost)
music, videos and books. Several large supermarket chains are trying to push
ping for food and groceries by introducing a fixed delivery fee and
delivery times. Such business is not time critical and can be accomplished
continuous connection to the Internet.
Time-c~ticalon-line services, such as trading floors, require a con~inuousconnection to
the In~ernetin order to follow and react to market changes. They can only be succes
the used IT infhstructure can handle real-time data transmissions and if cont~ngency
are in place in case of technical failure.
2 Power System Restructuring and ~ e r e ~ ~ a ~
Trading floors and on-line auctions are a very promising development on the Internet.
They allow multiple sources and end users to meet in a c o ~ o virtual
n
business without verbal c o ~ u n i c a t i o nor travelling.
n t page desi should start from the need of the clients (the c o r n
~ f ~ c i eWeb
find the ~ f o ~ a t i or
o nproducts they require ( i n ~ e ~ e d i acontent)
te and move to t
(e-commerce tool). Making money via e-commerce requires the
real business on-line. ~ ~ c r e a s ~ n
1 barrier to purchase goods on-line, is one of the
info~a~~ o n can be found in Internet search engines. A Web client must be able to
storage
understand the format of the remote i n f o ~ a t i o naccessed for successful p r o c ~ i n gIf,
. for
example, a Web site containing Chinese writing is accessed, the browser must have the
reqLiired fonts installed. If rcal- me data should be displayed in a Web client, the client has
to have the capabili~to receive data updates and display changes ~ ~ c o r d ~ n gThe ly.
m u l t i ~ d eof data types and constantly emerging new technologies and standards forces
companies building such clients to release frequent updates. Users of Web clients should
e order to access new Internet tecIino~ogies.
always try to update client s o f ~ a r in
12.4.6 E-~~il
The Internet owes parts of its pop~~arityto the e-mail system. E-mail i s an electronic
means of sending a message from one computer to another in an organised fashion. E-mail
services are offered by an ISP. Mail accounts can be created from ISP e-mail providers
such as CompuServe or AOL. E-mail is the fastest and cheapest way of sending messages
Power System Restructuring and ~ e r e g u l a t i o ~
to any location in the world. There are specific protocols for sending and receiving e-mail
messages. The protocol used to send e-mail messages across the ~ ~ t eis~~ he et’ ~ i m p ~ e
rotocol ( S ~ T ~The ) . protocol used to receive e-mail messag~sis the Post Office
versions of these protocols have been improved in robustness and
P2 or POP3.
If e-mail c o n ~ i n smore than just text, e.g. a ~ ~ c h m e n tanother
s, ~ r o ~ o cisorequ~red.
~
llows do~nloadingor uploading of files on remote machines and is called
rotocol (FTP). It is a~~omatically invoked if an ~ ~ a c h r n ei sncopied
~ to a
hard disk. If, for i ~ s t a n e ethe
~ graphics adapter driver software requires upda~ing,i.t is more
than likely that it is available on the Internet. Generally, there will be more than one
location, called FTP site, for ~ownload~ng.
The most used protocof for Web browsing is the ?TP.This protocol carries
~ n f o about ~ ~the~originator
~ ~ nof the i n f o ~ a t i o nand the information itself It is able to
tell the b r o ~ s e of
r which type (e.g. plain text or cQ~pressed) and f o ~ a(e.g.
t ~ T ~JSP, L ¶
) the ~ n ~ o ~ isa so~ that ~ othen browser can play it correctly. Free ~ I i t e ~ e ~ - b ae-
sed
mail sewices are available, e. g. from HotMail o
home workers to have access to sensitive eompany data from any location. These
r e q u i r e ~ ~ ~have
n t s persuaded many companies to open up their private Intranet to connect
to the public Internet.
Protec~~nga private network and shielding it from h~ckers without restrictin
commun~catio~ to remote users can be achieved with a firewall. A firewail
w r ~ ~ to e ncombat unauthoris~access to files or uiider~y~no p e r ~ ~ ~
systems.
ng
on the company policies, only selected services are granted access to the outside world.
Figure 12.3 shows how an Intranet can be protected with a firewall. Local computers are
able to connect to each other and to the Internet, but remote coinputers with Internet access
43 Power System R e s ~ ~ c ~ rand
i n ~g e r ~ ~ l a t i o n
recipient needs to receive the private key, which can be intercepted. Private key generators
produce only one key (A) for encryp~ionand decryption of data.
! Trans~ission
1 across the
I Internet
I
I ~rans~ission
I across the
f Internet
I ~ e c r y p t ~ owith
n private key
o p ~ balanc~
~ ~ aof ~image quality a
Application of the Internet to Power System Monitoring md Trading 33
ua
software is ~ m p o ~ a nThe t . answer is Java. Java has been develo~edwith the Internet in
mind. It is not exactly i n ~ e ~ r e t eordn o ~ - i n t e ~ r e t ebut
d ~s o ~ e w h e in
r ~the m i d ~ l e ~
because the source program code is compiled into byte-code,
process. Java byte-code is i n ~ e ~ r e by ~ eadJava Virtual Machin
p r o ~ e s s o r ~ s ~ien~si ~ c~ ~ i during
o n s run-time. This mechani
different platforms if an a p p r o p ~ J~ ~ e
g languages are enabling Web pages
are i ~ p foro on-line ~ ~ and re
~ntgractiveWeb pages are required if feedback from the Web user is relevant.
12.5.3 at Is ~ a v a S c r ~ ~ ?
a p r o ~ ~ i n i ~n ga n ~ a which
g e is exe in the Web ~rowser.It is one of
ages that provide a means of adding
As shown in Figure 12.9, JavaScrip
cript v e ~ s a t i i allows
i~ Web pages to be created without
JavaScript does not necessarily need to be emb
eb pages in JavaSc~iptmight defeat the
ML pages by adding interactivity inste
Computer
1
opment p r o ~ a m i ~ i n1 g
creation of a Java source file, this file can be compiled into Java b ~ e - c o d evia a Java
compiler as shown in Figure 12.10.
Execution of byte-
ptain text Java instructions code in Java Virtual
Machine (JVM)
“Prograrn,class”
of which have a
~ n ~ ~for ar Java
~ applet
~ ~ n t
shows the e n v i r o ~ n
n Internet to Power System Monitoring and Trading
A p ~ l i c a ~ ~ofo the 7
access to c o n ~ ~ e n t i a ~
all parts are combined into a single H L page. The static part can include
~eneral~ n ~ o ~ aand o n The dynamic part can be a table where data is q u e ~ e
~ i logos.
a da~base,formatted and enclosed by ~~~L tags. Such dynam~ccreation of WT
can be achieved via a CGI or servlets. Therefore it is not unlikely that
initially being d as a set of templates with the conten~sadded via
creation, ~ e n ~ r a t i o a dynamic Web page is illustrate
~ b j ~ c t - o ~ i e n(00)
t e d ~ ~ t a b a scombine
es t
e ~the table. For ex
of i n f o ~ a t i o ns ~ o r in
ction could be the calculation of moving averages.
‘g l ~ n g u a gGalled
~ ~ ~ c ~ r e d
‘seque~’~. SQL is imple~ented
s t a n ~ ~saidd to be the
~ ~ t a ti si not
o ~ always guaranteed
~ ~to a ~ ~a ofor
w ~ ~~ a ~spe
~r e s s
Application of the lnternet to o w a System Monitoring and Trading
If the database is located on a server the appiicat~onaccesses the database via server
software. Such server software can be accessed via an ordinary http request. IVcan be
written in any CGI executable language, e.g. Per1 or C*, or as a pure Java application, e.g.
servlets or EJBs).
~erver-s~de soflware generally contains parts of the business logic of the database.
Business logic is, for example, pre-programmed SQL methods for accessing a database or
invoking transaction scripts as shown in Figure 12.16.
In most Web applications the third tier is to be regarded as the connection to the
database, since applications cannot be granted direct access to the database across the
Intemet for reasons of security. Therefore, whenever a database is accessed across the
Internet, an appropriate CGI, a servlet or EJBs must be coded. There are several software
companies creating ‘off-the-shelf client-server software for data presentation for the client
and database access on the server.
........ Client ............................ ...............................
~ f
.7
This section aims to give readers who are not Web developers a quick b a c ~ ~ r o u n
extended Markup Language (X ). XML is primarily used to define
wit atting i n f o ~ a ~ o n .
IS the most suppo~edf o ~ a t t i n gl a n ~ a g eby browsers on
lacks e x ~ ~ s i b i since
l i ~ , the tags which are used must be defined within the
the race began b e ~ e e nmajor Web browser m a n u f a c ~ r e ~style , defin
~ n ~ Q d uasc ~a matter
d of competitive advantage,
L weakness is that the tags are used for formatting and only little about
what the information is. XML can describe the stored i n f o ~ a t i o nclearly,
12.7.1
document i s accessed, a plain text editor can be used to access the data,
a d v a n ~ gis~that in years to come e v e ~ b ~ will
d y be able to readlwrite the files. Plain
files are pla~forrnand application independent. This means that it is not n ~ e s s to a ~use
files have been created in order to read the ~ n f o ~ a t ~ o n .
conversion can be saved if data creation s is
document file created in the 2980s word^^ or rd
2.0) 50 years later. This gives XML a truly universal and timeless data s
cr~ss-platforrndata ~ c ~ i v i and
n g com~atibi~i~y problems,
42 Power System Restructuring and ~ ~ r e ~ u l a t i o ~
Classic HTML pages contain both content and layout in the same file, causing
dif~cu~tiessince common layout needs to be replicated for all pages if changes are needed.
For example, if % large company changes the layout of its Web pages a modification of
each Web page is required if they were written in static HTML markup l a n ~ a ~This e*
o ~ for the
problem can be avoided if content and layout are separated. The t e c ~ o l used
separation could be achieved with XML for content and extended Stylesheet Lan
(XSL) for layout. Figure 12.17 shows the relationship. Details on XSL will be given later.
By separating content from layout, Web design can be split among specialised teams
such as graphical experts, script programmers and site managers. This allows each
component to be reused and versioned, reducing maintenance complexity.
Content Repository
3
SQL query objects SQL query objects
.I7 Rendering of XML data with an XSL stylesheet for NTML display
~ gthe XSL stylesheet ou ut formats such as WebTV, WAP, PDF or others
~ e p e n d on
d . XSL stylesheets are in principle XML documents, they can be
could be c o n § ~ c t ~Since
converted by another XSL stylesheet into a new XSL stylesheet as shown in Figwe 12.18.
12.7.5 ~~lesheet~
se of a stylesheet is to display X L data in a format specified by the stylesheet.
allow the same XML data to be d i s p l a ~ e din di€ferentways. Since a data view
is d ~ p e n d e ~ont which information about the data is requ~ed,s t y l ~ s h e eoffer ~ an
enormous flexibility not matched by RTML. If an HTML do
in table format, and a transposed view is required, a new HTML
creat~dand this will caus ation of data. If the data is
documents need to be up using a set of s
avoided. Regardless of which view is required by the us
o c u ~ e n tcQntaining the data. This ~ a n g e m e n toffeps
since only one data source is involved. If the user nee
n be used. One XML document can be f o ~ a in~many e ~ different ways just
its a ~ i b u t e ssuch
, as name, weight, sizes, f o r e g r o ~ dcolour, backg
~ ~ a g r a spacing,
ph and many more. CSS stylesheets were introduc
means o f extending the style properties of
L has a set of pre-defined eleme headings. If a CS§
t contains the same element n
will result which might not result in the
Application of the Internet to Power System nitoring and Trading
SS gets its name from the fact, that the stylesheets can be cascaded. This m e ~ that
n~
more than one stylesheet can be applied to a data source.
d o ~ u ~ eand
n t format it for the purpose of creating a static ~T~ document for publi~hing
on the Inkernet.
The increasing complexity of large electric power systems has resulted in a greater need for
~ ~ ~ n t e to c e a reliable supply of power. ~ o n d i t ~ o ~ - b a smain
n ~ensure e d ten^
d ~ § ~ b u t on-line
ed HV condition ~ o n ~ ~ have
o ~ been
n g the current trend. In Non
with the construction of m internaeional irport, new power substations have been built to
meet the huge energy d e m a n ~The
~ capacity of the existing distributed mon~tor~ng system,
which is based on one-to-one ~ o ~ u n i c a ~wasi o considered
~, i n a ~ e ~ uand
~ t et~ereforea
completely new design concept was tried. The schematic block diagram of the new~y
developed system is shown in Figure 12.19.
446 Power System Restructuring and Deregulation
12.8.I R ~ q u ~ r e m o~fnAirport
~ s Stibstation
An international airport, currently the largest in Southeast Asia, was constructed and was
opened in 1998, A number of electric power substations for the new terminal building and
associated i n ~ a s t ~ chave
~ r ebeen constructed. A detailed study into one of the numerous
substations revealed the shortfalls of the existing distributed on-line monitoring system
because the substation there had been too remote from the maintenance centres. The
engineers in charge of the transmission network in China Light & Power Company Ltd
(CLP) very often need to know not only the real-time status of power equipment but also
the security and fire safety of the substation. Furthermore, in consideration of a more
efficient operation of the system in the future, personnel in other organisations, such as the
Airport Authority, Fire Services Department and other operation and maintenance
departments within CLP, may need to gain access simultaneously to the important
information within the substation.
The original information system needed to be enhanced and extended to tackle the fire
safety and security requirements. Therefore, the idea of remote vision for substation
monitoring has been employed. This enabled engineers and relevant staff to sec on their
remote display monitors the real-time scene of the indoor environment of the substation at
different office locations or at home during standby duty. Intruders and fire outbreak in
terms of smoke emissions can be detected immediately. To allow simultaneous access to
information by all parties concerned, the old method of using modem-based peer-to-peer
communication has been abolished and replaced with an In~e~et-based client-server
concept.
MC - Micro Controller
PC - Personal Computer
Cap. - Capacitor
I
I
The substations, though having great impact on the integrity and normal
whole airport, are normally unmanned. Existing substations are equipped
panels that retrieve signals from smoke and heat detectors. False alarms are fr~quently
encountered and this leads to wasting resources as the fire services are only able to
discriminate them when they arrive at the remote sites, Illegal intruders must be
and prohibited from entering such substations at any time. To accomplish
mentioned above, a remote vision system was developed.
te V i $ ~ ~ n
off-the-sh V cameras are installed at different locations in e
Figure 12.20 shows the structural schematic diagram of the remote vision sys
is to cover all internal areas as completely as possible. For example, the eight locations of
the airport substations being monitored are the fire panel, control roam, 11 kV switchgear
room, 132 kV switchgear room, substation entrance, 132/11 kV transformer bay, cable
basement 1 and cable basement 2. Each camera is equipped with the functions o f
zooming and tilting. The video signal from each camera is wired back to a tai
‘remote control and multiplexing box’. The on-site PC controls each box via the prhter
port. Through this box, the lighting contactors of the eight locations can be e
de-energised based on commands from a remote server. This is to ensure
~ l l ~ i n a t ~level
o n €or each camera to grab a satisfactory real-time image of each location.
Via this box, the video signal of any one camera can be selected by an image ~ a b b e card r
on a time-~ultiplex~ng e , PC is c a ~ u n i c a t i ~with
basis. F u ~ e ~ o r the g all o
microcontrollers in the existing distributed monitoring system. In addition, control si
for p a ~ i n gand tilting each camera can be output from the box. C o ~ u n i c a ~ i obetween
n
the PC and the CLP m a i ~ t e ~ centre
~ c e is accomplished by a modem.
On the sofhvare side, the on-site PC has two modes of operation, namely the re
mode and the real-time mode. The regular mode i s active during normal operation. The on-
site PG s e q ~ ~ e n ~grabs
i a ~ ~images
y from the eight cameras at a ~ ~ e ~ u e o€ n c5yseconds per
frame.
The value of the average grey level can be used to assess the overall ~lluminat~o
of the site and the lighting system of the site can be switched on and off acc~rding~y. The
average grey level of this updated image is further compared with that of the previous
image, which was grabbed and saved onto the hard disk 40 seconds ago. If t ~ e i~s ea
significant change in the average grey level, the two images cannot be compared d ~ e c t l y
and the system will regard it as an error and wait €or another 40 seconds. ~ ~ e the ~ ~
updated image is subtracted from the previous image so that any significant chan
nsidered significant, the on-site PC will first of a11 save the two
relevant images onto the hard disk for later reference and then inform the ma~ntenance
centre by producing an alarm at the server. On top of analysing the images, the on-site PC
saves the real-time images onto the hard disk at a frequency o f two sets per how.
There are two levels of operatian being selected by the server, namely the coarse level
and the fine level. Under the coarse level, images of size 320 pixels x 200 pixels are
transmitted, resulting in a transmission cycle of only 48 seconds for the eight images from
the eight respective cam er^. If the user finds anything unusual, the fine level can be
Power System Restructuring and
switched in, resulting in a transmission rate of around 35 seconds for each image of size
640 pixels x 400 pixels. The user is able to fix any camera ‘on-line’ and p a ~ ~ i l ~ z othat om
p a ~ ~ c u lca r~ e r aThe. compression algorithm for these images is ‘ s ~ d ~ d
with the quality factor set at 15 o/o so that the file size of coarse-level
e-level images is around 30 kb. There are two f a c t o ~
~ a n s m i ~ s ~rate,o n namely the quality factor and the speed o
quality factor is the optimal value based on experime
improvement is limited. If an ISDN link is provided from the s
su~$~ation, the ~ansrnissionrate wilf be su~stan~ia~ly improved.
This remote vision system requires neither spare contacts nor a d d ~ t ~ o n~ as~d u c e r sIt.
can be used to prevent theft as well, General ins~ectionof the s
such as c ~ e c k i ncleanliness
~ and quality of ~aintenancework.
Is can be grabbed as images so that the user at
ce centre can confirm. whether the are false or genuin~
re~evan~ camera to see the existence of smoke in the aetivat~$zone.
remote vision system can be used to monitor external contrac
necessary in the substation. ~ q u i p ~ ein
n th a ~ r d o u areas
s or areas withou~
ce, such as confined spaces or equipment rooms with live conductor^, can
be monitored by this system. During major overhauling or fault h a n ~ l i n the ~, ~ a i n t e ~ ~ c e
~ a n a g e isr able to visualise the equipment status through the ~ i s ~ mon ~ay
i n s ~ c t i o n to
s the site engineers, Site problems encountered can be effici
eration of the site staff and central management personnel.
<TRFWSFORMER>
<Temperature Unit = Centigrade3 60 </Temperaturea
cPowerAngle Unit = Degree> 20 c/PowerAngle>
CPowerRating Unit = kVAr 200 c/PowerRating>
ADD~icationofrhe Internet to Power System onitoring and Trading
$a
tation data has been collected and stored in local PCs, it needs to be published.
se o f the case study is to grant access to the substation data for all responsible
parties. Such parties may be the p e ~ o ~ofe thel electricity and security CO
brigade or other remote experts and advisers. In order to publish i n f o ~ a t i o nover the
a Web server connected to the Internet is mandatory.
is study, there are several different ways of d i s ~ i b u ~ i nn~f ~ ~ a t oni o the
~
Internet, such as:
eb page
~ ~ n e r on~~ed
request by the
CGI clfthe
server.
~ ~ c ~created
l i Web
y page via server CGI
pages me not limited to the CGI. They can be
S e ~ l e t sare w r i ~ e nin Java and executed on the Web server. They fbnct
way to ~ ~ I ~ pro ~ aams~ but d e ore flexible and re~iab~e
e are in terms of r o b u s ~ e s
security.
If a Web page is generated d y n ~ i c a l l yon a server with ~ e q u e n data
t chan
every 10 m ~ u ~ ite is~ likely , that the client browser might display obsolete info
The ~ r ~ ~ l with e r nserver-side- enerated Web pages is that the browser
b e c o ~ e sava~~ableon the server. ~rowsershave no
452 Powcr System Restructuring and Deregulation
if new data has become available on the server. ~ h e r e ~ ~the , is r e ~ u i ~ etod~ ~ l the
r euser o a ~
con~inuouslyby selecting the refresh or reload option in the rowser.
are even more options to generate dynamic Web pages. Internet ~ r o g ~ a ~ i n g
l ~ g u a g such
~ s as active server pages (ASP), s ~ r v side ~ J) a v a ~ c ~ and
e ~ i n c ~ ~ (d e~ S or pt
~ ~ 12.24
M Real-time
~ c data updates via continuous connection to the server (data s~reaming~
The ~aintenanceoffice is connected to the remote power substations using a standard
t~~~communication connection, as shown in Figure 12.25. ~ependingon which ~arameters
are ~ o n i t o r ~ind the maintenance office, different data update ~e~hnologies need to be
considered. In the case when all measurements taken from the appliances within the
substations are within their set tolerances, transmission of averaged n i e a s u r e ~ ~ ~might
its
be suf~icien~. In case a fault QCCWS, all measured and locally stored data from a defined
point could be transmitted. In order to receive continuous data transmission, data streaming
is requi~edfor fast real-time data updates.
~ u b s ~ ~ 1i o n Substation 2
drawing lines, shapes or colours. Such shapes offer the basic ~ n c t i o n a l ri e~ ~ u i r efor
~
controls capable for displaying real-time data.
12.8.3 ~ o n ~ ~ ~ ~ i n ~
A few examples will be given on the mo~~toring of power station equip men^ such as
circuit breakers for the prevention of major faults and supply i n t e ~ ~ t i Q ~ s .
The SF, gas pressure measurement history over
J a n 1996, d a circuit breaker (C
~ ~ was ~ ~ e s e n t efor
12.28. It can be seen that there has been a very serious SF, gas leakage problem with the
CB and the system was successful in giving a warning to the ~aintenanceteam on 17
December 1995. The gas topping exercise was compie~edon 18 December 1995 to avoid a
major failure ofthe CB.
A method was develope~to measure the travelling of s based on looking at the
c ~ ewaveforms.
~ t Figures 12.29 and 12.30 show the me
X 32 kV CB which is used to switch a 132 kV, 80 reactor. From the figures, it can be
seen that the closing time for the CB is 125 rns while the ~ippingtime is 50 ms.
Application of the Internet to Power System ~ o n i t o r i ~and
g Trading
c4”
U, 3.7.
3.6.
3.5
3.4
IS
Time Is
Time is
C u ~ e nwaveform
t for tripping ofreactor C
be air c o ~ ~ r e os ~~e or a~~ time
i n ~ (Ton) and idlin
are sbown in ~ i 12.31.~ If rToff ~is short, this
~ o r n air~ will ~ meet
~ ~the ~lower ~ very quickly
e limit
St er
Electricity deregulation is creating a free electricity market which is differen~from count^
to country. For each ~ e s t ~ c t uutility,
r e ~ the market operator provides the essential service
nction. Electricity ~radingin Europe will change ~ a m a ~ i c a ~asl ythe
wholesale and retail markets open up to competition. Competition between utility suppl~ers
will bring bene~tsto end users only if each competitor has the same access to ~nfo~nation
regard~ngpower pricing and distribu~ion,To keep the energy marke~lacec o ~ p e ~ i t iit~ e ,
d i s c r i ~ ~ n atransparent
~o~, and easily accessible for each compet~tor.
ng is not confined within a country’s borders. Many countries are
to ne~ghb~uring countries so that a ~entralisedoperated
can have a key role [9]. That kind of power exchange will have to offer a re~iableand
efficient exchange information between the market participants by operating a r ~ ~ ~ a b l e ,
highly d~s~ributed and low-cost informa~ionnetwork.
If the open energy market is to succeed, all participants must be wired into a s~andard
data exchange Infrastructure that must be platforni and language ~ndepen~ent. Tl-tesefore
the Internet, with its ~ l a t and ~ olanguage
~ independence, is the choice for h o s ~ on-line
~g
wer traders require fast reaction to market changes. They nee to control their trades
across all current bids, offers and iiegotiations by means of a mouse-c~i~k and r ~ ~ u ireal-
re
time ~ a r ~ ien ft o ~ a t i o n ,including market depth as well as vital news
i n f o ~ ~ a ~ i Furtherxiore,
on. anonymity during negotiations and tools for t
analysis of marke~~ o n d i t i ~re the relevant ~e~uircments.
The complexity of the er exchange with its large nuinbers of v ~ ~ a b l rn es
predi~~ion of market trends rediet. Therefore, pa~icipan~s must be awa
eters to s u p p o decision
~ making in the daily offer~ngpro
xchange can s c h e d ~ ~ enough
e capacity to meet all requi~
ibe different kinds of auctions
natory and unifoK~auction system [lO]. An ideal power exchange
r e ~ u l a ~ ~and l e ~ on auctions. The dispa~ched
o n reserve in ~ a ~ a lbased
regula~i~n is the capacity to maintain real-time
g r e s e ~ ei s the prov~sionthat can res
advantage, each agent needs to present a unique economic and strategic behaviour model.
These mode~s are based on human behaviour with respect to different tra
env~onments,For example, agents can show an ;anxious buying and selling behaviour,
greedy behaviour or relaxed behaviour to emulate market p~icipants.
There are several ~nte~et-based simulation environments for exp
various power exchange mechanisms avaiIabIe on the Internet [ 141.
allow pa~icipantsfrom different locations to compete in the open market.
This is advan~geousfor the training of personnel, who are able to try different buying
and selling strategies under changing market conditions without causing interfkrence on a
real trading floor. With the help o f more advanced trading platform models, differen~
auction types, e.g. uniform price, single and doub~e-sided auctions, and di~erent
c o n s t r ~ i ~e.g.
~ ~transmission
, losses, line capacity and stability limits and congestion
s i ~ ~ t i ocan
~ s be, explored. The ultimate objective for each si~ulatjonwill always
maximi~eprofits from trading energy.
The first step in building a trading platform over the I n t e ~ e is t to gain quality ~nternet
access with enough i and width to serve all clients at a ~easonablespe
Internet access cannot be achieved by telephone. It is necessary to rent or buy a dedicated
r with a reliable ISP, which offers a 24-hour, '?-day customer service.
nce a reliable Internet ~ ~ ~is es~blished,
t i ~ s o ~ a r must
oserver e be pure
ing Web services, Currently, the most common Web servers are IIS
~ i ~ r o s o fApache
t, Web Server from Apache and Web Logic. There are many so~tware
co~panieso f f e ~ gcompetitive Web server so~utions, which can also integrate e-
commerce packages.
ing a reliable trading platform across the Internet i not trivial. A ~ ~ r n a
must be to ensure data security and data ~ t c ~ t yata . security across the
Internet has constantly been improved by the int~oductionof better and faster s e c ~ t y
algo~thrns.The most used and trusted method is secure sockets layer (SSL).
rela~ive~y simple to i lement and does not require changes to any existix~
Data integrity can be achieved by buying a database fiom a major vendor. Such
may include startup consultancy and customer support. It is i m p o ~ to ~ tde
database in such a manner that the database § ~ c ~will r edeliver optima^ performance.
are sent to clients in XML format, conversions fkom table ~ o ~ a t
abase response times. eref fore, the choice of database layout
e d format if possible [ 151.
should match the d i s ~ b u ~ data
Figure 12.32 shows a simplified block diagram of a
between clients connected to a trading platform. On connection to the
L page conta~ningall the required fields to
n submission of a transaction, the Web s
tr~sactiondetails, which should be validated for c o ~ e c ~ e s ~
ase. If invalid data is contained in the ~ s a c t i o
changes will be rolled back to restore the da
suction servers can be purchased for keeping
Application of the Internet to Power System Monitoring and Trading
As with many real-time auction and trading platforms, data update§ are sent to the
ceivd data updates via XML allow faster data updates, since
n to the browser cIient area to avoid the generation of
pages. ~ u ~ e ~ omore r e clients
, can be s y n c ~ o n o u s ~~yp d a ~ because
ed
small portions of XML data are sent across the Internet, saving precious b ~ d w ~ ~ t h .
It will take an entire p r o g r a ~ i n gteam to create a real-time auction platform from s
to finish. There are several s o ~ compa~ies ~ e offering complete solution pac
cornrn~rce and on-line auctions. I n t e ~ e t applications have different
r e q ~ i r e m cunknown
~~~ to desktop a~pficatians. ~ e q u ~ e m e such ~ t s as sc
~ of great i r n ~ o ~ for
c o n t i n u ~are ~ c~ e e applica~ions.
b ~ e b - b a s se o~ ~ a r e
for highly scalable products require a great knowledge of r n ~ ~ t ~ - t ~ e envir~nrnenzs
aded and
parallel process~ngarchitec~res.
Client Computer
I
~ommunicationsaechitectuee
1899, ~ e a c ~Press.
pi~
bilateral model, 96
black-start capabiIi~,93, 19
198,199,218
~ e n control
~ a ~s y s ~ e ~12
s,
central utility model 52
148,259
autononiy, 355,356,359 o n ,1,2,4,5,8,9, 11, 15,
c o ~ p ~ ~ i t ixii,
a u ~ ~ " r ~ ~ l127,
o s 128
~~s,
278,279,280,283 458,459,460
auction, 55,56,60,61,65,67, 82,84,
90,91,95,96,98, 105, 108, 109,
46 Index
219,231,234,236
~ a r k ~anspar~ncy,
e~
~ e g a w mile
a ~ al~ocation,57
in~er-zana~
~ o n g ~ s ~ i88
on,
inves 307
9
335
~ ~ o ~ - d i s c r i m i nauction,
a t o ~ 55 power pool, 4,22,82,86,87,%3, 100,
n o n ~ ~ ~ ~s ye srt ~s ~~397 s ,~ e 109,159,176,179,182,183,18
185,292
power quality, xiv, 21,25, 21”79 127,
154,231
150
(I Index
sation, 260,261,271,272,
275,276,282,285,28
real~t~me markets, 78, 86 service ~rovider,xiii, 111, 156, 162,
r e ~ e s s anafysis,
~ ~ n 116 163, 164,170,288,289
latory body, 110,33 se~ement,55,63,69,71,79, 177,
t o ~ 293
r ~ ~ l aincentives, 423
r e l i a b i ~benefit,
i~ 189, 190 shadow prices, 96
s i m ~ ~ ~electricity
e o ~ s market, 87
single-p~aseloads, 27,46
smart agents, 355
smart m e t e ~ ~61
g,
social welfare, 54,8
42,46,49,330,399,
solar collectors, 38
c s 80,
§ y s t e ~ y n a ~ ~xxi, , 101
Index
t~e-or-pay,412 103,104,108,109,1177,180
tap-chang~,261,277 UNIX, 136,426
telecommunicat~on~ n d u s153, ~ , 154 uplift charge, 55
telephone n e ~ o r k 1, 14 usage charges, 162,16
thermal heating t e c ~ o l o37 ~, use of system charges, 27, 72, f 11, li 15
thermal limit, 58,59,66,259, 283
~ h e ~ o g ~400,410,415ph~, valley load time, 241
therrnovision cameras, 297 vertically integrated, 8, 50,58,64,72,
thyristor cQn~olled reactors, 266 77,153,155,156,157,163,16
t h ~ scontrolled
~ r series capacitor, 271, 178,210,360
285 vertically integrated utilities, 77, 153
tier supplier, 1 12 virtual e n v i r o ~ e n395
~,
time of use, 135,190 visual display unit, 395
tournament scheme, 377 voice activated messages, 1I
t r ~ s i e nenergy
t margin, 206 voltage collapse, 140,260
t r ~ s i e nst t a b i ~ ixvii,
~ , xx, 139,206, voltage control, X4,26,80,93,1
219,285,412 194,284
~ ~ n s m i s s i oaccess,
n xvii, 5 1, 175, 184, voltage dip, 117,333,350
191, 197,200,216 voltage sags, 13,331, 332,334,335,
transmission channels, 1 348,349,350
~ ~ s ~ s scharge, i o n 58,90,95, 165, voltage source converter, 280
168,199,211 v o l u n t ~system operator model, 158,
transmission loss, xiii, 57,60,65,72, 160,161,162,163
105, 120, 165, 186, 191, 192, 196,
197, 198,204,214,247,257,373, WAN, 134,139,358,431,
374,376,458 wavelet transform, 336,337,339,350
tr~nsmissionmodel, 8
tr~smissionopen access, xiii, 2 16,37P
transmission pricing, xxi, 58, 105, 168,
169,187, 191,218,221,246
~ ~ s r n i s s i protocol,
on 417,427
FTP 428 458
LPE ca~ies,3 13
ay, 59, 178, 198, 199,
zonal price, 71, 166, 167, i!
3, 14, 17,20,21,22,26, ricing, 90, 166, 167, 18
45,49,53, 147,259,280,330,349