ACD2501 - Day 6 - Aircraft - Structures PDF

PEMP
ACD2501
Aircraft Structures
Session delivered by:

Mr Ramjan Pathan
Mr.
 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 1

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ACD2501
Session Overview
Following topics will be covered in this session

• Analysis
A l i off aircraft
i f structure, its
i assemblies,
bli sub-
b
assemblies and the types of loading these are
subjected.
subjected
• Methods of analysis of loads on aircraft components
and its distribution on the structure
• Behaviour of structural components under the applied
loads
• Method to assess the design using different analysis
techniques
q

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Structural Engineers Dream

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Stress Analysis

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Aircraft Structures – Overview
• Aircraft are generally built up from the following

basic components
– Wings, Fuselages, Tail (H & V) , and control surfaces
• Delta wing aircraft have no horizontal tail
– Example : TEJAS, M2000, RFAEL
• Some have a canard configuration such as that of the
Eurofighter (Typhoon).
• Each component has one or more specific functions
and must be designed to ensure that it can carry out
these functions safely.
y

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• The structure of an aircraft is required to support two

distinct classes of load:
– Ground loads, includes all loads encountered by the
aircraft duringg movement or transportation
p on the gground
such as taxiing and landing loads, towing and hoisting
loads
– Air
Ai loads,
l d comprisesi loads
l d imposed
i d on the
h structure during
d i
flight by manoeuvres and gusts.

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• Aircraft designed for a particular role encounter loads

peculiar to their sphere of operation.
operation
– Naval aircraft, are subjected to catapult take-off and
arrested landingg loads
– Large civil and practically all military aircraft have
pressurized cabins for high altitude flying
– Amphibious aircraft must be capable of landing on water
– Low altitude high speed aircraft have tremendous loads due
to high density and turbulence.
turbulence

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Aircraft Structures – Loads
• There are basically two ways loads are transferred

–SSurface
f f
forces which
hi h actt upon the
th surface
f off the
th structure,
t t
e.g. aerodynamic and hydrostatic pressure
– Body forces which act over the volume of the structure and
are produced by gravitational and inertial effects.
• Eg. Turns, dive pull-up etc
• Pressure distribution over the various surfaces of an
aircraft’s structure is obtained from aerodynamics
calculations.
calculations

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Typical Aerodynamic Loads
Pressure distribution Replaced b

by loads

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Typical Aerodynamic Loads
Note : The reduction near the centre line (fuselage effect)

and tips (tip effect)

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Loads During Dive Pull-up
As W*n = L 

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Random Gust Loads

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V-n Diagram

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Typical Ground Loads
• Ground loads encountered in landing and taxiing

subject the aircraft to concentrated shock loads
through the undercarriage system.
• The majority of aircraft have their main undercarriage
located close to the wings,
– Nosewheel or tailwheel in the vertical plane of symmetry.
• Position of the main undercarriage should take care of
the stabilityy
– When the aircraft is on ground.

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Typical Aircraft sub assemblies

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Aircraft structures examples

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Typical Structural Breakdown

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Bomber

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Harrier Jumpjet

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Commercial Plane

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Structural Components
• The basic functions of an aircraft’s structure

– ttransmit
it andd resist
i t the
th loads
l d
– provide an aerodynamic shape
– and to protect passengers,
passengers payload,
payload systems,
systems etc.
etc from the
environmental conditions encountered in flight.
• Monocoqueq : Thin shells which rely y entirelyy on their
skins for their capacity to resist loads

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Structural Components
• Semi-monocoque : thin shell structures where the

outer surface is usually supported by
– longitudinal stiffening members
– and transverse frames to enable it to resist bending,
bending
compressive and torsion loads without buckling.

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Function of Aircraft Structures: ACD2501
Part specific
Skin
1. Resists the applied torsion and shear forces by
• Transmitting aerodynamic forces to the longitudinal and
transverse supporting members
• Supports the longitudinal members in resisting the applied
bendingg and axial loads
• Supports the transverse members in resisting the hoop, or
circumferential, load when the structure is pressurized.

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Part specific
Ribs and Frames : The skeleton
11. Structural
St t l integration
i t ti off the
th wing
i andd fuselage
f l
2. Keep the wing in its aerodynamic profile

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Typical Wing construction

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Part specific
Spar
1 Resist bending and axial loads
1.
2. Form the wing box for stable torsion resistance

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Part specific
Stiffener or Stringers
1 Resist bending and axial loads along with the skin
1.
2. Divide the skin into small panels and thereby increase its
bucklingg and failingg stresses
3. Act with the skin in resisting axial loads caused by
pressurization.

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Simplifications
1. The behavior of these structural elements is often idealized

to simplify the analysis of the assembled component
2 The webs (skin and spar webs) carry only shearing stresses.
2. stresses
3. The longitudinal elements carry only axial stress.
4. The transverse frames and ribs are rigid within their own
planes,
l so that
h theh cross sectioni isi maintained
i i d unchanged
h d
during loading.

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Aircraft Structures
1. Truss-type Structures
– Had struts and wire-braced wings
– Occupants sat in open fabric-covered cockpits,
2. Stressed-skin Structures
– All oof thee sstructural
uc u loads
o ds aree ccarried
ed by thee sskin..
– Thin wood skin Or aluminum-alloy sheets

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Structures
• Wing Construction Truss-type

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Airframe Units
1. Fuselage : Bulkheads, Frames, Stringers

2 Wings
2. i : Spars,
S Ribs
ib stiffeners
iff
3. Tail plane : Stabilizers , Flight control surfaces,
L di gear
Landing

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Structural Loads/Stress
• Deformation : Nonpermanent Deformation

– Deformation disappears when the load is removed.
• Permanent Deformation
–Wrinkles observed on top of wing and bottom of
horizontal stabilizer.
–Stretch marks on the bottom of the wing or top o the
stabilizer. (positive g’s)

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Materials For Aircraft Construction
• Wood : Old small 2 seat aircrafts, Pushpak,

Tigermoth
• Aluminum Alloys : Most modern planes use a variety
of alloys of Al
• Honeycomb : Sandwiches
• Magnesium & Stainless Steel : Very specific
applications

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Old examples : Wood

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Fuselage Construction
• This is the preferred method of constructing an all-
aluminum fuselageg .
– A series of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross
sections are held in position on a rigid fixture, or jig.
– These are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements
called stringers.
– These are then covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, aluminum
attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives.
– The fixture is then removed from the completed fuselage
shell
– Most modern large aircraft are built using this technique

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Fuselage

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B747 Fuselage

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Typical Skin Stiffeners

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• Monocoque : Virtually no internal framework

• Semi monocoque : Internal arrangement of formers and
Semi-monocoque
stringers is used to provide additional rigidity and strength to
the skin.

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Semi-monocoque

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Cantilever

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Cantilever Wing

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Braced Wing
In flight Lift acting

upwards
countering
t i weighti ht
On ground no
Lift, only weight

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Load Relief Due Fuel in Wing

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Wing Construction
• Spar
p : main structural member Ribs
of the wing, running at right
angles to the fuselage.
• The
Th spar carriesi flight
fli ht loads
l d
and the weight of the wings
whilst on the ground.
• Generally there are 2 spars in
most aircraft wings.
• Other
O h structurall andd forming
f i
members are Ribs.
S
Spar
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Structures
• Stressed-skin
S d ki Wing
Wi Construction
C i

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Control Surface Construction

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Undercarriage
• Landing gear is the structure under a plane's fuselage

that allows it to land safely
• Older landing gear had two wheels forward of the
aircraft's center of ggravityy and a third,, smaller wheel at
the tail. This configuration has the nickname the
"taildragger”
• Tricycle landing gear consists of a forward (nose)
wheel and a pair of wheels located midway on the
f l
fuselage. Th nose gear is
The i steerable
bl byb means off the
h
rudder pedals.

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Undercarriage
• Tandem landing gear (also called bicycle landing

gear) consists of a main gear of two sets of wheels
set one behind the other.

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Elements of Structures
• Three common structural elements are used:
– skins, stiffeners, and beams
• Materials may experience both tension, and compression
– Compression can cause the elements to buckle
– Requires determination of air loads
– Requires determination of mass properties (weights)
– Check for parts exceeding yield stress
– Check for buckling

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Fatigue
• Structural fatigue occurs when an element is

subjected to repeated application and removal of
loads
– ee.g.
g Wing experiencing unsteady gusts
– The number of load cycles a material can tolerate depends
on the stress level
– Smaller cross sections, will have higher stresses, easily fail
– Structural analyses can identify “hot spots” where fatigue
will
ill first
fi t occur

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Composition of Composites

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Types of composites
• Composite material include :

–FFabric
b i glass
l material
t i l usedd to
t repair
i the
th parts
t including
i l di wing i
trailing & leading edge panel, floor panel & body fairing.
– Honey comb material used in floor panel, body fairing &
wing panels and galley partition.
– Graphite reinforced plastic or carbon reinforced plastic
(CFRP or CRP) usedd in i some major j structurall area (eg:
(
B777 cabin lateral floor beam structure)

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Composites : Pros & Cons

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Typical Aircraft Material
Fuselage
& Wing LE
fairings
Fuselage
skin & aircraft
str ct res
structures

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Use of Composites in B767

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Use of Composites in B777

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Boeing 787 - Dreamliner
• Materials by weight,
weight are 50% composite,
composite 20% aluminum,
aluminum 15%
titanium, 10% steel, and 5% other.
• Aluminum is used on wing and tail leading edges, titanium
used mainly on engines and fasteners
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Typical Fuselage Diameters

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Why Worry about Structures ?
• Structural design is critical to aircraft safety, and also

plays a key role in aircraft cost and performance.
performance
• The airplane cost is related to the structural design in
complex ways,
ways
– Typically aircraft cost $400-$1000 per kg
– Military aircraft such as the B
B-22 reportedly costs more per
kg than gold.
• Aircraft structural weight also affects performance.
– Every kilogram of airplane structure means one less
kilogram of fuel when the take-off weight is specified

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Why Worry about Structures ?
• Classical aircraft range equation:

– R = (V/
(V/sfc)
f ) (L/D) ln
l (W initial/W final)
– one might think of the first term representing the role of
propulsion, the second term aerodynamics, and the third
term, structures.
• To estimate the aircraft empty weight, we must
estimate the weight of each of the component
– we need to understand how a component structure is sized;
– and to do this, we need to estimate the loads that they will
have to support

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Cascading Effect of Structure
The above table, clearly indicates the effect of structure mass,

and the reason mass reduction is always important

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Empty mass examples
A330 & B777 are higher

hi h because
b structure
t t is
i designed
d i d for
f stretch
t t h versions
i

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Data From : Ajoy Kundu
(a) All types of aircraft (b) Midrange (Boeing and Airbus type)
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Fuel Load Component

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Wing Area and Takeoff weight

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Mass estimation
• Step 1
• Here, suffixes
ffi TO
O means take-off,
k ff E means Empty
and F means Fuel
• Step
St 2 more detailed
d t il d

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Typical subsystem weights

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Typical Component Weights

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ACD2501
Thank you !

06

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PEMP

Session delivered by:

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 1

Following topics will be covered in this session

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 2

Structural Engineers Dream

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 3

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 4

Aircraft Structures – Overview

• Aircraft are generally built up from the following

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 5

Aircraft Structures – Overview

• The structure of an aircraft is required to support two

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 6

Aircraft Structures – Overview

• Aircraft designed for a particular role encounter loads

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 7

Aircraft Structures – Loads

• There are basically two ways loads are transferred

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 8

Typical Aerodynamic Loads

Pressure distribution Replaced b

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 9

Typical Aerodynamic Loads

Note : The reduction near the centre line (fuselage effect)

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 10

Loads During Dive Pull-up

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 11

Random Gust Loads

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 12

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 13

Typical Ground Loads

• Ground loads encountered in landing and taxiing

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 14

Typical Aircraft sub assemblies

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 15

Aircraft structures examples

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 16

Typical Structural Breakdown

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 17

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 18

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 19

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 20

• The basic functions of an aircraft’s structure

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 21

• Semi-monocoque : thin shell structures where the

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 22

Function of Aircraft Structures: ACD2501

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 23

Function of Aircraft Structures: ACD2501

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 24

Typical Wing construction

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 25

Function of Aircraft Structures: ACD2501

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 26

Function of Aircraft Structures: ACD2501

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 27

1. The behavior of these structural elements is often idealized

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 28

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 29

• Wing Construction Truss-type

 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 30

1. Fuselage : Bulkheads, Frames, Stringers