SENTENCE NEGATION

1.1. Key Terms

We start the discussion on Sentence Negation by revising upon some concepts that will be
crucial for every section in this course. We will therefore have to remember the meaning of such terms
as:

Constituent (phrase) – any part of a sentence which is regarded as forming a distinct syntactic
unit within the overall structure of the sentence.
For instance, if we were to take the following example:

(1) Susan loves her mother very much.

(Susan îşi iubeşte foarte mult mama.)

we can identify the following constituents: Susan, loves, her mother, very much.
Each of the above identified elements can be said to form a distinct syntactic unit, since it has
a certain semantic and structural autonomy inside (1). Consequently, sequences of the kind her mother
very, or Susan loves her cannot be considered constituents, since they do not have a structural and
semantic unity. They are just strings, that is, sequences fragmented at random.

Syntactic, Semantic, Pragmatic

Syntactic – relates to the structure of sentences
Semantic – relates to the meaning of words, sentences
Pragmatic – relates to the function of a sentence (utterance) inside discourse
In the following example,

(2) Give Susan the money and then send her away!
(Dă-i banii lui Susan şi apoi trimite-o de aici!)

syntactically we are dealing with a compound sentence (where two main clauses are coordinated by
and), semantically the two sentences are perceived as sequential (the event in the first sentence is
followed by the one in the second) and pragmatically, we are dealing with a directive (i.e. an order
given to an interlocutor).
Auxiliary verbs – one of a small set of lexical items having certain properties in common with
verbs but also exhibiting a number of other distinct properties. The English auxiliaries are usually
divided into the modal auxiliaries (such as may, must, should, etc.) and the non-modal auxiliaries
(such as have, be).
Insertion – a procedure by which some element not previously present in a structure is added to it.
An example is the insertion of the element do in sentence (3):

(3) She told me the secret.

(Mi-a spus secretul.)

As a consequence of the insertion of do in (3) we obtain the following emphatic structure:

(4) She did tell me the secret.

(Mi-a spus într-adevăr secretul.)

1.2. Assertive – non-assertive

We need to make a distinction between assertive and non-assertive sentences. For instance, a
sentence of the form:

(5) He offered her some chocolates.

(I-a oferit bomboane de ciocolată.)

1
is said to be an assertion, in the sense that it states something, it asserts something. This example can
be compared to:

(6) a. He didn’t offer her any chocolates.

(Nu i-a oferit bomboane de ciocolată.)
b. Did he offer her chocolates?
(Oare i-a oferit bomboane de ciocolată?)

The difference between example (5) and the examples under (6) is that the latter examples are
non-assertive, in that they do not state anything.
Consequently, a sentence can be non-assertive if it is negative or if it is a question. We do not
therefore have two independent systems:
- Positive vs. Negative
- Declarative vs. Interrogative
but rather an interrelated system in which assertion involves both ‘positive’ and ‘declarative’ while
non-assertion has a subsystem either ‘negative’ or ‘interrogative’. The relationship can be represented
as follows:

assertion - positive and declarative (e.g. They told her the secret.)

sentence positive ( e.g. Did they tell her the secret?)

interrogative negative (e.g. Didn’t they tell her the secret?)
non-assertion
negative (They didn’t tell her the secret.)

other (if –clauses, comparison, subjunctive)

1.3. Full – local negation

The first distinction to draw between various forms of negation is that of
Sentence vs. Word negation.
For example, the sentences under (7) are considered instances of syntactic negation, whereas those
under (8) are considered to be forms of word negation:

(7) a. Susan doesn’t like her friends.

(Lui Susan nu-i place de prietenii ei.)
b. John is not happy.
(John nu e fericit)
(8) a. Susan dislikes her friends.
(Lui Susan nu-i place de prietenii ei.)
b. John is unhappy.
(John e nefericit.)
It is obvious that sentences under (7) are structurally different from those under (8) in that they
are marked by the presence of the negative word not. In the case of the sentences under (8), we can
speak more of a negative meaning than of a negative structure, since the negative word not is not
present there. There is also a difference in meaning between the two examples, since it is obvious that
the meaning of (7) is not really equivalent to that of (8).

A second distinction to be drawn here is between such examples as:

(9) Not long ago, I met a girl named Susan.

(Nu demult, am întâlnit o fată pe nume Susan.)

In this case, just like in the case of word negation, we speak about local negation in the sense that
the negative word not does not influence more than the first part of the sentence, more precisely the
phrase it is part of. In other words, the whole sentence under (9) has an affirmative dimension and it is
only the phrase not long ago that has a negative connotation. This is also called an instance of phrasal

2
negation, since the negative meaning is restricted to one constituent only. Example (10) gives us
however reason to speak about full negation, namely the whole sentence is negative and the word not
influences the whole meaning of the sentence:

(10) I didn’t meet a girl named Susan long ago.

(N-am întâlnit o fată pe nume Susan demult.)

An interesting problem is posed by such examples as:

(11)a. She was not an unattractive woman.

(Nu era o femeie neatrăgătoare.)
b. He was not without intelligence.
(Nu era lipsit de inteligenţă.)
c. I was not a little worried.
(Nu mică mi-a fost îngrijorarea.)

The meaning of all these examples is a positive one: (11)a. implies that she was an attractive
woman, (11)b. implies that the guy there was quite intelligent, whereas (11)c. states that I was very
worried about something. In other words, these sentences look negative, since the negative word not is
present inside them, but their meaning tells us a different story. We can say that we are dealing with a
combination of word and phrasal negation, where the word negation (unattractive, without
intelligence, a little worried) is cancelled by the presence of not: not unattractive = attractive.
Another name for the distinction between full negation and local (that is word and phrasal)
negation is supplied by the opposition syntactic vs. semantic negation. By syntactic negation we mean
negation at the level of the sentence (i.e. the whole meaning of the sentence is negative). Semantic
negation will consequently refer to sentence bits with a negative meaning.
Since this course is an attempt to clarify matters related to syntax we shall consider negative
sentences only those sentences that qualify as syntactically negated. This means that negative
sentences need to have a negative word present inside them that will influence the whole meaning of
the respective sentences.

1.4. Negative vs. affirmative sentences. Tests for negativity

In this subsection we are going to answer two questions:
a) What is the difference between negative and affirmative (positive) sentences?
b) How do we tell when a sentence is syntactically negative? Are there any ways of checking
on the sentence’s negativity?
Let us start with the first question: the difference existing between negative and positive
sentences is not only a semantic one (that is the fact that they express opposite truth values) but also a
syntactic and pragmatic one:
As we were saying, syntactically negative sentences are marked by the presence of a negative
structure (such as the word not, etc.) and sometimes by other syntactic changes. Compare:

(11) I went there.

(M-am dus acolo.)
to
(12) I didn’t go there.
(Nu m-am dus acolo.)

The second sentence has undergone certain syntactic changes, such as do insertion. (see
subsection 1.1.).
Let us now discuss the pragmatic differences between positive and negative sentences:
basically, whenever we utter a negative sentence in a discourse, we imply the existence of its
affirmative counterpart. For instance, in a negative sentence such as:

(13) Harry didn’t attack the government.

3
 (Harry nu a atacat guvernul)

the implicit affirmative sentences existing in correlation to the negative sentences could be: -

Harry did something to the government (but he didn’t attack it)

Someone attacked the government (but it wasn’t Harry).

The second question that springs to one’s mind is: but how do we tell when a sentence is
negative, since sometimes examples can be so misleading?
An efficient way of doing that was offered by Klima (1964) who distinguishes between four
tests of negativity:

1. Tag-questions – a sentence is syntactically negative if it allows for the presence of an affirmative

tag question (with a falling intonation):

(14) Susan does not like her friends, does she?

(Lui Susan nu îi place de prietenii ei, nu-i aşa?)
(15) Susan dislikes her friends, *does she?
(16) Susan dislikes her friends, doesn’t she?

Sentence (14) qualifies as negative, since it is followed by an affirmative question tag, whereas the
sentence under (15) does not: the star placed at the beginning of the tag question indicates that the
structure is ungrammatical, incorrect. The sentence allows only for a negative question tag (see
example (16)) and is syntactically affirmative.

2. Not even-tags – a sentence is syntactically negative if it allows for the presence of a not even-tag :

(17) Susan does not like her friends, not even the smart ones.
(Lui Susan nu-i place de prietenii ei, nici măcar de cei deştepţi.)
(18) Susan dislikes / likes her friends, *not even the smart ones.
(19) Susan dislikes/ likes her friends, even the smart ones.

Example (17) is syntactically negative, as is demonstrated by the presence of the not even tag.
Compare this example to those under (18) and (19), which exhibit samples of affirmative sentences,
since the not even tag cannot be applied to them.

3. Either conjoining – a sentence is syntactically negative if it can be followed by another negative

sentence and the adverb either:

(20) Susan does not like her friends, and they don’t like her either.
(Lui Susan nu îi place de prietenii ei şi nici lor nu le place de ea.)
(21) Susan dislikes / likes her friends, * and they don’t like her either.

Sentence (20) is syntactically negative because the either conjoining is possible, which does
not happen in the case of (21), which is ungrammatical.

4. Neither tags – a sentence is syntactically negative if it can be followed by a neither tag:

(22) Susan doesn’t like her friends, and neither do they like her.
(Lui Susan nu îi place de prietenii ei şi nici lor nu le place de ea.)
(23) Susan likes / dislikes her friends, *and neither do they like her.

Sentence (22) is syntactically negative since it can be combined with a neither tag, whereas
sentence (23) is syntactically affirmative since its combination with neither is obviously impossible.

4
 In conclusion, whenever one wishes to check whether a certain sentence is negative from a
syntactic point of view, they need to refer to these tests of negativity. By applying these tests to the
sentence in question, one can tell if the sentence is negative or not.

1.5. Instances of Negation

We shall now attempt to offer a classification of the various instances of negation present in
English. The criterion we employ has to do with the position of the negative word inside the negative
sentence:
a) negative insertion (the negative word not is inserted in the auxiliary):

(24) John has not come.

(N-a venit John).
(25) Susan could not go to the theatre.
(Susan nu s-a putut duce la teatru)

The negative word not has been inserted inside the sentences under (23) and (24). This kind of
negation is the most frequent one in English. A variation to this instance of negation is offered by
those sentences in which the negative word is attached to the auxiliary verb by means of contraction:

(26) John hasn’t come.

(27) Susan couldn’t go to the theatre.

b) negative incorporation (the negative word is incorporated in a determiner, a pronoun or an

adverb):

(28) I saw no student.

(N-am văzut nici un student)

In example (27) negation is incorporated in the determiner (that is the article) of the direct
object.

(29) I saw nobody.

(N-am văzut pe nimeni).

In this case negation is incorporated in the pronoun.

(30) a. I went nowhere.

(Nu m-am dus nicăieri)
b. I never went to his place.
(Nu m-am dus niciodată la el.)

In sentence (29) the negative word has been incorporated in the adverb of place.
All the sentences discussed here are variants for:

(31) a. I didn’t see any student.

(N-am văzut nici un student.)
b. I didn’t see anybody.
(N-am văzut pe nimeni.)
c. I didn’t go anywhere. / I didn’t ever go to his place.
(Nu m-am dus nicăieri. / Nu m-am dus niciodată la el.)

c) negative attraction (the negative word is attracted by the nominal phrase in the first position of the
sentence; no incorporation takes place.)

(32) a. Not all that glitters is gold.

(Nu tot ce străluceşte e aur.)

5
 b. Not a day passed without me thinking of him.
(N-a trecut o zi fără să mă gândesc la el.)

It is obvious that in such examples the negative word not has been ‘attracted’ by the nominal
phrase in sentence initial position. The sentences under (31) may be paraphrased by means of negative
insertion or incorporation:

(33) a. All that glitters is not gold.

b. No day passed without me thinking of him.

The fact that these sentences may be paraphrased by means of other negative sentences makes
us believe that the process of attraction is optional not obligatory.
There are other instances of negation that do not necessarily fall under the criterion we mentioned
above (that of the position of the negative word inside the sentence).
- incomplete negation (negation in the sentence is made by means of the so-called incomplete
negators such as hardly, scarcely, barely, seldom, rarely, etc.) – the sentences that contain
these negators are also considered syntactically negative, because they pass all the tests for
negativity presented in 1.4.:

(34) I hardly met this man, did I?

(Nu l-am cunoscut pe omul acesta.)
(35) They barely read any novels, not even short ones.
(Nu citesc romane, nici măcar din alea scurte.)
(36) We seldom watch T.V, and we don’t go to the theatre either.
(Ne uităm rar la televizor, şi nu mergem nici la teatru.)
(37) They rarely talked to their friends, and neither did their friends talk to them.
(Vorbeau rar cu prietenii şi nici prietenii nu vorbeau cu ei.)

- emphatic negation (emphasis is laid by placing the negative word or the incomplete negator
in the first position inside the sentence, which triggers inversion):

(38) a. Never have I met a more horrible person.

(Niciodată n-am cunoscut un om mai îngrozitor.)
b. Rarely have I done such a stupid thing.
(Rareori am făcut un lucru aşa de prostesc.)
c. Hardly have they heard a thing like that.
(N-am mai auzit aşa ceva.)
d. Not for the world would I do such a thing.
(Pentru nimic în lume n-aş face una ca asta.)

- negative transportation (the negative word is transported to the main clause from a
subordinate that clause where it originates and belongs semantically):
For instance, sentence (38)

(39) They think that he doesn’t like them.

(Ei cred că lui nu-i place de ei.)
becomes
(40) They don’t think that he likes them.
(Ei nu cred că lui îi place de ei.)

by undergoing a process of negative transportation. As you can see from the translation of these
examples, the phenomenon is the same in Romanian. The difference between (38) and (39) is a
pragmatic one, in the sense that the original sentence (38) is stronger from the point of view of its
negative force. In sentence (39), the negative meaning is less strong.
Negative transportation is optional and may appear with verbs of opinion, intention,
probability, etc.: think, believe, imagine, suppose, guess, expect, seem, appear, look like, sound/feel

6
like, intend, choose, want, be probable, be likely, be supposed to, ought to, should be desirable, advise,
suggest, etc.

1.6. Polarity Items

Sometimes a negative sentence is characterized not only by the existence of a negative word (such
as not or hardly, barely, etc.) but also by the existence of certain elements that, although not negative
in meaning, cannot appear in an affirmative context. For example, we can very well say something
like:

(41) a. She didn’t lift a finger to help me.

(N-a mişcat un deget să mă ajute.)
b. She doesn’t like our chairman at all.
(Nu-i place deloc de presedinte.)

In the above examples, I underlined the phrases (not) to lift a finger and at all that are specific
for the negative context. They are not usable in an affirmative environment, and sentences such as:

(42) a.*She lifted a finger to help me.

b. *She likes our chairman at all.

are clearly not grammatical. This means that the negative word not is so powerful that it literally
imposes the presence of certain elements (such as lift a finger or at all) in its vicinity.
These elements that can appear only in non-assertive contexts (see section1.2. for the definition of
assertive/ non-assertive) are called negative polarity items. They are lexical items (that is words and
phrases) and are sensitive to the polarity of the sentence (namely to the assertive or non-assertive
nature of the respective sentence).
The phenomenon is not restricted to English only as one can come up with examples of such
items from Romanian:

(43) Nu e chip să vorbeşti cu el.

(44) N-am văzut nici picior de hoţ prin preajmă.

The fact that the italicized phrases above are indeed negative polarity items is demonstrated by their
inadequacy in an assertive context. It is incorrect to say:

(45) * E chip să vorbeşti cu el.

(46) * Am văzut picior de hoţ prin preajmă.

Negative polarity items are sometimes paralleled by Affirmative Polarity Items, that is by
items that can appear only in assertive contexts. That is exactly why, we can speak of pairs of
Negative and Affirmative Polarity items:

Any vs. some (I haven’t any money. / I have some money.)

At all vs. somehow/ somewhat (I don’t like him at all. / I somehow like him.)
Yet vs. already (I haven’t seen him yet. / I have already seen him.)
Any more vs. still (I don’t love you any more. / I still love you)
Either vs. too (I don’t like it, either. / I like it, too.)
Hardly ever vs. most of the times (I hardly ever eat caviar. / I eat caviar most of the times.)
Until vs. before (He didn’t arrive until 5. / He arrived before 5.)
Much vs. a lot (I don’t like you much. / I like you a lot.), etc.

There are cases when Polarity Items work in pairs (such as still and any more) and cases when
there are only Negative Polarity Items (lift a finger, budge, etc) or Affirmative ones (would rather).
Normally, Negative Polarity Items are more numerous than Affirmative ones, and this is helped by the
fact that they can appear in any context that is non-assertive: they can appear in negative sentences, but

7
also in interrogative ones (Have you seen anyone?) or in If-clauses (If you have anything to say, say
it.)

1.7. Negative concord / Non-negative concord

This subsection attempts to draw a distinction between negative concord languages (such as
Romanian) and non-negative concord ones (such as English). Compare the following sentences:

(47) I did not see anyone./ I saw no one.

(48) N-am văzut pe nimeni.

In the case of the sentence under (48) there are two negative words in concord, which is not
the case of the sentence under (47). Romanian is therefore a negative –concord language and we can
safely say that Substandard English – that uses double negation – exhibits negative concord, as well:

(49) I don’t need no satisfaction.

The examples of double negation that are so frequent in Substandard English need not be,
however, mistaken for the so-called ample negatives, that are instances of Standard English:

(50) A: You can’t really like this poem.

B: Not this poem, I don’t.
(A: Doar nu-ţi place poezia asta.
B: Nu, nu-mi place, nu poezia asta.)

The example above is a sample of Standard English, in that it does not in fact contain two
negative words in the same sentence. The second negation is somehow independent; it is just a copy of
the first one for the sake of emphasis. The sentence under (50) is a rephrased emphatic variant of:

(51) No, I don’t like this poem.

(Nu, nu îmi place poezia asta.)

1.8. Conclusion. Key terms.

One of the most important issues discussed in this chapter is that of the negative status of a
sentence. We have drawn a distinction between affirmative and negative sentences, from a syntactic
point of view.
Syntactic negation refers to those sentences that have a negative word/ phrase inside them
that modifies the whole content of the sentences.
Semantic negation is related to the meaning of a sentence or phrase only, without taking into
consideration form and structure.
The second issue discussed here is connected to the changes performed on affirmative
sentences when one needs to transform them into negative ones. From this point of view, it is crucial
for one to understand the problem of Polarity Items.
Negative Polarity Items are those elements that can appear only in non-assertive contexts.
Affirmative Polarity Items are those elements (fewer in number) that appear only in assertive
contexts.
The third issue tackled here refers to the difference between negative concord and non-
negative concord languages:
English – non-negative concord (does not allow for ‘double negation’)
Romanian – negative concord (negation is made up of two parts)
Substandard English – negative concord