Lymphatic (1-3)

1.
The immune system is composed of many interdependent cell types that collectively protect the body
from bacterial, parasitic, fungal, viral infections and from the growth of tumor cells. Many of these cell
types have specialized functions. The cells of the immune system can engulf bacteria, kill parasites or
tumor cells, or kill viral-infected cells. Often, these cells depend on the T helper subset for activation
signals in the form of secretions formally known as cytokines, lymphokines, or more specifically
interleukins. The purpose of this article is to review the organs, cell types and interactions between
cells of the immune system as a commentary on their importance and interdependence on the T
helper subset. Such an understanding may help comprehend the root of immune deficiencies, and
perceive potential avenues that the immune system can be modulated in the case of specific diseases.

2.

The lymphatic system has three functions:

The removal of excess fluids from body tissues. This process is crucial because water, proteins, and other
substances are continuously leaking out of tiny blood capillaries into the surrounding body tissues. If the
lymphatic system didn’t drain the excess fluid from the tissues, the lymph fluid would build up in the
body’s tissues, and they would swell.

Absorption of fatty acids and subsequent transport of fat, chyle, to the circulatory system.

Production of immune cells (such as lymphocytes, monocytes, and antibody producing cells called
plasma cells).

On this page:

The immune system and microbial infection

Parts of the immune system

The body's other defences against microbes

Fever is an immune system response

Common disorders of the immune system

Immunization

Where to get help

The immune system is made up of special organs, cells and chemicals that fight infection (microbes). The
main parts of the immune system are: white blood cells, antibodies, the complement system, the
lymphatic system, the spleen, the thymus, and the bone marrow. These are the parts of your immune
system that actively fight infection.

The immune system and microbial infection

The immune system keeps a record of every microbe it has ever defeated, in types of white blood cells
(B- and T-lymphocytes) known as memory cells. This means it can recognise and destroy the microbe
quickly if it enters the body again, before it can multiply and make you feel sick.
Some infections, like the flu and the common cold, have to be fought many times because so many
different viruses or strains of the same type of virus can cause these illnesses. Catching a cold or flu from
one virus does not give you immunity against the others.

The main parts of the immune system are:

white blood cells

antibodies

complement system

lymphatic system

spleen

bone marrow

thymus.

White blood cells

White blood cells are the key players in your immune system. They are made in your bone marrow and
are part of the lymphatic system.

White blood cells move through blood and tissue throughout your body, looking for foreign invaders
(microbes) such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. When they find them, they launch an immune
attack.

White blood cells include lymphocytes (such as B-cells, T-cells and natural killer cells), and many other
types of immune cells.

Antibodies

Antibodies help the body to fight microbes or the toxins (poisons) they produce. They do this by
recognising substances called antigens on the surface of the microbe, or in the chemicals they produce,
which mark the microbe or toxin as being foreign. The antibodies then mark these antigens for
destruction. There are many cells, proteins and chemicals involved in this attack.

Complement system

The complement system is made up of proteins whose actions complement the work done by
antibodies.

Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is a network of delicate tubes throughout the body. The main roles of the
lymphatic system are to:

manage the fluid levels in the body

react to bacteria

deal with cancer cells

deal with cell products that otherwise would result in disease or disorders

absorb some of the fats in our diet from the intestine.

The lymphatic system is made up of:

lymph nodes (also called lymph glands) -- which trap microbes

lymph vessels -- tubes that carry lymph, the colourless fluid that bathes your body's tissues and contains
infection-fighting white blood cells

white blood cells (lymphocytes).

Spleen

The spleen is a blood-filtering organ that removes microbes and destroys old or damaged red blood
cells. It also makes disease-fighting components of the immune system (including antibodies and
lymphocytes).

Bone marrow

Bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside your bones. It produces the red blood cells our bodies
need to carry oxygen, the white blood cells we use to fight infection, and the platelets we need to help
our blood clot.

Thymus

The thymus filters and monitors your blood content. It produces the white blood cells called T-
lymphocytes.

3.

Lymphatic cells are organized into tissues and organs based on how tightly the lymphatic cells are
arranged and whether the tissue is encapsulated by a layer of connective tissue. Three general
categories exist:

Diffuse, unencapsulated bundles of lymphatic cells. This kind of lymphatic tissue consists of lymphocytes
and macrophages associated with a reticular fiber network. It occurs in the lamina propria (middle layer)
of the mucus membranes (mucosae) that line the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts.

Discrete, unencapsulated bundles of lymphatic cells, called lymphatic nodules (follicles). These bundles
have clear boundaries that separate them from neighboring cells. Nodules occur within the lamina
propria of the mucus membr anes that line the gastrointestinal, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary
tracts. They are referred to as mucosa‐associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). The nodules contain
lymphocytes and macrophages that protect against bacteria and other pathogens that may enter these
passages with food, air, or urine. Nodules occur as solitary nodules, or they cluster as patches or
aggregates. Here are the major clusters of nodules:
Peyer's patches are clusters of lymphatic nodules that occur in the mucosa that lines the ileum of the
small intestine.

The tonsils are aggregates of lymphatic nodules that occur in the mucosa that lines the pharynx (throat).
Each of the seven tonsils that form a ring around the pharynx are named for their specific region: a
single pharyngeal tonsil ( adenoid) in the rear wall of the nasopharynx, two palatine tonsils on each side
wall of the oral cavity at its entrance in the throat, two lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue, and two
small tubal tonsils in the pharynx at the entrance to the auditory tubes.

The appendix, a small fingerlike attachment to the beginning of the large intestine, is lined with
aggregates of lymph nodules.

Encapsulated organs contain lymphatic nodules and diffuse lymphatic cells surrounded by a capsule of
dense connective tissue. The three lymphatic organs are discussed in the following sections.

Lymph nodes

Lymph nodes are small, oval, or bean‐shaped bodies that occur along lymphatic vessels. They are
abundant where lymphatic vessels merge to form trunks, especially in the inguinal (groin), axillary
(armpit), and mammary gland areas. Lymph flows into a node through afferent lymphatic vessels that
enter the convex side of a node. It exits the node at the hilus, the indented region on the opposite,
concave side of the node, through efferent lymphatic vessels. Efferent vessels contain valves that
restrict lymph to movement in one direction out of the lymph node. The number of efferent vessels
leaving the lymph node is fewer than the number of afferent vessels entering, slowing the flow of lymph
through the node.

Lymph nodes perform three functions:

-filter the lymph, preventing the spread of microorganisms and toxins that enter interstitial fluids.

-destroy bacteria, toxins, and particulate matter through the phagocytic action of macrophages.

-produce antibodies through the activity of B cells.

The structure of a lymph node is characterized by the following features:

There is a capsule of dense connective tissue that surrounds the lymph node.

Trabeculae are projections of the capsule that extend into the node, forming compartments. The
trabeculae support reticular fibers that form a network that supports lymphocytes.

The cortex is the dense, outer region of the node. It contains lymphatic nodules where B cells and
macrophages proliferate.

The medulla is the center of the node. Less dense than the surrounding cortex, the medulla primarily
contains T cells.

Medullary cords are strands of reticular fibers with lymphocytes and macrophages that extend from the
cortex toward the hilus.

Sinuses are passageways through the cortex and medulla through which lymph moves toward the hilus.
Thymus

The thymus is a bilobed organ located in the upper chest region between the lungs, posterior to the
sternum. It grows during childhood and reaches its maximum size of 40 g at puberty. It then slowly
decreases in size as it is replaced by adipose and areolar connective tissue. By age 65, it weighs about 6
g.

Each lobe of the thymus is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lobules produced by
trabeculae (inward extensions of the capsule) are characterized by an outer cortex and inner medulla.
The following cells are present:

Lymphocytes consist almost entirely of T cells.

Epithelial‐reticular cells resemble reticular cells, but do not form reticular fibers. Instead, these star‐
shaped cells form a reticular network by interlocking their slender cellular processes (extensions). These
processes are held together by desmosomes, cell junctions formed by protein fibers. Epithelial‐reticular
cells produce thymosin and other hormones believed to promote the maturation of T cells.

The function of the thymus is to promote the maturation of T lymphocytes. Immature T cells migrate
through the blood from the red bone marrow to the thymus. Within the thymus, the immature T cells
concentrate in the cortex, where they continue their development. Mature T cells leave the thymus by
way of blood vessels or efferent lymphatic vessels, migrating to other lymphatic tissues and organs
where they become active (immunocompetent) in immune responses. The thymus does not provide a
filtering function similar to lymph nodes (there are no afferent lymphatic vessels leading into the
thymus), and unlike all other centers of lymphatic tissues, the thymus does not play a direct role in
immune responses. Blood vessels that permeate the thymus are surrounded by epithelial‐reticular cells.
These cells establish a protective blood‐thymus barrier that prevents the entrance of antigens from the
blood and into the thymus where T cells are maturing. Thus, an antigen‐free environment is maintained
for the development of T cells.

Spleen

Measuring about 12 cm (5 inches) in length, the spleen is the largest lymphatic organ. It is located on the
left side of the body, inferior to the diaphragm and at the left edge of the stomach. Like other lymphatic
organs, the spleen is surrounded by a capsule whose extensions into the spleen form trabeculae. The
splenic artery, splenic vein, nerves, and efferent lymphatic vessels pass through the hilus of the spleen
located on its slightly concave, upper surface. There are two distinct areas within the spleen:

White pulp consists of reticular fibers and lymphocytes in nodules that resemble the nodules of lymph
nodes.

Red pulp consists of venous sinuses filled with blood. Splenic cords consisting of reticular connective
tissue, macrophages, and lymphocytes form a mesh between the venous sinuses and act as a filter as
blood passes between arterial vessels and the sinuses.

The functions of the spleen include the following:

The spleen filters the blood. Macrophages in the spleen remove bacteria and other pathogens, cellular
debris, and aged blood cells. There are no afferent lymphatic vessels, and unlike lymph nodes, the
spleen does not filter lymph.The spleen destroys old red blood cells and recycles their parts. It removes
the iron from heme groups and binds the iron to the storage protein.The spleen provides a reservoir of
blood. The diffuse nature of the red pulp retains large quantities of blood, which can be directed to the
circulation when necessary. One third of the blood platelets are stored in the spleen.The spleen is active
in immune responses. T cells proliferate in the white pulp before returning to the blood to attack
nonself cells when necessary. B cells proliferate in the white pulp, producing plasma cells and antibodies
that return to the blood to inactivate antigens.The spleen produces blood cells. Red and white blood
cells are produced in the spleen during fetal development.