國 立 彰 化 師 範 大 學 兒 童 英 語 研 究 所

碩 士 論 文

分析國小英語教科書中的歌謠與韻文

Analysis of Songs and Rhymes in Children English Textbooks

研究生：
研究生：鄧郁臻 撰
Graduate student: Yu-cheng Teng

指導教授：
指導教授：黃玫珍 博士
Advisor: Dr. Mei-chen Huang

A Thesis Submitted to
Graduate Institute of Children’s English
National Changhua University of Education
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Master of Arts

中華民國一百零二年七月

July 2013
本論文獲國家教育研究院
博（碩）士論文研究獎助
 ABSTRACT

In the field of children English education, the substantial pedagogical value of teaching

songs and rhymes in elementary schools is massively promoted by English teaching

practitioners and has attracted an enormous proliferation of research. However, the

presentation and instructional design of songs and rhymes in elementary school EFL English

textbooks is rarely explored. Thus, the purpose of the present study is to investigate the

English textbooks used at elementary school level in Taiwan by means of content analysis,

with an attempt to probe the extent to which songs and rhymes are properly designed for

English language instruction. The sample consists of six elementary school English textbook

series approved by the National Institute of Compilation and Translation in Taiwan, 48 in

total, which are currently adopted in elementary schools in Taiwan. Overall, 457 songs and

rhymes were examined in the present study.

The findings of the present study show that most of the songs and rhymes in these

textbook series were written with rhyming words, aimed at an easy level of comprehensibility,

oriented to themes related to the learners’ background knowledge, rich in repetitive patterns

and presented in various modes of presentation. With regard to the instructional design of the

songs and rhymes, the findings pointed out that the instructional objectives were oriented

primarily toward the learning of language skills. The great majority of the songs and rhymes

i
in the six textbook series were designed as stand-alone teaching activities with controlled

teaching techniques but not semi-controlled or free techniques. The provision of teaching

resources centered on suggestions for teaching procedures and the use of teaching aids but

were lacking in diversity. Furthermore, with regards to compliance with the Grade 1-9

Curriculum Guideline, it was found that the design of the songs and rhymes in the textbooks

did not fully reflect the goals in terms of the promotion of Communicative Language

Teaching and the proportion of the four language skills. Therefore, the findings suggest that

both the authorities and textbook designers take the multi-faced roles of songs and rhymes

into consideration when constructing curriculum guidelines and textbooks. It is also

recommended that the design of EFL teachers’ guides should be written from the perspective

of non-native English teachers in order to facilitate the implementation of songs and rhymes

into elementary school EFL classrooms.

Keywords: children’s English, songs and rhymes, textbook analysis, elementary school

ii
 摘要

在兒童英語教學中，歌謠與韻文的教育價值已獲許多的研究與課程制定者的支持。

然而，在許多兒童英語教學的研究中，關於歌謠與韻文在教科書中的呈現與教學設計卻

付之闕如。因此，本研究採用內容分析法，探討台灣國小英語教科書中歌謠與韻文的呈

現與其運用於國小英語教學的情形。本研究樣本包含六套四十八冊通過教育部審定的國

小英語教科書，總計 457 首歌謠與韻文。

本研究主要發現如下：就內容的呈現而言，大部分的歌謠與韻文皆有押韻、歌詞控

制在易理解程度、具高度重複性、主題與學生背景知識相符，且形式具多樣性。至於教

學設計，本研究發現歌謠與韻文的教學偏重在發展語言技能的教學目標；絕大多數的歌

謠與韻文被設計成獨立的教學活動輔以制約式的教學技巧，而非半制約式或自由式的教

學技巧。以教學資源而言，主要著重於教學流程的建議與教具的使用，缺乏多樣化的資

源提供。此外，就教科書歌謠韻文的教學設計與九年一貫課程綱要的相符性而論，研究

結果顯示，歌謠韻文的教學設計未能充分反映出溝通式教學法的理念以及聽說讀寫的比

重分配。因此，本研究建議政府官方與教科書設計者在制定課程綱要與設計教科書時，

能善加考量並利用歌謠與韻文的多元功能特性。同時，也建議採用非英語為母語的英語

教師角度來編纂教師手冊，期能提升應用歌謠韻文於國小英語教育的成效。

關鍵字：兒童英語、歌謠韻文、教科書分析、小學

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere and deepest gratitude to all the people who have

encouraged, supported and instructed me to complete my thesis study. Without them, this

thesis would never have been accomplished! First and foremost, I owed my greatest gratitude

to my dearest advisor, Dr. Mei-chen Huang, who has always patiently led me through this

painstaking path of thesis research. Her invaluable assistance, constant support and inspiring

guidance have shaped the study and promoted the quality of my thesis. Her continual

encouragement and professional comments have been the most precious gift to the success of

my work.

Particular appreciations are extended to my committee members, Dr. Meei-ling Liaw

and Dr. Li-ling Chuang, for their insightful and valuable comments. Their constructive

suggestions have made a great contribution to the refinement of this thesis. I would also like

to extend my gratitude to all the faculty members at the Graduate Institute of Children’s

English and the Department of English at the National Changhua University of Education.

With their kind devotion and assistance, I have cultivated sound academic foundation and

conscientious attitude to life and work. Special thanks are given to the National Academy for

Educational Research (NAER) for their generosity on awarding this thesis.

I would also like to express my gratitude to my dear friends, who have always been

there when I encountered difficulties and frustrations in writing the thesis. Many thanks go to

iv
Cynthia Chen, Michelle Chen and Peter Hsu for their generous time assisting with the

refinement of the coding scheme. My special appreciation is given to Dennis Liaw and

Celavia Teng, who always cheer me up and have offered me timely assistance in many urgent

circumstances. Last but not least, I am forever indebted to my parents. Their love and

understanding have provided me strength and courage to overcome all the obstacles through

the years of my graduate study.

This thesis is dedicated to all the people who have made this endeavor possible. From

the bottom of my heart, thank you all.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT (ENGLISH) ............................................................................................... i

ABSTRACT (CHINESE) ............................................................................................ iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. vi
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ ix
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... x

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1

Background and Motivation .................................................................................. 1
Purposes of the Study............................................................................................. 7
Research Questions ................................................................................................ 7
Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 8
Definitions of the Terms ........................................................................................ 9

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................... 12

Songs and Rhymes in Children’s Elementary School English Education ........... 12
The Features of Songs and Rhymes ............................................................. 12
Pedagogical Effects of Applying Songs and Rhymes in Children’s
English Teaching and Learning.................................................................... 17
The Criteria for Implementing Song and Rhyme Instructions to Children . 29
Textbook Research in EFL and ESL Contexts .................................................... 38
Textbooks as the Primary Instructional Tool ............................................... 38
Evaluation Models for ESL and EFL Textbooks ......................................... 42
Studies on Songs and Rhymes in Elementary School Textbooks ................ 49
Summary of Chapter Two .................................................................................... 53

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 55

Materials .............................................................................................................. 55
The Coding Scheme ............................................................................................. 56
Global Analysis ............................................................................................ 59
Detailed Analysis ......................................................................................... 62
Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 71

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.................................................... 73

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 The Content Features of Songs and Rhymes Presented in Elementary School
English Textbooks ............................................................................................... 73
Use of Rhyme .............................................................................................. 74
Repetition in Lyrics ...................................................................................... 76
Diversity in Theme Selection....................................................................... 78
Concerns with the Comprehensibility of Language Use ............................. 80
Multiple Modes in Presenting Songs and Rhymes ...................................... 89
The Instructional Design of Songs and Rhymes in Elementary School English
Textbooks............................................................................................................. 92
Purposes of Applying Songs and Rhymes ................................................... 92
The Activity Design for Song and Rhyme Instructions ............................... 99
The Teaching Resources Equipped for Teaching Songs and Rhymes ....... 106
The Compliance of the Design of Songs and Rhymes with the Grade 1-9
Curriculum Guideline ........................................................................................ 113
The Promotion of Communicative Language Teaching ............................ 113
Principles of Material Design .................................................................... 114
Implementation of Competence Indicators ................................................ 115
The Selection of Themes ........................................................................... 117

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION............................................................................. 119

Summary of the Major Findings ........................................................................ 119
Pedagogical Implications ................................................................................... 123
Limitations of the Study..................................................................................... 125
Suggestions for Future Research ....................................................................... 127

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 130

APPENDIXES ........................................................................................................... 155

Appendix A Coding Sheet of Songs and Rhymes (Global Analysis) ........... 155
Appendix B Coding Sheet of Songs and Rhymes (Detailed Analysis) ........ 156
Appendix C The 612-word List .................................................................... 157
Appendix D The 1200-word List in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline... 160
Appendix E Suggested Sentence Patterns of Songs and Rhymes in the
Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline ............................................. 164
Appendix F Suggested Themes of Songs and Rhymes in the Grade 1-9
Curriculum Guideline .............................................................. 165
Appendix G The Interpretation of Competence Indicators of Songs and
Rhymes in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline ..................... 166

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Appendix H Taxonomy of Language Teaching Techniques ........................ 170
Appendix I Types of Repetition .................................................................. 175
Appendix J Distribution of Themes ............................................................ 177
Appendix K Aspects of Instructional Purposes of Songs and Rhymes........ 180
Appendix L Distribution of Instructional Objectivities ............................... 182

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 The Selection Criteria of Songs and Rhymes ............................................... 31

Table 2.2 The Comparison of Evaluation Models in Pre-Use Evaluation .................... 45
Table 2.3 The Comparison of Different Sets of Criteria in Content and
Instructional Property .................................................................................... 48
Table 2.4 Studies of Musical Materials in Taiwan Elementary School Textbooks ....... 51
Table 3.1 Coding Categories in the Phase of Global Analysis...................................... 58
Table 3.2 The Coding Scheme of Songs and Rhymes .................................................. 59
Table 4.1 The Rhyming Distribution of Songs and Rhymes in the Six Textbook
Series ............................................................................................................. 75
Table 4.2 Mean Percentile Score of the Distribution of Vocabulary in the Six
Textbook Series ............................................................................................. 81
Table 4.3 The Tense Distribution for the Songs and Rhymes in the Six Textbook
Series ............................................................................................................. 82
Table 4.4 The Distribution of Sentence Patterns for the Songs and Rhymes in the Six
Textbook Series ............................................................................................. 83
Table 4.5 The Distribution of Readability in the Six Textbook Series ......................... 85
Table 4.6 Modes of Presentation in the Six Textbook Series........................................ 90
Table 4.7 Focal Aspects of Instructional Purposes of Songs and Rhymes in the Six
Textbook Series ............................................................................................. 94
Table 4.8 The Distribution of the Three Dimensions of Competence Indicators
Related to Songs and Rhymes in the Six Textbook Series ............................ 95
Table 4.9 Instructional Division of Songs and Rhymes in the Six Textbook Series..... 99
Table 4.10 Peripheral Guides of Song and Rhyme Instructions in the Six Textbook
Series ............................................................................................................. 101
Table 4.11 Independency of Song and Rhyme Activities in the Six Textbook
Series ............................................................................................................. 102
Table 4.12 Distribution of the Types of Teaching Techniques for the Six Textbook
Series ............................................................................................................. 104
Table 4.13 Types of Teaching Aids for the Six Textbook Series .................................... 107
Table 4.14 Types of Extra Teaching Resources for the Six Textbook Series.................. 108
Table 4.15 Featured Characteristics of Song and Rhyme Compositions for the Six
Textbook Series ............................................................................................. 110

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 A Visual Example of a Table Suggesting Semester Teaching

Schedule ...................................................................................................61
Figure 3.2 A Visual Example of a Table Representing the Sequence of Teaching
Activities ..................................................................................................61
Figure 3.3 A Visual Example of a Table Displaying Brief Notes to the Teaching
Content .....................................................................................................62
Figure 3.4 A Visual Text Sample of Textual Presentation ........................................67
Figure 3.5 A Visual Text Sample of Musical Presentation .......................................68
Figure 3.6 A Visual Text Sample of Pictorial Presentation .......................................68

x
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background and Motivation

English, the predominant international language, has become a necessity since

the era of the global village. Due to social expectations and economic needs, the

teaching and learning of English at elementary school level has today become a

“large-scale wave” around the world (Brewster, Ellis & Girard, 2004, p. 3). Since the

early 21st century, several countries in the Asia-Pacific region, such as Korea, Japan,

and Thailand, have made English a compulsory subject in elementary schools (Nunan,

2003). In Taiwan, the education policy inevitably followed this trend. In 2001, the

Ministry of Education in Taiwan made English an officially required subject, starting

from the fifth grade. English fever, apparently, is prevalent in elementary school

education in Taiwan. Thus, enhancing elementary school learners’ language

proficiency has become a substantial task in English language education.

Due to the multiple functions served by songs and rhymes in English education,

the education policy in Taiwan renders songs and rhymes unique roles in the

elementary school setting. In the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline, songs and rhymes

are expected to fulfill various purposes in elementary English education. For example,

“appreciating the melodic rhythm of English” and “reading aloud and singing songs

1
and rhymes” are the two basic competencies outlined in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum

Guideline. Furthermore, songs and rhymes are great materials for making English

interesting, practical, and relevant to students’ lives. They can be utilized to cultivate

students’ basic language skills, learning interest, methods and cultural concepts (MOE,

2008). Thus, songs and rhymes are recommended as one of the main genres for the

teaching of children’s English.

As well as being a beneficial tool for language education, songs and rhymes are

great avenues for beginning learners to become absorbed with their English learning

in natural and enjoyable ways. To enhance young children’s language proficiency,

songs and rhymes have been widely perceived as an effective means for elementary

students’ English learning (Medina, 2003; Read, 2007; Salcedo, 2002). For young and

beginning learners, the melodic, rhythmic, rhyming, and repetitive nature of songs

and rhymes can serve as useful language inputs and mood setters that contribute to the

learning of language and linguistic skills, and affective, cognitive, and cultural aspects.

The belief that songs and rhymes can not only develop language skills but also ease

affective barriers has long been noted by a large number of researchers and

practitioners (e.g. Griffee, 1992; Iudin-Nelson, 1997; McCarthy, 1985; Medina, 2003;

Murphey, 2002; Richards, 1969; Schoepp, 2001; Shtakser, 2001; Siek-Piskozub, 1998;

Tuan & An, 2010). From the perspective of children’s learning characteristics, one of

2
the distinctive natures of young learners is that they “love to play” (Scott & Ytreberg,

2004, p. 3). In addition, children are born with musical taste (Cakir, 1999) and enjoy

playing with sounds (Richards, 1969), but the only thing that children do best is

playing for fun (Sokka-Meaney, 2008). Children enjoy doing what they are capable of.

Through reading, chanting, and singing songs and rhymes, children are actually

learning language within the joy of playing with sounds. Sokka-Meaney (2008)

indicated that “given the age of the children, it is only natural to use games, songs and

rhymes as a way of teaching new language and other skills” (p. 82). In fact, teaching

language via songs and rhymes is inviting young learners to acquire language through

language play (Cook, 2000).

In recent years, there has been an enormous proliferation of research studies

concerned with English education in elementary schools, and several of them have

explored the use of songs and rhymes. The findings of these studies indicate the

significant effects of songs and rhymes on various aspects, such as classroom

implementation (e.g. Lin, 2005; Wu, 2001), EFL remedial teaching (e.g. Wu, 2007),

integration with multiple intelligence (e.g. Hsu, 2003; Lo, 2002), learning motivation

(e.g. Lin 2005), learning attitude (e.g. Chiang, 2003; Huang, 2007), language

proficiency (e.g. Lin, 2005) and phonemic awareness (e.g. Huang, 2006; Lee, 2006;

Yen, 2004) in elementary schools in the context of Taiwan. Furthermore, research

3
findings in the field of second language acquisition have confirmed the significant

contribution of songs and rhymes toward language proficiency, language skill

development, learning motivation, and cultural awareness (e.g. Chen, 2008; Hsu,

2003; Huang, 2006; Huang, 2007; Iudin-Nelson, 1997; Izadkhah & Hosseini, 2008;

Lin, 2005; Lo, 2002; Salcedo, 2002; Sokka-Meaney, 2008; Wilcox, 1995). These

findings imply that songs and rhymes have intriguing features which appeal to young

children in their language learning, and that songs and rhymes are recognized as

effective tools encouraging young learners to learn a foreign language in interesting

ways (Medina, 2003). However, songs and rhymes are rarely explored in textbook

research. More insights and investigation of the songs and rhymes in textbooks are

needed.

Textbooks, for non-native English speaking language teachers in particular, play

a critical role in influencing language classroom practice (Coleman, 1985;

Cunningsworth, 1995). Given that the majority of elementary English teachers are

non-native speakers in Taiwan, the presentation and instructional design of songs and

rhymes in textbooks could have a great impact on English learning and teaching in the

classroom. In addition, several research findings have noted that elementary EFL

teachers in Taiwan have always been faced with the problem of choosing and using

appropriate songs and rhymes from textbooks (Chang, 2006; Chiang, 2003; Hsu, 2003;

4
Wu, 2001). In Chang’s (2006) research, the teacher participants stated that, for most

fifth and sixth graders, songs and rhymes in English textbooks were too childish to

promote their learning interest. Wu (2001) further stated that most songs and rhymes

in the textbook section were found to be less appealing. Both Chang’s and Wu’s

research findings implied that most of the teacher participants were concerned about

the suitability of the lyrics in elementary English textbooks. As for the activity designs

of songs and rhymes in English textbooks, Liu’s (2006) analysis of songs in

elementary school English textbooks indicated that 99.2% of the songs functioned as

reviewing activities, which implied that the majority of the songs were oriented to

fixed-type rather than other multiple applications of songs and rhymes. Wu further

pointed out that textbook editors tended to use songs and rhymes as single

instructional goals rather than using them in different applications. Even though songs

and rhymes have long been recognized as multifaceted teaching materials, the

presentation and design of songs and rhymes in English textbooks appeared to be

relatively unitary.

Although textbooks are viewed as the core media in a curriculum, textbook

research has been relatively limited (Boostorm, 2001) and several unexplored issues

remain to be examined (Venezky, 1992). Rarely has there been English textbook

research in the EFL environment. According to a survey calculating the overall totals

5
for textbook researches between 1979 and 2001 in Taiwan, only seven percent of the

researches were found to be focused on English textbooks (Chou, 2003). Even fewer

textbook researches were centered on songs and rhymes in the context of elementary

English teaching. Until now, songs and rhymes have mainly been viewed as a partial

focus in the research on elementary English textbooks, such as in Chang (2006) and

Qiu (2008). Although Liu’s thesis (2006) mainly explored songs in elementary

English textbooks in Taiwan, the sampling was limited to songs used as singing

activities. Consequently, the present research is an attempt to probe how songs and

rhymes are presented and designed in English textbooks for elementary school

education in Taiwan.

Last, but not least, there is the difficulty in finding research methods that are

suitable, both for textbook research and song and rhyme analysis, and that trigger the

researcher to explore deeper. On the one hand, research methods for textbook analysis

are still under-developed (Nicholls, 2003). An attempt to adapt the framework of

textbook evaluation into a textbook analysis was made in the present study. On the

other hand, the analysis and selection of songs and rhymes are rarely found in

literature. In view of the effectiveness of songs and rhymes on elementary school

English pedagogy and the crucial roles of textbooks in the classroom, it is necessary

to investigate the current application of songs and rhymes revealed in textbooks.

6
 Purposes of the Study

The present study aims to investigate the application of songs and rhymes

through textbook research. The pedagogical contributions of songs and rhymes to

English learning have been ascertained by researches and education policy. However,

research findings derived only from experimental researches cannot fully reflect real

classroom practice in the common context of English teaching and learning. While

textbooks are the mirrors that reveal certain practical classroom dynamics

(Cunningsworth, 1995), it is necessary to explore the application of songs and rhymes

as shown in elementary English textbooks. The present study intends to objectively

and systematically analyze the content of songs and rhymes and explore how songs

and rhymes are pedagogically designed in elementary school English textbooks.

Aiming at the song and rhyme pedagogy at elementary school level, the researcher

attempts to analyze the presentation of songs and rhymes and how song and rhyme

instruction is suggested in elementary English textbooks. Hence, the purposes of this

study are to investigate the presentation of songs and rhymes and to explore the

instructional design of songs and rhymes in Taiwan elementary school English

textbooks.

Research Questions

The research questions of this study are addressed below:

7
1. How are the content features of songs and rhymes presented in Taiwan elementary

school English textbooks?

2. How is English song and rhyme instruction designed and facilitated in Taiwan

elementary school English textbooks?

3. To what extent does the design of songs and rhymes in Taiwan elementary school

English textbooks correspond with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline?

Significance of the Study

The present study explores the design of songs and rhymes used in elementary

school English textbooks in Taiwan. The researcher has attempted to make this study

significant from the following aspects. First, through the construction of the coding

scheme, a preliminary analysis model in the study might act as a reference for the

analysis of songs and rhymes in the fields of elementary English education and

textbook analysis. Second, each coding item in the coding scheme could provide

concrete suggestions for editors and teachers when selecting or adapting songs and

rhymes in elementary EFL contexts. Third, the wide gathering together of various

presentations and teachings of songs and rhymes across the six series of textbooks

offers textbook authors and English teachers an instantly available repertoire of songs

and rhymes. Moreover, this study is relevant in revealing the level of importance and

multiple roles of songs and rhymes in elementary school English education. Thus, the

8
present study might act as a reference for providing textbook publishers and educators

with the pedagogical values of songs and rhymes from the perspectives of language

input and their multifaceted functions in elementary school language instruction.

Definitions of the Terms

(1) Songs and Rhymes

Songs and rhymes, in a broad view, are recognized as a generic term (Éva, 2003),

which includes genres such as songs, nursery rhymes and chants in the present study.

Specifically, a song is a “synthetic genre” constituted of a melody and lyrics (Orlova,

2003). With or without musical instrument accompaniment, a song is metrically

composed and musically expressed (Shaw, 1976, p. 350). A nursery rhyme is a single

poem or song customarily told or sung to infants and young children (Shaw, 1976, p.

258; Webster, 1995, p. 821). Nursery rhymes are “short poems with rhyme, rhythm

and repetition” and are often useful for young children when learning their first

language and foreign language (Abdellah, 2002, p. 71). A chant, compared with songs

and nursery rhymes, is relatively short and simple, and features a single note melody

(Shaw, 1976, p. 70). Furthermore, a chant is also a “rhyming, rhythmic language that

is spoken by the class in chorus repetition, sometimes with actions” (Abdellah, 2002,

p. 71). From the above-mentioned, songs and rhymes in the present study are viewed

as a language input rich in rhyme, rhythm, melody and repetition and which invite

9
children to perceive language through reading aloud, chanting, singing or performing

with actions.

(2) Elementary English textbooks

Textbooks are commonly defined as an integrated package of materials involving

teachers’ guides, student’s books, workbooks or activity books, and cassettes

(Cunningsworth, 1995). In the present study, elementary English textbooks refer to

teachers’ guides and student’s books from the six series of approved elementary

English textbooks in Taiwan.

(3) Textbook Analysis

Textbook analysis, as Tomlinson (2003, p. 16) defined, is “an analysis focusing

on the materials and it aims to provide an objective analysis of them”. An analysis

“asks questions about what the materials contain, what they aim to achieve, what they

ask learners to do” (Tomlinson, 1990, p. 10 as cited in Tomlinson, 2003, p. 16).

However, research methods for textbook analysis are not, as yet, well-developed

(Nicholls, 2003). Therefore, textbook evaluation is inevitably subjective in nature

(McDonough & Shaw, 2003). To bridge the gap, the researcher has attempted to

incorporate evaluation models taken from textbook evaluation frameworks together

with the techniques employed in content analysis in order to create a textbook

analysis in the present study. Under this approach, the textbook analysis in this study

10
has been formulated to investigate the editor’s views on songs and rhymes, the

content features of songs and rhymes, and the intentions embedded in using songs and

rhymes as teaching activities in language classrooms, as revealed in the selected

elementary school English textbooks.

11
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The present study aims to explore the presentation and instructional design of

songs and rhymes in elementary English textbooks. The literature reviewed in this

chapter, therefore, is geared toward focusing on the songs and rhymes in children’s

English learning/teaching and textbook research on the subject of English as a second

and foreign language. The first section places the emphasis on songs and rhymes in

elementary school English education in terms of the characteristics of songs and

rhymes, the relationship between songs and rhymes and language teaching and

learning, and the criteria for implementing songs and rhymes. Subsequently, the

attention will be shifted toward studies on textbook research. The role of textbooks in

the language classroom is discussed first. Further discussions then turn to the

evaluation models used in the field of ESL and EFL textbook research. Lastly, studies

concerned about songs and rhymes in elementary textbooks will be examined to

discover how songs and rhymes are analyzed in different subject areas.

Songs and Rhymes in Children’s Elementary School English Education

The Features of Songs and Rhymes

Songs and rhymes, part of a longstanding oral tradition, have been widely used

as a carrier of messages and cultures. This unique oral transmission has allowed songs

12
and rhymes to be passed down from generation to generation (Opie, 2005). One of the

reasons why songs and rhymes have been prevalent through the ages might be the fact

that they are the integration of melody and text, which makes them more accessible

for both adults and children. In particular, for young learners, the pairing of language

with music from the songs and rhymes gives them a rich language exposure and

introduces them to a friendly learning environment. However, songs and rhymes are

more than just a mixture of words and notes. Songs and rhymes exhibit specific

properties that are different from other texts. Thus, in the following, the discussion is

geared to the essential element of songs and rhymes, that of lyrics. In terms of lyrics,

the focus is put on the inclusion of vocabulary, the selection of themes, the formation

of repetition and the use of rhyme.

The vocabulary included in the songs and rhymes might be aimed at various

levels of comprehensibility. First of all, as Opie stated, the “brevity” of songs and

rhymes may make the length short but the content rich and complex (2005, p. 174).

The short length, on the one hand, could easily take learners into an imaginary world,

a historical setting or a fragmentary incident (Cook, 2000) within just four or six

sentences. On the other hand, concise lyrics are at the risk of introducing words of

low-frequency, different dialects, distantly archaic words, or irregular sentences, all of

which may challenge the learners’ tolerance for ambiguities. Secondly, the “brevity”

13
of songs and rhymes may also include words of a comparatively easy level. According

to Tuan and An’s (2010) statement, when examining songs and rhymes, the lyrics

designated were found to be relatively simple. In addition, Murphey’s (1992) analysis

on song discourse ascertained this description and indicated that the reading level of

song lyrics was found to be located at the simplest level in Flesch’s readability

formula. From the aforementioned, as Richards (1969) suggested, the main key that

contributes to comprehending songs and rhymes lies in the language not the music.

Hence, there is a need to exam the word use in songs and rhymes. In the present study,

two dimensions, word level and readability, are used to measure the extent of how

beginning learners can understand each song and rhyme in their textbooks.

Another feature of songs and rhymes to be discussed is the selection of themes.

The selection of themes may make songs and rhymes more comprehensible because

of their inherent familiarity for children. This familiarity may result from a similar

cultural background or life-related topics. For example, when singing the melody of

the famous song, Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star, Chinese pupils would find its melody

and lyrics identical or similar to the song, Yi Shan Yi Shan Liang Ching Ching in

Chinese. Both in the native and target languages, songs and rhymes are a common

learning experience from early infancy (Mora, 2000). In addition, the themes of songs

and rhymes which are relatively close to a learner’s real life experiences would be

14
another preference, given that the lyrics of these often focus on young learners’

background knowledge, such as family, animals, food, friendship etc. (Richard-Amato,

2003; Richards, 1969). For instance, Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes place

repetitive words together, all centering on the same theme, that of body parts

(Richards, 1969). Read (2007) pointed out that “children make sense of the world and

of language through the context they find themselves in” (p. 8). Thus, songs and

rhymes soak learners in an accessible language environment. Therefore, the selection

of themes for the songs and rhymes is one of the coding categories within the present

study.

Another feature of songs and rhymes are their repetitive patterns. The repetitions

appearing in songs and rhymes vary in different units of linguistic fragments. First,

the refrain, a regularly occurring phrase after every verse (Abdellah, 2002), is the

favourite format of a song for children (Rixon, 2000 as cited in Yuliana, 2003).

Second, it is not only phrases but also sentence patterns that are common types of

repetition. For example, Five Little Monkeys provides a pleasant way to introduce and

review repeated phrases and sentence patterns, such as present progressive (e.g. Five

little monkeys jumping on the bed…) and past tense (e.g. Mama called the doctor and

the doctor said…). Third, the repeated occurrence of rhyming words creates a

constant repetition on rhymes. For example, in Three Blind Mice, the rhyme /aɪf/

15
shows up repetitively in wife, knife, and life. The repetition of key words or rhyming

words, phrases, sentences, even paragraphs, can provide extensive exposure to the

text and thus cultivates a sense of familiarity with the reoccurring context. Later, these

songs and rhymes could even turn into predictable reading materials that lead children

to actively read (Douville, 2001). Therefore, on perceiving the contribution of

repetition in songs and rhymes to language learning, the types of repetition in songs

and rhymes among the different textbook series, is investigated in the current study.

An essential rhetorical device, the use of rhyme, is a commonly used

characteristic in songs and rhymes. As indicated by Mayer, Neumayer and Rauber

(2008, p. 338), “rhymes are most commonly used in poetry and songs”. In Davidson

and Heartwood’s (1997) introduction, there are two basic rhyme forms used when

creating songs. These two essential rhyme forms are hard rhyme and soft rhyme. Hard

rhyme refers to the rhymes that rhyme in identical sequences of vowels and

consonants, such as in “like” and “bike”. A soft rhyme occurs in words holding the

same vowel but that are different in consonants, such as “mind” and “time”. In

addition to the use of rhyming words, the overall arrangement of rhymes is also an

important rhythmic device when composing songs and rhymes. Some rhyme schemes

extracted from Mayer, Neumayer and Rauber (2008) are in the following forms: a

Couplet AA, and Couplets AABB, ABAB or ABBA. From the aforementioned,

16
rhyme is identified as a fundamental constituent of songs and rhymes. Being more

than a text feature in itself, rhyme has a crucial pedagogical contribution. This is

pinpointed by Harley (1992, pp. 114-115) who states that “rhyme has been, and

continues to be, identified by children as the most popular poetic device”. Davidson

and Heartwood’s (1997) metaphor might further explain the popularity of rhyme.

They indicated that rhyme functions as a “comfort in expectation” (p. 30) because its

repeated occurrence always leads listeners to join in with the harmony. Therefore, the

use of rhyme is one of the examined items in the present study.

Pedagogical Effects of Applying Songs and Rhymes in Children’s English

Teaching and Learning

The idea of using songs and rhymes in language teaching is not new (Huang,

1998; Merdinger & Rosenfeld, 1984; Orlova, 1997). With the expanding prevalence

and efforts made to teach languages by using music, musical activities, such as songs

and rhymes, have long been recognized as beneficial to many aspects of language

learning (e.g. Huang, 1998; Mizener, 2008; Salcedo, 2002; Saricoban & Metin, 2000).

Songs and rhymes in the language classroom can be used to perform various functions.

They provide precious inputs for language learning and create a non-threatening

learning environment. In addition, the paring of melody and lyrics renders them a

more accessible mnemonic device and acts as a gateway for introducing foreign

17
cultures to elementary learners. The following discussion, therefore, turns to the

multifaceted functions of songs and rhymes in language classroom applications and

includes linguistic, affective, cognitive and cultural contributions.

Linguistic contribution. The relationship between songs and rhymes and

language acquisition lies in the perspectives of language input, din phenomena, and

the exaggerated prosodic features of songs and rhymes. Firstly, according to Krashen

and Terrell (1985), language input plays a decisive role in language acquisition.

Concluded from the Input Hypothesis, an efficient input requires the following

features: comprehensible, roughly tuned, meaningful, rich in context and

extra-linguistically informative. From the discussion in the previous section, songs

and rhymes are found to have the promising potential of acting as an effective

language input. Plagwitz (n.d.) also ascertained that the lyrics of songs are good

language inputs because the input provided is “manageable”, even for beginning

learners. For the sake of being an effective and widely-manageable language input,

Saricoban and Metin (2000) further suggested that songs and rhymes are precious

inputs for students as they encourage them to develop language skills and to learn

various language aspects, such as rhythm, stress, rhyme, intonation, vocabulary, and

sentence patterns.

Secondly, the contribution of songs and rhymes can be further discussed from the

18
perspective of the relationship between input and din phenomena, which refers to a

form of involuntary mental rehearsal of a foreign language (de Guerrero, 1987).

Krashen, who first explored the relationship between input, din in the head, and

second language acquisition device (de Guerrero, 1987), hypothesized that the input

needed to activate the din should be comprehensible and contain both the i and i+1

structures (1983). Seven years later, Murphey (1990) postulated the song-stuck-in-my

head phenomena (SSIMH) and discovered the beneficial contribution of song to

language acquisition. Compared to the input hypothesized by Krashen, Murphey

addressed the fact that songs are a more effective language input for language

acquisition device to work, which demands fewer requirements in terms of input

quality and quantity. For instance, after listening to the parts of a song, people can

experience the melody and lyrics automatically and can constantly replay them in

their minds, and it is this automaticity that helps songs to become stuck in the head.

Different from the input termed by Krashen, the input derived from songs does not

necessarily need to be comprehensible for learners because songs could keep dinning

in their heads even when the learners do not actually understand the meaning of the

lyrics. Hence, songs and rhymes are the avenue which helps the learning of a

language to be stuck in the head in an unconscious manner.

Another key to why song and rhymes contribute significantly to a learner’s

19
foreign language acquisition may rely on the fact that the SSIMH phenomenon

operates well on “the suprasegmentals, the chunking and intonation contours”, which

are more approachable for language acquisition (Murphey, 1990). Songs and rhymes

tend to exaggerate the prosodic features of English (Cook, 2000). Therefore, through

songs and rhymes, young learners may find it easier to be aware of, to perceive and

even to command the manipulation of the prosodic features of English, which helps

young learners to perceive these features automatically (Cross, 1992). Looking at

manipulation in the Music/Song Approach (Lipton, 1994), for instance, it can be seen

that music helps to reinforce the pronunciation and intonation of the foreign language

whilst learners are enjoying the participation in musical activities. Musical activities,

such as songs and rhymes, operate well by helping with the practice of rhythm, stress,

and intonation patterns (Orlova, 2003). To conclude, the best way to use songs and

rhymes as accessible and efficient language inputs is to employ a range of songs and

rhymes that start as easily comprehensible up to slightly challenging. In this way, the

contents of songs and rhymes could be the learning repertoire or the roughly-tuned

input (Krashen, 2009) for students of different levels.

In addition to their important role in language acquisition, songs and rhymes can

be used to promote various language developments, one of which is the learning of

grammar. The natural contexts carried by songs and rhymes provide learners with

20
tremendous chances to learn grammatical structures and their language functions. As

indicated by Mora (2000, p. 151), songs “help EFL students to have a handy model in

their minds to deduce grammatical information”. Cook (2000) further explained that it

is the rhythmic breaks in songs and rhymes that maintain constancy with linguistic

boundaries and emphasise everyday speech. Many teaching materials currently on the

market also make good use of songs and rhymes to teach grammar. By selecting

famous songs in different musical styles, Merdinger and Rosenfeld (1984) designed a

book that presents and practices grammatical structures. Kind (1980) published a

resource book that enabled learners to become familiar with various sentence

structures via a series of learning activities, such as filling in the blanks, completing

sentences, composing grammar rhymes, answering short questions and compiling an

interactive dialogue according to corresponding comic strips.

In the development of listening skills, songs and rhymes are treated as good

teaching materials and activities. In particular, for learners who find skill practice is

dull and mechanical, music and songs may turn the practice of listening skills into an

interesting, relaxed and catchy manner (Woodall & Ziembroski, 2004). For instance,

the use of songs for dictation, as elucidated by Cullen (1999), demonstrated several

pedagogical advantages. The dictation of songs and rhymes focuses on the bottom-up

processing of listening skill. For developing the top-down listening process, teachers

21
could guide students to try to make a prediction about the title, describe features of the

lyrics, think about the association between the listener’s interpretation and the

composer’s intention, or discuss the vocabulary usage in the lyrics (Mizener, 2008). In

addition to bottom-up and top-down listening activities, Montaner (n.d.) proposed a

three-phrase listening activity when teaching songs: pre-listening, listening, and

post-listening activities. The proposed activities were regarded as generic and these

can be applied for teaching songs in various circumstances and teaching objectives.

With regard to the development of speaking skills, music was viewed as both an

alternative method and an input that can develop participants’ oral performance (Niño,

2010). In Niño’s classroom research, the role of musical activities served as a trigger

for speaking. Musical materials were the tool that grasped the target vocabulary,

fostered or even extracted the words to speak, and further reinforced speaking skills.

As a result, learners expanded their oral vocabulary size, had better pronunciation,

and gained a better mastery of expression in English. Furthermore, songs and rhymes

are a great trigger for classroom discussion since they are imaginative and narrative in

nature. As suggested by Griffee (1992), learners can easily become involved in active

conversation by discussing one specific type of song with its relevant works,

describing possible scenes that are cultivated from the song, exploring the real

intention of the original composer, or sharing their feelings about that particular song.

22
 Musical activities are also good prompters for developing reading skills. Singing

songs, as suggested by McCarthy (1985), reinforce word recognition, reading

comprehension and literacy appreciation. Songs and rhymes are the kind of texts that

are rich in repetition and language patterns. Utilizing songs and rhymes in print can

help to build the concept and convention about print in a meaningful context (Woodall

& Ziembroski, 2004). Once the print concept has been built up, learners’ ability to

recognize different words are reinforced through each repetition of the words. When

undergoing chanting or rhythmical speaking activities, learners had boundless

opportunities to experience the “steady beat, durations, accent, dynamics, tempo,

pitch, texture, form, and expression” (Mizener, 2008), enabling them to go further

with practicing decoding skills (McCarthy, 1985). The rhythmical nature of rhymes

and chants fosters reading fluency since the rhythmic flow drawn from chanting could

transfer to the reading fluency necessary for reading comprehension (Mizener, 2008).

Further to achieving reading comprehension, McCarthy (1985) promoted reading

appreciation through the creation of new lyrics. As Kenney (2005) indicated, many of

the songs and rhymes are made up of words in the form of “miniature stories”. The

typical story plots are suitable for building a base on which to generate new ideas and,

subsequently, create future stories.

Songs and rhymes, full of rich material and used as an enjoyable vehicle, have the

23
potential to stimulate learners in second language writing. In the brainstorming stage,

elements, such as melody, harmony, timbre, rhythm, tempo, and the music lyrics,

could be exploited to explore various ideas in writing (Wijaya & Tedjaatmadja, 2006).

Anton (1990) and Orlova (2003) thought the experiences of listening to songs could

be the repertoire for later writing. For instance, writing a personal letter to the

composer or predicting the possible ending of the character in song and rhyme are

great practice for developing writing skills. After taking part in listening to and

reading the songs, learners could further try to analyse and interpret the lyrics in their

writing (Mizener, 2008). Gradually, learners can be trained to think and write

critically (DeEdwardo, 2005).

From the above-mentioned, songs and rhymes can serve as both the avenue and

the repertoire for students to practice their grammar, listening, speaking, reading, and

writing skills. When immersed in songs and rhymes, learners might have the potential

to make use of the rich resources provided by the songs and rhymes and thus, as

indicated by Mizener (2008), develop the various modalities needed for

communication. Reflected by literature, songs and rhymes greatly contribute to

enhancing a young learner’s language development and further form the basis for

various language skills in later learning (Baleghizadeh & Dargahi, 2010).

Affective contributions. The belief that songs and rhymes can not only develop

24
language skills but also ease affective barriers has long been noted by a large number

of researchers and practitioners (e.g. Griffee, 1992; Iudin-Nelson, 1997; McCarthy,

1985; Medina, 2003; Murphey, 2002; Richards, 1969; Schoepp, 2001; Shtakser, 2001;

Siek-Piskozub, 1998; Tuan & An, 2010). Songs and rhymes can create a platform for

learning to occur (Mizener, 2008) because they are contributive to forming a friendly

learning environment, enhancing the classroom atmosphere, and evoking

subconscious learning resources. Once the affective filter is lowered by the

application of songs and rhyme, learners are more likely to acquire language

effectively.

Songs and rhymes help to “create an environment that is conducive to learning”

(Woodall & Ziembroski, 2004, para. 4). In neurological research findings, music was

found to connect the functions in both the right and left hemispheres and this, in turn,

quickened and made learning easier. The brain waves influenced by music also led the

brain to be more relaxed and receptive to language input. In addition, it has been

found that music has an influence on the rhythm of breathing, relaxing the body and,

consequently, heightening learning awareness and mental receptivity (Kind, 1980).

Relaxation, as a result of the tunes of songs and rhymes, can be attributed to the

non-threatening atmosphere, which enables learners to overcome their anxiety, fear,

and inhibition of unknown situations (Huang, 1998; Kind, 1980; Somers, 2000). In

25
addition to breaking down affective learning barriers, young learners who are

absorbed in songs and rhymes are “more prepared to listen, more receptive and alert,

and more active in their responses” (Cooper, 2010, p. 25). Pedagogically speaking,

applying songs and rhymes in language teaching creates a less threatening and

friendlier learning environment (Iudin-Nelson, 1997; Merrell, 2004).

Songs and rhymes can also create a welcoming and cooperative atmosphere in the

classroom, which is vital for successful language learning (Griffee, 1992). This

classroom atmosphere is revealed by the way that learners join in and the method of

group singing. Songs and rhymes could create an interactive atmosphere that lures

learners into taking part. As Tuan and An (2010) stated, students’ participation in

learning the lyrics of a new song is a signal that shows their eagerness in song-singing

activities. The elicited participation and involvement triggered by songs and rhymes

are the basis of language building (Church, 2001). The group singing of songs and

rhymes is also a good example of providing a cooperative and friendly mood as it

may be less threatening than a solo response (Wilcox, 1995). This unison singing also

becomes a shelter where students can sing behind the rest of the chorus and try to

make adjustments to their learning pace. The concurrent involvement of all the

students allows learners to engage in “a choral melodic repetition of the new language

just taught”, thus reducing anxiety (Mora, 2000, p. 152), shortening the distance

26
among peers, lowering competitive aptitudes, setting up a cooperative relationship,

(Jackson & Joyce, 2003 cited in Merrell, 2004) and constructing a sense of

community (Thain, 2010). Such an interaction is actually a miniature “social learning

environment”, which is a great contribution for toddlers and pupils because it not only

enhances social bonds between children but also prolongs the affective effects on

language learning (Cooper, 2010).

To a greater extent, songs and rhymes might also stimulate the subconscious

resources required for language acquisition. This stimulation could further result in

longer retention, better recall of vocabulary and language structures (Williams, 1983),

and a harmonious rapport between teachers and students (Murphey, 2002). Apparently,

music is an emotionally powerful art. It may evoke a strong, emotional response and

give rise to our imagination and feelings (Orlova, 2003). As Griffee states, “songs

create their own world of feeling and emotion, and as we participate in the song, we

participate in the world it creates” (1992, pp. 3-4). Songs and rhymes arouse feelings

that allow learners to find song-singing amusing rather than tedious (Shtakser, 2001).

Consequently, learners view language learning as entertaining and not dull work.

Cognitive contributions. In the field of cognitive psychology, songs and rhymes

are emphasized as mnemonic aids in language learning. As Wallace (1994) premised,

melody and text can cue each other mutually and this cuing association remains stable

27
even after a long time delay. In the encoding stage, the brain waves influenced by

music enable the brain to relax and, in turn, become more receptive to language input

(Kind, 1980). In the retrieval stage, a unique association chain is then made because

of the integration of melody and text in the memory. Information carried by songs and

rhymes is, therefore, more easily accessible. Later, in the storage stage, the constant

repetition (Wallace, 1994) and language texts in rhythmic song formats (Kilgour,

Jakobson & Cuddy, 2000) form a firm organizational role that contributes to stable

memory. The opposing view might query that learning languages with the

combination of melody and lyrics could cause extra burden for learners. Students

might be overwhelmed by processing various kinds of information at the same time

(Racette & Peretz, 2007; Wallace, 1994). As a matter of fact, Racette and Peretz’s

(2007) concerns highlighted the importance of selecting proper songs and rhymes so

that the improved learning of languages could occur. Any doubts can be solved by

ensuring the musical challenge is as manageable as possible (Abdellah, 2002),

examining the language focuses in advance, and allowing students to sing behind a

chorus (Wilcox, 1995). Cognitively, as Abbott (2002) stated, songs and rhymes

“presumably enhance and stimulate memory because dual coding leads to deeper

processing and better retention” (p. 10), thus facilitating language learning.

Cultural contributions. Songs and rhymes are the representation of the target

28
culture and, consequently, “form a window” for learning cultural differences

(Plagwitz, n.d.). As indicated by Iudin-Nelson (1997), the application of songs and

rhymes offers the opportunity to develop L2 skills in an authentic cultural context.

Zola and Sandvoss (1976) added that song and rhymes are sound materials and a good

medium for learning language because of their authenticity, and they are also

culturally representative texts. Teachers are encouraged to introduce the historical

background of each song and rhyme so that learners can achieve a deeper

comprehension of the foreign culture (Sokka-Meaney, 2008). Students can take turns

to interact appropriately in various cultural contexts (Richard-Amato, 2003). Learners

can then perceive the cultural concept, get to know people using the language, and try

the form to create the target language (Merrell, 2004). In addition to cultural

differences, teachers might guide learners to discover the connections between similar,

typical patterns, both in their native and the target language (DeEdwardo, 2005). To

summarize, songs and rhymes are good avenues for learners to get in touch with both

similar and different cultures and customs.

The Criteria for Implementing Song and Rhyme Instructions to Children

If carefully selected, as cited in Éva (2003, p. 132), songs and rhymes “can be

useful in the teaching of English, especially in the beginning stages… Rhymes need to

be attractive, catchy, easy to understand, and include useful language which can be

29
transferred to other situations…” (Dunn, 1985, p. 38). Dunn’s statement, to some

extent, implied that there were left some requirements to be fulfilled if suitable songs

and rhymes were to contribute to early language learning. Choosing a proper teaching

material is never an easy task. The same is true for songs and rhymes. For teachers,

one of the most difficult tasks when applying songs and rhymes is to pick out the most

suitable ones from the gigantic ocean of the various kinds of music available

(Coromina, 1993). Under this situation, different researchers have proposed different

selection criteria for songs and rhymes that are appropriate for second language

learners in a variety of contexts and purposes. The various evaluations of songs and

rhymes as teaching materials are, therefore, synthesized from the literature, which is

shown in Table 2.1. Reflected from the seven researchers (Abdellah, 2002; Beasley &

Chuang, 2008; Coromina, 1993; Kramer, 2001; Lems, 1996; Lems, 2001; Smallwood

& Haynes, 2008), the proposed selection criteria for songs and rhymes applied in ESL

and EFL classrooms are found to be generated from the viewpoints of content and

classroom application. Give the notions that songs and rhymes are “synthetic genre”

constituted by melody and lyrics (Orlova, 2003), the content of the songs and rhymes

might be discussed on the ground of lyrics and melody.

30
Table 2.1
The Selection Criteria of Songs and Rhymes
Author
Dimension Criteria
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Comprehensibility V V V V V V V
Choice of themes V V V V
Lyrics Repetition V V V V
Accompanied V
V
Content of the facilitators
material Clearness of diction V V V V V
Speed of melody V V V V
Melody Tonal range V V
Genre diversity V V
Repetition V V V V
Conformity to V V V
curriculum
Application of the material
Teaching resources V
Student interest V V
Note. 1=Abdellah (2002); 2=Beasley and Chuang (2008); 3=Coromina (1993);
4=Kramer (2001); 5=Lems (1996); 6=Lems (2001); 7=Smallwood and Haynes (2008)

Among the various criteria in terms of lyrics, comprehensibility of the content is

the most important essence when choosing songs and rhymes for language teaching.

As Richards (1969) indicated, the major cause that results in the difficulty of a song

comes from the language itself, not the music. Reflected in Richards’ statement, the

choice of words is the most common issue in all the reviewed researches. The

vocabulary utilized in songs and rhymes is suggested to be “linguistically accessible”

(Indin-Nelson, 1997, p. 3). To achieve this requirement, the vocabulary needs to be

simple, interesting, and straightforward (Coromina, 1993; Kramer, 2001), within the

31
learners’ proficiency level (Abdellah, 2002; Beasley & Chuang, 2008; Kramer, 2001;

Lems, 1996; Lems, 2001), compatible with classroom use (Abdellah, 2002), and

naturally used without too much idiomatic or nonsensical expressions (Beasley &

Chuang, 2008). Words which are infrequent or vague in reference increase the

difficulty of comprehensibility (Lems, 2001). Aside from the difficulty of words,

Smallwood and Haynes (2008) made a particular inclusion on the use of rhyming

words to develop young learners’ phonemic awareness. As Blevins (1998) suggested,

the types of rhyming words include rhyme, alliteration, and assonance. Factors

contributing to the easiness of song and rhyme content not only draw from word

choice but also text length. With regard to beginners, the text length is recommended

to be no longer than sixteen lines (Lems, 1996). Comprehensibility should involve

vocabulary thresholds, and text length, to some extent, is indicated by the term

‘readability’, which is defined as “the level of ease or difficulty with which text

material can be understood by a particular reader who is reading that text for a

specific purpose” (Pikulski, 2002, p. 1). The measurement of readability often

includes certain variables, such as sentence length, the number of unfamiliar words, or

words outside the word list (Sung, 2008). Therefore, readability of the lyrics may

serve as a good, objective indicator to ascertain the difficulty level of songs and

rhymes. In summary, the language contained in the lyrics should be in alignment with

32
young learners’ language proficiency (Abdellah, 2002), and this requires careful

control of word choice and readability.

With regard to theme choice, the appropriateness of themes must be taken into

consideration (Beasley & Chuang, 2008). Abdellah (2002) and Beasley and Chuang

(2008) suggested choosing songs and rhymes which are relevant to a learner’s real life

experiences. These life-related themes would then close the distance between the

target language and the student. Furthermore, themes containing “potentially

problematic content” should be eliminated in advance (Lems, 2001). Beasley and

Chuang (2008) explained that some songs tend to easily make non-Americans

embarrassed or offended. Themes involving the discriminatory senses of sex, race,

religion, violence or national authority are not ideal for classroom use (Beasley &

Chuang, 2008; Coromina, 1993; Lems, 2001). As a result, life-related and positive

themes are better choices.

Other criteria concerning lyrics are repetition and the use of accompanied

facilitators. Repetition is one of the distinct characteristics of a song or rhyme.

According to Lems (1996, 2001), repetition of the lyrics is an opportunity for further

practice. With regard to beginning learners, repetition also helps them to perceive

songs and rhymes more easily. Inadequate repetition may produce extra-loadable

challenges for less advanced learners (Lems, 2001). Lyrics can be repetitive in various

33
forms, such as key words, key phrases (Beasley & Chuang, 2008) or grammatical

sentences (Smallwood & Haynes, 2008). In terms of accompanied facilitators, they

may be presented either kinesthetically or pictorially. Abdellah (2002) stated that

action songs and rhymes are especially recommended for fourth and fifth graders. If

possible, proper illustrations promoting the understanding of grammar are also

suggested (Lems, 1996). Therefore, repetition is a highly recommended characteristic

of songs and rhymes, which could be presented in the form of repeated refrain,

repetitive and straightforward rhythm (Abdellah, 2002) and the help of various

accompanied facilitators.

With regard to the melodic criteria when selecting appropriate songs and rhymes,

clearness of diction is the criterion most often mentioned. As Coromina (1993)

indicated, finding a recording of a song or rhyme is not difficult but picking up the

“clearest diction” is one of the most challenging tasks (p. 3). The diction needs to be

perfectly enunciated and, therefore, each word of the lyrics should not overshadowed

by chorus echoes or musical instruments (Coromina, 1993). In other words, teachers

have to make sure that the voice on the recording is not distorted, the volume is

appropriate, and that the lyrics can be easily distinguishable from any background

music (Purcell, 1992).

The next criterion related to melody is the speed of the melody. Fast-paced

34
melodies should be avoided (Coromina, 1993). A rapid pace of music may allow little

space to discriminate the lyrics and keep up with the singing, and, consequently, this

results in an overburdening challenge for young learners (Lems, 2001). According to

Murphey’s (1992) analysis of song discourse, the average number of words per

minute in a song is 75.49. Murphey (1992) stated that song speed is about half that of

the average speech rate and suggested that a speed slower than the normal speech rate

is suitable for learners.

As for the tonal range of the melody, the range should be limited as much as

possible (Beasley & Chuang, 2008) so as to suit most average students (Lems, 1996).

As suggested by Lin, (2008), a comfortable tonal range for third graders is eleven

degrees, whereas fourth and fifth graders lie at twelve degrees, and fifth and sixth

graders no greater than fifteen degrees.

Other criteria concerned with melody are repetition and genre diversity. Melodical

repetition, which is presented in the forms of chorus, refrain, and rhythm, is important

(Abdellah, 2002; Beasley & Chuang, 2008; Lems, 1996; Smallwood & Haynes, 2008).

A musical genre should be rich in diversity so as to cater for most learners (Lems,

1996; Kramer, 2001). In conclusion, making the melody itself a manageable, musical

challenge is the top priority (Abdellah, 2002).

When it comes to selecting songs and rhymes from the view of instructional

35
application, the reviewed research stated that conformity to the curriculum is the most

crucial factor. As Purcell (1992) illustrated, teachers must bear their functions and

purposes in mind when choosing songs and rhymes. It is suggested that songs and

rhymes should be selected according to the teaching objectives in the curriculum, and

that there should be an examination of various language focuses in songs and rhymes,

such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, meaning, themes, concepts, and cultural

knowledge of the overall content (Coromina, 1993; Kramer, 2001; Lems, 1996).

Songs and rhymes accompanied with teaching resources are also necessary.

Smallwood and Haynes (2008) stated that the provision of a CD or musical notation

helps teachers to become familiarized with the melody. Equipping the teachers with

information regarding the original songs and adapted ones would assist them to design

various teaching activities in terms of contrast and comparison. The suggestion of

listing relevant online resources is also important because songs and rhymes should be

accessible and enjoyable for learners, both inside and outside of the classroom (Lems,

1996).

In the seven proposed models concerning the criteria of selecting songs and

rhymes, content of the material weighted more than the application of the material. In

terms of lyrics dimension, comprehensibility is regarded the most important selection

criterion. The factors affecting learners’ comprehensibility call for the most attention

36
from the researchers in choosing appropriate songs and rhymes for educational

purposes. Themes and repetition, as shown in Table 2.1, were the researchers’

secondary preference in their selection of appropriate songs and rhymes in language

instruction. With regard to melody dimension, the rule of thumb for most of the

learners emphasizes on the clearness of diction, followed by speed of melody and

repetition. Nonetheless, melodic criteria are free from consideration due to the

linguistics-focused nature of this content analysis study. From the perspectives of

material application, compliance with the curriculum goals is the most critical concern

among the other two selection criteria, teacher resources and student interests.

Though not emphasized by most of the researchers, some selection criteria have

their particular influences on teaching and learning songs and rhymes. For example,

the accompanied facilitators presented in pictorial, musical, or textual forms

contributed greatly to the learning of songs and rhymes. Furthermore, the provision of

teaching resources facilitated not only teachers’ realization of songs and rhymes from

cultural, linguistic, or musical perspectives but also the instructional effectiveness of

songs and rhymes. Therefore, the coding scheme in the present study was developed

from the aforementioned selection criteria concerning the use of rhymes, vocabulary

size, readability level, language structures, themes, forms of repetition, modes of

presentation, the instructional purposes and objectivities, activity designs and teaching

37
resources.

Textbook Research in EFL and ESL Contexts

Textbooks as the Primary Instructional Tool

In view of the significant influence that textbooks have on education, it is

necessary to be aware of the dominant role that textbooks have on teaching and

learning. Among the various factors affecting a curriculum, textbooks were shown to

exert a substantial degree of control over teaching practice and the learning process.

Solomon’s survey in 1978 provided the fact that course books accounted for 90% of

the teaching resources. It’s not surprising to find that “as much as 90 percent of

classroom instructional time is structured by instructional materials, especially

textbooks” (Woodward, Elliott, & Nagel, 1986, p. 50). It was the essential role of the

textbook that not only shaped the curriculum and daily instruction (Herlihy, 1992), but

also the teaching content and procedure (Tanner, 1988). Textbooks determine the

characteristics of text presentation and organization (Westbury, 1990). In other words,

a textbook, in the publishing process, pre-decides what is to be taught and in what

order, what the students will learn, how students will learn it and what language

studies earn the most emphasis (Rivers, 1981). Thus, textbooks tend to demonstrate a

vivid vision of what is occurring in the classroom. If one is curious about what is

happening in the classroom, Squire (1988), as an observer, proposed that it should just

38
be probed through textbooks and teachers’ guides.

The dominance of textbooks in classrooms contributes greatly to teacher reliance

on textbooks. When it comes to the language context in Taiwan, numerous studies

have clearly indicated that the major resource used in most classrooms is the textbook

(e.g. Chen, 2003; Chiu, 2007; Huang, 2003; Lan, 2005). Due to this fact, it is,

therefore, worthy to ponder on what contributes to the teachers’ reliance on textbooks.

Firstly, textbooks printed in large quantities seem to be convenient choices for

teachers who are often overburdened with teaching materials and school work (Chiu,

2007). Textbooks offer definitions for various terms, provide colorful pictures of

different contexts, and organize text presentations with dedicated laid-outs and

examples. Additionally, they are often accompanied by teachers’ guides, test items,

activity guides, and teaching aids. Secondly, textbooks are also the most hands-on

authority that responds to expectations from society and the parents. When it comes to

the current textbooks adapted in Taiwan, textbook editors definitely follow the

education philosophy announced in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline since they

must earn a license that is approved by the National Institute for Compilation and

Translation. Therefore, officially approved textbooks serve as the fundamental

threshold that ensures the quality of language teaching and the curricula (Qiu, 2008).

As Chiu discovered (2007), teachers, using textbooks as the major instructional

39
material, tended to have similar institutional behavior. The standardized instruction

designed in textbooks can guarantee that students will receive similar language

content and assessments in different classes (Richards, 2001). Furthermore, the

existence of textbooks also contributes to teachers’ own professional growth. Teachers

can follow the teaching activities suggested in the teachers’ guides, and supply the

teaching resources mentioned in the course book package (Richards, 2001). The

structure and syllabus of a textbook can further help teachers to construct a systematic

curriculum.

When it comes to the point of view of non-native speaker teachers, the continued

reliance on textbooks, particularly teachers’ guides, exists. NNS teachers are

sometimes compelled to rely greatly on teachers’ guides. The lack of teacher training,

lack of confidence in the mastery of English, and the teacher-variables underestimated

by material writers, contributed to an interdependent relationship between teachers

and the teachers’ guides (Coleman, 1985). Chen’s (2003) questionnaire survey also

confirmed teachers’ needs for teachers’ guides. The result of Chen’s (2003) findings

showed that over 70% of the teacher participants constantly used teachers’ guides for

teaching guidelines or activity design. Teachers’ guides may be of greater importance

than other components of a textbook package since, in the typical case where English

is taught in an EFL or ESL environment, NNS teachers depend greatly on the

40
teachers’ guides when consulting on teaching procedures, linguistic information and

cultural issues (Cunningsworth & Kusel, 1991).

Compared with other materials in a course book package, teachers’ guides have

their own unique and decisive stands on the curriculum (Cunningsworth, 1995). To be

more specific, as suggested by Cunningsworth and Kusel (1991) and Hemsley (1997),

each teacher’s guide would contain not only lesson planning but, probably, most of

the following functions. First of all, teachers’ guides should expound the inherent

course rationale by describing the rationale of language study, providing language

teaching methods, and helping teachers to understand the structure of the course

material and the interrelationship between the lessons or units of the whole course

structure. This then helps teachers to view the course as a whole. Secondly, in terms

of material usage, it is suggested that teachers’ guides state the overall purpose of the

teaching material, offer guidance on practical use and provide supplementary

information, such as linguistic and cultural texts required for effective material use in

class. As well as course rationale and material use, the promotion of teaching skill

development is encouraged. Teachers’ guides could achieve this through advocating

various teaching skills or emphasizing more than the certain major teaching skills

needed throughout the overall use of the material. Accordingly, the effective existence

of teachers’ guides is not merely to provide teaching procedures but to demonstrate

41
the rationale for the course, ensure a good standard of teaching, suggest useful

resources for instruction, and relate language instruction with student learning as

much as possible.

Evaluation Models for ESL and EFL Textbooks

The evaluation of teaching materials is vitally important as there is considerable

potential to affect how a teacher “operates” in the classroom (Hutchinson & Torres,

1994, p. 315). When it comes to the approaches to textbook evaluation, Hemsley

(1997) identified three major patterns of textbook evaluation. First, there is the

impressionistic approach, which generates the overall first impression of particular

textbooks. More objective than the impressionistic approach, a formal prior-to-use

evaluation is the second approach. This has developed a set of checklist-based criteria

that examine the chosen materials systematically, principally and objectively. Third,

there is the process approach, which is concerned not only with the textbook itself but

also the textbook users. The results generated by textbooks promote a procedure that

includes predictive and retrospective evaluation. Among the three approaches, the

impressionistic approach and the formal prior-to-use evaluation “involve making

predictions about the potential value of materials for their users” (Tomlinson, 2003, p.

23). The first two patterns for textbook evaluation are approximately equal to what

Tucker (1985) classified as general and internal criteria. Cunningsworth and Kusel

42
(1991) termed them as global appraisals and detailed evaluations. From the notions in

McDonough and Shaw (2003), the two stages of textbook evaluation were

subsequently named as external evaluation and internal evaluation. In Cunningsworth

(1995), the textbook evaluation patterns were divided into an impressionist overview

and in-depth examination. Similarly, Tomlinson (2003) separated them into a general

overview and specific criteria. Various terminology has been used by different

scholars, and first attempts at those pre-use evaluations allows a comprehensive and

preliminary overview on the organization of the chosen coursebooks or teachers’

guides. What follows are more specific criteria which are concerned with language

components, pedagogical rationales, the arrangement of contents, or predictive

teacher guidance etc (see Table 2.2). Pre-use evaluations have, therefore, divided

criteria into two stages: a general examination which is aimed at gaining a “brief

overview” of the textbooks from external factors, and a more detailed evaluation of

the inside of the textbooks (McDonough and Shaw, 2003).

Among the five previously-mentioned evaluation models in a pre-use evaluation,

Cunningsworth and Kusel’s (1991) model was unique as it is targeted especially at

teachers’ guides. In a global appraisal, the editor’s presupposed course rationale and

the guidance for teachers on how to effectively use the teachers’ guides were the

major foci. Specifically, the criteria underlying the global appraisal were the editor’s

43
views, assumptions of the teachers’ needs, information about language and language

learning, and guidance on how to develop teachers’ language teaching theory. To

examine the teachers’ guides more closely, the aims turn to the various, necessary

considerations of a course and the design of each lesson in the next phase, namely

detailed evaluation. In detailed evaluation, the criteria suggested by Cunningsworth

and Kusel are objectives and content, cultural loading, procedural guidance, advice on

unpredictable situations, correction and testing, motivation, presentation and use,

teachers’ guides that are not in English, and lesson evaluation. Different from the

other evaluation models, Cunningsworth and Kusel’s (1991) model apparently

emphasized the “teachers’ needs” angle during the whole evaluation process.

In terms of the evaluation models in pre-use evaluation, Cunningsworth (1995),

different from Hemsley (1997), indicated that an impressionist overview could count

more than merely flipping through the textbook. Focuses on this stage ranged from

components of the whole package, the intended audience, the presupposed context,

features of the course books, the syllabus design of the textbook, to the author’s view

on language and teaching (Cunningsworth, 1995; McDonough & Shaw, 2003;

Tomlinson, 2003; Tucker, 1975). During the first general overview stage, the

preliminary inspection of a textbook is, therefore, gained with certain substances.

44
Table 2.2
The Comparison of Evaluation Models in Pre-Use Evaluation
Stages of
Researcher Target Purposes
Evaluation
General To get a broader view on the
criteria overall textbook by assessing
ESL external factors of the book itself
Tucker (1975)
textbooks Internal To evaluate specific items
criteria including pronunciation, grammar,
and content
Cunningsworth teachers’ Global To probe the teaching approaches
and Kusel guides appraisal and presupposed assumptions of
(1991) teachers’ guides
Detailed To examine how the teaching
evaluation objectives, content, procedures,
and so forth, are dealt with
Cunningsworth ESL and Impressionist To form a quick general
(1995) EFL overview impression and make a first
coursebooks decision on material selection and
adoption
In-depth To examine the way specific items
examination are dealt with in terms of learners’
needs, curriculum requirements,
and language teaching, etc
McDonough ELT External To examine the publisher’s claims
and Shaw materials evaluation and organization of the material
(2003) Internal To analyze the consistency
evaluation between the external and internal
evaluation stages through detailed
investigation
Tomlinson EFL General To gain an overall review of the
(2003) coursebooks overview courses
Specific To evaluate the specific
criteria components of the coursebook
package

45
 After the external evaluation, the next stage continues with an in-depth

examination of the textbooks (McDonough & Shaw, 2003). The completion of such a

detailed investigation of a textbook depends on a set of comprehensive criteria. In the

field of textbook evaluation, numerous researchers have proposed a variety of

presupposed criteria and systematic models on judgments that assess the quality of

ESL and ELT textbooks (e.g. Brown, 2007; Byrd, 2001; Daoud & Celce-Murcia, 1979;

Cunningsworth, 1995; Gall, 1981; McCall, 2005; McDonough & Shaw, 2003;

Miekley, 2005; Nogova & Huttova, 2005; Rivers, 1981; Rotich & Musakali, 2005;

Sheldon, 1988; Skierso, 1991; Tomlinson et al., 2001; Tucker, 1975; Williams, 1983;

Yu, 2009) and teachers’ guides (e.g. Coleman, 1985; Cunningsworth & Kusel, 1991;

Hemsley, 1997). Evaluation criteria developed under learning English as foreign or

second language contexts utilized different scopes, ways of categorization, and

attitudes towards textbooks. There seems to be much that is commonplace among

these criteria, but in a complex way. According to Yu (2009), the common, core

aspects of the various sets of criteria for EFL and ESL textbooks can be roughly

divided into five dimensions: publishing, physical, content, instructional properties,

and students’ features. Yu (2009) separated students’ features into a distinct category.

However, student factors were indeed inherent in the above four dimensions. The four

dimensions in Yu (2009) to some extent reflect Gall’s (1981) comprehensive

46
evaluation model for curriculum materials, which lists 39 features and classifies them

into four categories: publication and cost, physical properties, content properties and

instructional properties. What makes those criteria for EFL and ESL textbooks

different criteria to general textbooks is the focus on the uniqueness of language.

Special concerns would consider language features, language skills, language content,

the arrangement of language items, and the development of communication and

vocabulary, etc. Given the fact that the pedagogical application of songs and rhymes

is the primary focus in the present study, the researcher has limited the aspects to

content and language teaching dimensions in the following discussion. As shown in

the evaluation models developed by Tucker (1975), Skierso (1991), Cunningsworth

(1995), Miekley (2005), Rotich and Musakali (2005), Brown (2007), and Yu (2009),

for ESL and EFL contexts, these researchers proposed different criteria in terms of

content and instructional dimensions. Properties of the contents were mainly focused

on pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, language skills and language use. For

instructional properties, teaching goals, exercises, activities, material usage and

teacher’s guidance were the most common concerns (see Table 2.3). To summarize, a

well-formed foundation for evaluation, as suggested by Cunningsworth (1995),

requires a combination of both the impressionist overview and the in-depth

examination.

47
Table 2.3
A Comparison of Different Sets of Criteria in Content and Instructional Property
Researcher Content property Instructional property
Tucker (1975) Pronunciation Guidance for non-native
Grammar teachers
Language use
Skierso (1991) Vocabulary Aims and goals
Structures Exercises
Subject matter Activities
Cunningsworth Language Aims and approaches
(1995) Content Methodology
Skills Teacher’s books
Topic Practical considerations
Design and organization
Miekley (2005) Vocabulary Exercises
Grammar Activities
Content
Rotich and Content Conformity to the curriculum
Musakali (2005) Language Exercises and activities
Brown (2007) Vocabulary Goals of the course
General content Approach
Language skills Accompanying materials
Sequencing Teacher’s guides
General sociolinguistic factors
Format
Yu (2009) Relatedness Assessment design
Sequence Instructional objectives
Completeness Activity design
Accuracy Teaching resources
Practicality Flexibility of guidance
Theoretical foundation Teachers’ guidance
Load

In view of the necessary construction of suitable criteria for analyzing songs and

rhymes in elementary English textbooks, further considerations were needed. First of

48
all, a “considerable modification” is necessary (Sheldon, 1988), no matter how

comprehensive the evaluation checklist is. No predominant evaluation criteria are

possibly perfect or widely generalizable. Evaluators, nonetheless, have to set an

allowable and manageable limitation on the coverage of the criteria (McDonough &

Shaw, 2003). Secondly, it is necessary to develop the criteria based on specific

contexts (Sheldon, 1988). Williams (1983) stood at the same position and suggested

that teachers generate a set of particular criteria in order to suit the different

requirements of language teaching environments. Thirdly, it is necessary to construct

evaluation criteria for each subject according to the particular subject uniqueness

(Chou, 2003). Yu (2009) further indicated that the evaluation criteria of English

textbooks stressed language features, language content, language skills, arrangement

of language items, development of communication competence, and vocabulary.

Consideration of the textbook evaluation, however, did not come to an end. What is

more important is that the objectivity and systematization of textbook evaluation are

the rule-of-thumb principles (Ansary & Babaii, 2002; Sheldon, 1988).

Studies on Songs and Rhymes in Elementary School Textbooks

Songs and rhymes, effective tools in elementary school education, have linked the

considerable research to not only experimental research but also textbook research.

Researchers from various subject areas have focused their interest on the presentation

49
and instructional design of songs and rhymes in elementary textbooks.

However, not many studies have been devoted to the analysis of textbooks used

for English learning (see Table 2.4). In the studies on songs and rhymes in textbook

research, studies on the analysis of songs and rhymes was limited with respect to

English learning. As shown in Table 2.4, most of the studies were conducted in the

subject area of music (Huang, 2000; Kang, 2000; Lin, S. H., 2008; Lin, H. C., 2008;

Li, 2010). However, few researchers have examined the field of language learning

(Chang, 2006; Chiu, 2011; Lin, W. C., 2008; Liu, 2006). Among these studies, Liu’s

(2006) study was one that was especially conducted in the context of the EFL

environment. However, although a large amount of textbook series were investigated

in Liu’s thesis, it was depth, breath, and completeness of the coding scheme that

remained under discussion. Apparently, studies that examine songs and rhymes in

textbooks, with regard to children’s English learning, remain to be undertaken.

50
 Table 2.4
Studies of Musical Materials in Taiwan Elementary School Textbooks
Subject
Author Material Purpose of the Study
Area
Huang Songs in elementary music Music To investigate the factors affecting the selection
(2000) textbooks from 1962 to of songs in terms of social cultural backgrounds
1999 and the editors’ teaching philosophy.
Kang Ethnic songs in Music To compare the differences in ethnic songs
(2000) Elementary music textbooks which have been designed according to different
curriculum standards in view of content features,
selection criteria and cultural bias.
Lin, S. Music appreciation Music To synthesize the basic information on music
H. materials in four sets of appreciation material and to analyze the contents
(2008) elementary school arts and in view of music instruction.
humanities textbook series
Lin, H. Aboriginal music in Music To investigate the application and evaluation of
C. elementary school arts and the appropriateness of Taiwan aboriginal music
(2008) humanities textbook series in the elementary and junior high schools.
from grade one to grade
nine
Li Folk Songs in three sets of Music To investigate the characteristics and compare
(2010) elementary school arts and the differences whilst evaluating folk songs in
humanities textbooks elementary art and humanities textbooks.
Chang Children’s poetry in four Chinese To analyze the distribution, forms, and content
(2006) sets of elementary school of children poetry.
Chinese textbook series
Lin, W. Children’s songs in three Chinese To explore the application of rhetorical devices
C. sets of elementary school in children’s songs.
(2008) arts and humanities
textbooks
Chiu Nursery rhymes in Dialects To find out the classification of rhetorical
(2011) elementary school Southern ( Hokki devices of and the presentation of nursery
Min textbooks -en) rhymes.
Liu 379 songs in elementary English To analyze the form and content features of
(2006) school English textbooks songs in textbooks, to find out what kind of
teaching aids were provided by publishers and
how the teaching activity design is presented in
the teachers’ guides.

51
 These limited studies showed that the investigation of songs and rhymes in

textbooks on different subject areas focused on three major aspects, namely, the

selection criteria, presentation, and the instructional design of songs or nursery

rhymes. In terms of selection criteria, the attention was to ask what were the factors

affecting the inclusion of songs in textbooks (Huang, 2000; Kang, 2000). With regard

to features when presenting songs and rhymes in textbooks, researchers focused on

asking the question: what are the presenting features of songs and rhymes and the

differences between the various textbook series (Chang, 2006; Chiu, 2011; Kang,

2000; Li, 2010; Lin, S. H., 2008; Lin, W. C., 2008; Liu, 2006). When considering the

application of songs and rhymes, studies paid attention to the following aspects: (1) in

what way are the teaching activities of songs and rhymes designed? (Lin, S. H., 2008;

Liu, 2006); (2) are the songs and rhymes appropriate for children’s learning? (Lin, H.

C., 2008; Liu, 2006); and (3) what kinds of teaching aids were provided by publishers

(Lin, S. H., 2008; Liu, 2006).

After reviewing these studies, it was found that a great majority of the research

was conducted by applying a self-constructed or adapted coding scheme to analyze

songs and rhymes in student textbooks. However, data collected from teachers’ guides

were under-explored. However, the construction of the coding schemes for the

aforementioned studies was not taken from the merging of the evaluation models of

52
ESL or EFL textbooks (in particular teachers’ guides), common-core aspects of the

various sets of criteria for ESL or EFL textbooks, or the selection criteria for the target

material. Therefore, in the present study, the researcher will target teachers’ guides in

order to investigate both the presentation and instructional design of songs and

rhymes in different textbook series by using a coding scheme that combines the

evaluation models for teachers’ guides, evaluation models for EFL and ESL textbooks

and the selection criteria of songs and rhymes.

Summary of Chapter Two

To conclude, as implied from the literature review, songs and rhymes are found

to be beneficial for children when learning English. Given the influence that textbook

guides have on language classrooms, any research on songs and rhymes in textbooks,

therefore, must take into account the following considerations. In terms of language

teaching, songs and rhymes have multi-faced functions in a language classroom.

Therefore, when analyzing songs and rhymes, the researchers could not ignore their

contribution to multiplicity and appropriateness in classroom application. In terms of

developing the framework for investigating songs and rhymes in textbooks, the

models from various, previously published evaluation criteria are good reference

points. In the present study, common aspects of the various evaluation models will be

borrowed for the framework and all criteria for selecting songs and rhymes, except

53
that musicality will be adopted as the basis on which to construct the coding scheme.

Therefore, the construction of a sound coding scheme should be derived from the

integration of the relationship between children’s English learning, songs and rhymes,

EFL and ESL evaluation models for textbooks and teachers’ guides, and the selection

criteria for songs and rhymes.

54
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This chapter reports the details of the research design in an attempt to answer the

research questions proposed in the present study. In the first section, the materials

selected for this textbook analysis will be introduced. The coding scheme with two

main phases: global analysis and detailed analysis will be further illustrated and

explained next. What follows is the data analysis.

Materials

The materials selected for the present study were 48 English textbook teachers’

guides designated for elementary schools in Taiwan. The textbook selection for the

present study was based on the following criteria: (1) the textbooks were designed

according to the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline (MOE, 2008); (2) the textbooks had

been approved by the National Institute for Compilation and Translation from

volumes one to eight; and (3) the textbooks are currently adopted in elementary

schools in Taiwan. In addition, all the selected textbook series should target EFL

learners from third graders to sixth graders. Conforming to the aforementioned criteria

for textbook selection, the selected textbook series were New Wow English (Kang

Hsuan), Happy Story (Hess), New Smart (Melody), Happy Day (Nani), English (Joy),

and Rainbow English (Rainbow). Each series contained two volumes for each grade

55
respectively, with eight volumes in total. Overall, 457 songs and rhymes in the six

series of approved textbooks were investigated. In the present study, each set of the

selected textbook series were represented by the pseudonyms of “Textbook A”,

“Textbook B”, “Textbook C”, “Textbook D”, “Textbook E” and “Textbook F”,

respectively.

The Coding Scheme

The coding scheme in the present study was derived from the evaluation models

for ESL and EFL textbooks (Cunningsworth, 1995; Cunningsworth & Kusel, 1991;

McDonough & Shaw, 2003; Tomlinson, 2003; Tucker, 1975). Based upon the pre-use

textbook evaluation process (Hemsley, 1997), the coding scheme was divided into

two major phases, global analysis and detailed analysis, representing a general

overview and an in-depth investigation of the textbooks, respectively. Under these

two phases, a number of subcategories were constructed to concur with the selection

criteria reviewed for songs and rhymes (Abdellah, 2002; Beasley & Chuang, 2008;

Coromina, 1993; Kramer, 2001; Lems, 1996; Lems, 2001; Smallwood & Haynes,

2008).

The development of the current coding scheme had undergone the criteria-making

process, as Tomlinson suggested (2003, pp. 27-33), which contained the steps of

brainstorming, subdivision, revision, categorization, narrowing down to specific

56
criteria, trialing by pilot study, and, finally, the coding scheme construction. A pilot

study was conducted to probe the suitability of the coding scheme designed in the

present study. Adjustments were then made according to the principles of practicality

and appropriateness throughout the process. Several revisions were done to the coding

scheme after the pilot study. In the global analysis phase, specific coding categories

were constructed (see Table 3.1) and replaced the previous text descriptions (see

Appendix A) for further analysis. In the detailed analysis phase, language structure

was a newly-added coding category due to its essential influence of songs and rhymes

on learning grammar.

The finalized coding scheme (see Table 3.2) in the present study contains two

main phases: (1) global analysis, focusing on gaining a general overview of editor’s

claims, and (2) detailed analysis concerning an in-depth investigation of teachers’

guides. In global analysis, the general features of each textbook series were

investigated. These general features included the instructional purposes of songs and

rhymes, instructional division of songs and rhymes, featured characteristics of song

and rhyme compositions, peripheral guides for the textbooks and teaching aids for

teaching songs and rhymes. Data gathered during this phase were derived from the

preface, foreword, introduction sections and appendixes in the six selected teachers’

guides.

57
 Table 3.1
Coding Categories in the Phase of Global Analysis
Coding dimension Coding category
Instructional purposes Linguistic items
Language skills
Affective aspects
Culture aspects
Other aspects
Instructional division Obligatory unit
Optional unit
Featured characteristics Lyrics
Rhythm
Melody
Peripheral guides Appendix
Table
Teaching aids CD of karaoke version
CD of singing version
VCD
Poster
E-book
Flash cards

The next phase, detailed analysis, was divided into two main dimensions:

content properties and instructional properties. Content properties included rhymes,

vocabulary, readability, language structure, theme, repetition, and modes of

presentation. Instructional properties were then further categorized into instructional

objectives, independency of activities, types of teaching techniques, and types of extra

teaching resources. Data coded in this phase were mainly extracted from the contents

of teachers’ guides. Student books were used for further clarification when teachers’

guides requested their users refer to them.

58
 Table 3.2
The Coding Scheme of Songs and Rhymes
Coding phase Coding dimension Coding category
Global analysis General properties Instructional purposes
Instructional division
Featured characteristics
Peripheral guides
Teaching aids
Detailed analysis Content properties Rhymes
Vocabulary
Language structure
Readability
Theme
Repetition
Modes of presentation
Instructional properties Instructional objectives
Independency of activities
Types of teaching techniques
Types of extra teaching resources

Global Analysis

In global analysis, five categories were investigated (see Appendix A). First,

instructional purposes referred to the author’s view of the purpose for applying songs

and rhymes. Second, instructional division referred to the way that songs and rhymes

were constructed as a teachable unit, which may form an obligatory teaching unit, or

an optional teaching unit. Third, featuring characteristics referred to the specific

characteristics of songs and rhymes, centering on the aspects of lyrics, rhythm, and

melody that were claimed by the editors to be woven into the creation of songs and

59
rhymes as teaching materials in language learning. Fourth, peripheral guides were

lists, charts, tables, figures, indexes, glossaries, appendixes, book introductions or

tables of contents which helped users to get a quick overview on the role of songs and

rhymes in the overall organization of the courses. Taking Figure 3.1 as an example,

the table for teaching schedules suggested that songs and rhymes would be taught

once every two weeks and that they were designed to be the last teaching activity in

each lesson. As shown from the sequence of teaching activities in Figure 3.2, it is

indicated that the song and rhyme instructions were offered at both the beginning and

the end periods of each unit. In Figure 3.3, the table portrays the further detailed

arrangements of the activity sequences and time allocation for each period. Other

tables may outline the teaching points in order to help the users grasp the focused

features of the songs and rhymes covered in each unit. Lastly, teaching aids refers to

the accompanying materials and teaching props, such as cassettes, tapes, CDs, videos,

audios, posters, flashcards, or interactive E-books. Furthermore, the materials

analyzed in the global analysis phase were from the preface, foreword, introduction

sections and appendixes in the six sets of the selected teachers’ guides.

60
Figure 3.1 A visual example of a table suggesting a semester teaching schedule. From
English Teachers’ Guides 5 (p. 5), by Tien, 2007, Taipei: Joy. Copyright 2007 by Joy.
Adapted with permission.

Figure 3.2 A visual example of a table representing the sequence of teaching

activities. From Hello, Darbie! Teacher’s Manual 7 (p. 5), by Chen, 2007, Taipei:
Kang Hsuan. Copyright 2007 by Kang Hsuan. Adapted with permission.

61
Figure 3.3 A visual example of a table displaying brief notes to the teaching content.
From Hello, Darbie! Teacher’s Manual 7 (p. 7), by Chen, 2007, Taipei: Kang Hsuan.
Copyright 2007 by Kang Hsuan. Adapted with permission.

Detailed Analysis

Content properties. In the detailed analysis, the definition of each subcategory,

as well as the classification method and the relevant instrument applied for the

specific analysis of each subcategory, are described as follows. The coding sheet is

presented in Appendix B.

The first subcategory in detailed analysis was rhymes. Rhymes referred to the

formation of rhymes in the songs and rhymes. Each song or rhyme would be coded as

either rhymed or not rhymed. The rhymed ones were to be coded in the following

rhyming patterns: “internal rhyme, external rhyme between successive lines/units”

(Cuddon, 1999, p. 751), rime rich (designing/resigning, Cuddon, 1999), full rhyme

(cash/dash), half rhyme (bill/fist or cash/dish), assonance (leaf/bean/peach/reach,

Blevins, 1998) and alliteration (six snakes sell sodas and snacks, Blevins, 1998, p. 28).

62
The songs and rhymes which contained no afore-mentioned rhyming patterns were

coded as not rhymed.

Vocabulary in detailed analysis referred to the words that comprise the lyrics of

the songs and rhymes. On exploring the construction of the lyrics, two vocabulary

thresholds were used to reveal the range of the lyrics: the 612-word list (see Appendix

C) and the 1200-word list (see Appendix D). Given the dilemma that the vocabulary

list for elementary pupils is still not established by the MOE (Hsu, 2010; Yang, 2006),

the 612-word list synthesized by Hsu’s (2010) research was thus adopted in the

present study to act as the threshold for basic vocabulary size, especially for

elementary school students in Taiwan. The 1200-word list in the Grade 1-9

Curriculum Guideline (MOE, 2008), on the other hand, functioned as the gateway for

examining the upper limit vocabulary size of the song and rhyme lyrics. To deal with

the enormous quantity of data, a computer program designed by Heatley, Nation and

Coxhead (2002), called RANGE 32, was utilized to run the vocabulary range of the

songs and rhymes in the present study. RANGE 32 is free software that can be

employed to reveal the coverage and frequency of words residing in or out of

self-constructed base word lists. With regards to those words out of the 612-wordlist

and the 1200-wordlist, they would then be calculated in the category named

Beyond-1200.

63
 Language structure in detailed analysis referred to the sentences in songs and

rhymes which were organized in a variety of grammatical arrangements of words.

These sentences were categorized on the basis of the eight sentence patterns and

seven tenses (see Appendix E) suggested in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline

(MOE, 2008).

Readability in this study was defined as “the level of ease or difficulty with which

text material can be understood by a particular reader who is reading that text for a

specific purpose” (Pikulski, 2002, p. 1). The Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level of

Readability was used as an indicator to measure the difficulty level of the selected

songs and rhymes in the present study.

With regards to theme, it referred to those themes that the lyrics of songs and

rhymes were oriented to. It was further classified on the basis of the 40 themes (see

Appendix F) suggested in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline (MOE, 2008).

Repetition referred to the method of the constant repetition of lyrics. The patterns

of repetition were examined according to the segmental unit (word, phrase, sentence

or paragraph). Examples were shown in the following excerpts.

1. Songs and rhymes containing repetitive words:

Over, over, over,

There are bats over the cats.

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 (Chang, 2012, Vol.7, p. 79)

2. Songs and rhymes containing repetitive phrases:

Play with me. Play with me,

Under the sun’s rays,

Under the sun’s rays.

(Tien, 2007, Vol.5, p. 67)

3. Songs and rhymes containing repetitive sentences:

Mr. Frog goes to town.

Mr. Frog goes to town.

Mr. Frog goes to town.

Why does he go to town?

(Chang, 2012, Vol.6, p. 82)

4. Songs and rhymes containing repetitive paragraphs:

Today is Monday.

Today is Monday.

Monday, milk,

All you little children,

Come and drink it up.

65
 Today is Tuesday.

Today is Tuesday.

Tuesday, cake,

All you little children,

Come and eat it up.

(Chang, 2012, Vol.6, p. 28)

Modes of presentation referred to the different forms of input that promoted

learner comprehension of the various songs and rhymes. The first type was textual

presentation which indicated the way a text was exhibited with regard to different

typefaces, type sizes, boldfaces, colors, symbols, or other textual enhancements that

aided in perceiving the title, content, intonation, speed, rhythm, key words, or key

sentences of the songs and rhymes. For example, the word hiking in Figure 3.4 was

colored in green. This colored word was emphasized and attracted the reader’s

attention, comparing to the other words in black. Similarly, in Figure 3.4, the pink

diamond-shaped symbol pointed out the specific utterance made by a particular

speaker. This textual assistance help the reader easily identify the differences between

initiators and repliers. Musical presentation was the next type. Types of musical

presentation included notes, notation, instruments or accompanying videos or the

tunes of famous songs and rhymes. With this assistance, the learner could

66
immediately engage themselves in the melody of the song or rhyme. For instance, a

musical notation and the tune of Old MacDonald Had a Farm, as presented in Figure

3.5, could help the learner pick up the melody and sing along in a short period of time.

Lastly, pictorial presentation referred to the illustrations (e.g. pictures, photographs,

figures, sketches) provided to further the readers’ comprehension of the songs and

rhymes. For example, the content of the picture in Figure 3.6 reflected the main theme

of the song. Illustrations, as such, would be coded as a pictorial presentation.

However, if the illustrations provided did not match the theme or meaning of the

specific songs and rhymes to be taught, they were not coded as a pictorial

presentation.

Figure 3.4 A visual text sample of a textual presentation. From New Wow Teacher’s
Manual 8 (p.83), by Chang, 2012, Taipei: Kang Hsuan. Copyright 2008 by Kang
Hsuan. Adapted with permission.

67
Figure 3.5 A visual text sample of a musical presentation. From Happy Day Teacher’s
Manual 7 (p. 106), by Chen, 2007, Tainan: Nani. Copyright 2007 by Nani. Adapted
with permission.

Figure 3.6 A visual text sample of a pictorial presentation. From Happy Story
Teacher’s Book 5 (p. 21), by Chiu, 2009, Taipei: Hess. Copyright 2009 by Hess.
Adapted with permission.

68
 Instructional properties. Under instructional properties, there were four

subtypes: instructional objectivities, characteristics of tasks, types of teaching

techniques, and types of extra teaching resources. Instructional objectivities were the

presupposed learning outcomes aimed at English song and rhyme instruction in the

classroom. Competence indicators in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline (MOE,

2008) were used as the classification references for the coding items of instructional

objectivities. A detailed interpretation and examples of each competence indicator are

shown in Appendix G.

Independency of activities refers to the ways that songs and rhymes are treated,

either as dependent or independent, optional or obligatory activities when employed

in the classroom. The classification adapted Jacobs and Goatly’s (2000, p. 258) model:

stand-alone activity in a unit, element of an activity and optional activity. Songs and

rhymes acting as a stand-alone teaching unit would be coded as stand-alone activity in

a unit. Songs and rhymes used as a part of a teaching unit were counted as the element

of an activity. Songs and rhymes suggested as an extra alternative for flexible use in a

teaching procedure were recognized as an optional activity.

Types of teaching techniques meant the particular teaching technique manifested

in the classroom. Following Brown’s (2007, pp. 184-186) taxonomy, the teaching

techniques for songs and rhymes were categorized into three types: free,

69
semi-controlled or controlled teaching techniques. The categorization of each teaching

technique is shown in Appendix H.

Types of extra teaching resources referred to the guidance that the teacher could

consult with in the teachers’ guides. Those extra teaching resources were categorized

into seven types. The first type was the provision of translation. It referred to the

provision of translated Chinese texts from English texts. The second type, clarity of

content, meant offering linguistic and cultural background information required for

comprehension of the materials in class. The third type, cross referencing, entailed the

provision of related information located in different lessons in each set of textbook

series. The function of cross referencing was to direct users to the inter-relationships

between relevant songs and rhymes. The fourth type, the use of teaching aids, referred

to the guidance on practical material usage. The fifth type, provision of additional

materials, referred to supplementary teaching materials, such as worksheets for other

songs and rhymes, picture books related to the same theme, or websites introducing

the target culture. The sixth type, suggestions on teaching procedures, referred to the

arrangements in the step-by-step teaching process. The last type, suggestions on

difficulties predicted, referred to the advice, solutions or clarification of potential

problems which could be encountered during the song or rhyme instructions.

70
 Data Analysis

The present study underwent two major phases, as did the data analysis. In the

global analysis phase, the researcher grouped the descriptive data into categories

according to the coding scheme. As suggested by Thomas (2003), the

category-making procedure was processed by the following steps: close studying of

the raw data, generating tentative categories, distilling the necessary categories,

category revision and, finally, model formulation. Contrast and comparison between

the different textbooks series were made using these mutually exclusive categories

(see Table 3.1). The data gathered were then calculated into frequency counts and

percentage. A chi-squire calculation was set for revealing the proportion of the

categories in each textbook series and for examining whether there was an equal

distribution among each series. The statistically significant level was set at α= .05.

In detailed analysis, the data gathered were calculated into frequency counts and

percentages. Chi-square was applied in order to detect the relationship among

categories. The statistically significant level was set at α= .05.

In order to build the inter-rater reliability of the data coding for the present study,

another rater was recruited and trained. In training, the rater was notified as to the

purpose of the study, the coding method, and the details of the coding schemes. The

code training process, as complied with the orientation suggested by Neuendorf

71
(2002), underwent the following steps: coder training with discussion,

consensus-seeking discussion, revision of the coding scheme, coder training for

revisions, independent coding practice, inter-rater reliability checking and, finally,

independent coding. The ultimate independent coding would not operate until the

agreement for inter-rater reliability was achieved at a reliable value (percentage of

agreement & Cronbach’s coefficient alpha＞.7). Cronbach’s coefficient alpha and the

percentage of agreement were used to measure the extent of the agreement between

the researcher and the other rater. As suggested by Pallant (2005), an ideal value of

Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for a reliable scale should be set above 0.7.

In the present study, the inter-rater reliability was reported in the following. In

global analysis, the value of percentage of agreement for instructional purposes

was .833, for the instructional division of songs and rhymes was 1.00, for the featured

characteristics of composition was .800, for peripheral guides was 1.00, and for types

of teaching aids was 1.00. In detailed analysis, the value of Cronbach’s coefficient

alpha for rhymes was 1.00, for language structure was .837, for modes of presentation

was .859, for repetition was .886, for theme was .921, for types of teaching activity

was .874 and for types of teaching techniques was 1.00. The percentage of agreement

for instructional objectivity was .803, and for types of extra teaching resources

was .939.

72
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

By perceiving the essential role of songs and rhymes on English learning for young

learners, the purpose of this study is aimed at exploring how songs and rhymes are

presented, how they are designed as teaching materials through textbooks and the extent

to which they are in accordance with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline. In this chapter,

the results and discussion are oriented towards and based on the three research

questions proposed in Chapter One: (a) How are the content features of songs and

rhymes presented in Taiwan elementary school English textbooks? (b) How is song

and rhyme instruction designed and facilitated in Taiwan elementary school English

textbooks? (c) To what extent does the design of songs and rhymes in Taiwan

elementary school English textbooks correspond with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum

Guideline?

The Content Features of Songs and Rhymes Presented in Elementary School

English Textbooks

In this section, the results and discussion are directed toward the first research

question posed in Chapter One: how are the content features of songs and rhymes

presented in Taiwan elementary school English textbooks? The answer for the

presentation of songs and rhymes, in terms of content features, are based on the

73
results from the content properties of the coding scheme, which contains rhymes,

vocabulary, language structure, readability, themes, repetition, and modes of

presentation. The discussion is focused on the featured presentation of songs and

rhymes and their relevance to children’s language learning. The presentation of songs

and rhymes in the textbooks showed certain distinctive features, including the use of

rhyme, repetition in the lyrics, diversity in the theme selection, concerns with the

comprehensibility of language use, and multiple modes in presenting songs and

rhymes.

Use of Rhyme

In terms of the rhyming distribution of songs and rhymes, the chi-square test

(χ2=391.503, p=.000) showed that there was a statistically significant difference

between the rhymed and not rhymed songs and rhymes in the six English textbook

series. Overall, 96.28% of the songs and rhymes were rhymed, while 3.72% of them

were not rhymed (see Table 4.1). Moreover, the results also demonstrated a

statistically uneven distribution of songs and rhymes in each of the six selected

textbook series. The significant differences between the rhymed and not rhymed

songs and rhymes revealed in each individual textbook series were: Textbook A

(χ2=105.037, p=.000), Textbook B (χ2=59.282, p=.000), Textbook C (χ2=62.821,

p=.000), Textbook D (χ2=66.462, p=.000), Textbook E (χ2=53.262, p=.000) and

74
 Textbook F (χ2=45.302, p=.000).

Table 4.1
The Rhyming Distribution of Songs and Rhymes in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Rhymed 108a 73 74 75 59 51 440
b
99.08 93.59 94.87 96.15 96.72 96.23 96.28
Not rhymed 1 5 4 3 2 2 17
0.92 6.41 5.13 3.85 3.28 3.77 3.72
Total 109 78 78 78 61 53 457
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 105.037*** 59.282*** 62.821*** 66.462*** 53.262*** 45.302*** 391.503***
a b
Note. = frequency; = percentage
***p < .001.

The result signified that the use of rhyme was a distinctive feature of the songs

and rhymes, as reviewed in the literature. As shown in Table 4.1, songs and rhymes

presented in the six textbook series were mostly rhymed (96.28%). The finding was

consistent with the results from Liu’s (2006) study which indicated that 99% of the

songs in elementary school English textbooks were rhymed. Such a high percentage

of rhyme usage in elementary school English textbooks could be attributed to several

possibilities. The wide spread occurrence of the use of rhymes lies in the fact that

rhymes are the most commonly applied rhetorical device when creating songs and

rhymes (Mayer, Neumayer & Rauber, 2008). Rhymed language benefits the

75
perception of phonemic awareness (Smallwood & Haynes, 2008). This poetic device

used in songs and rhymes creates the repetition of certain sounds or sound blending.

When the rhyming words are highlighted with constant repetition, the repetitive

nature of the rhyming words reinforces the concept of onset and rimes in a natural

manner, which further creates a sense of familiarity for young learners. When

approaching a new language, this sense of familiarity can take children into a state of

comfort and harmony (Davidson & Heartwood, 1997). The findings of the present

study reinforced the premise that the use of rhyming words is commonly taken into

consideration by editors when presenting songs and rhymes.

Repetition in Lyrics

With regards to the types of repetition, the results showed a statistically

significant difference among the six textbook series (χ2=699.762, p=.000) (see

Appendix I). The results indicated that most (100%-14.88%= 85.12%) of the songs

and rhymes maintained a repetitive pattern but in different unit splits and combination.

Overall, the types of repetition occurred most frequently in the form of a sentence

alone (31.73%) followed by word and sentence (11.16%), and then sentence and

paragraph (8.97%). It was also observed that the use of sentential repetition, both in

isolation or combination, accounted for the highest percentage

(31.73%+11.16%+4.81%+8.97%+0.66%+3.06%+0.88%+0.22% = 61.49%). As for

76
songs and rhymes which were not repeated, the distribution accounted for a relatively

small percentage (14.88%).

The result indicated that the lyrics of songs were, commonly, highly repetitive

(Abbott, 2002). In Liu’s (2006) study, the extent of the repetition even reached 100

percent. The findings, that the repetition included various types of language units,

implied that when learners were exposed to songs and rhymes, they experienced

different levels of language reinforcement. The language units reinforced by repetition

are varied in the segmentation of language chunking, which include the differences in

language forms, syntax, lexical items, suprasegmentals or formulaic language (Abbott,

2002). Different splits of language repetition can sensitize learners’ attention

(Danielson, 2000) to the constant occurrence, whether appearing in words, phrases,

sentences or paragraphs. Repetition is beneficial for language learning as it creates a

sense of familiarity and further brings out predictability in subsequent texts. The

predictable structure makes songs and rhymes into a text which is easier to understand

than other types of text (Jalongo & Ribblett, 1997).

Another major finding of the present study was that the repetition type most

often used was sentential repetition. The results implied that some of the textbook

writers tended to compose songs and rhymes by weaving the target sentence patterns

for each lesson into the lyrics so as to introduce, practice or review different sentences.

77
Liu (2006) affirmed this by stating that a great extent (97.89%) of the content in songs

and rhymes was actually derived from the target vocabulary and sentence patterns of

each lesson. In other words, most of the songs and rhymes were adapted or specially

written for learning new words and sentences. In line with the original melody or the

creation of a new melody, the selected words and sentences to be learned in each

lesson play a crucial role in determining the content of songs and rhymes.

Diversity in Theme Selection

With respect to the selection of themes, the results (see Appendix J) indicated

that the overall distribution of themes among the six textbook series exhibited a

statistically significant difference (χ2=626.795, p=.000). In addition, the result also

displayed a significant difference for each of the series of textbooks (see Appendix J):

Textbook A (χ2=87.872, p=.000), Textbook B (χ2=62.923, p=.000), Textbook C

(χ2=59.846, p=.000), Textbook D (χ2=110.308, p=.000), Textbook E (χ2=62.361,

p=.000), and Textbook F (χ2=39.321, p=.000). The result revealed that the choice of

themes for each of the publishers exhibited a significant difference. As shown in

Appendix J, the most popular theme in the six textbook series was animals. The top

five themes for the songs and rhymes were animals (16.41%), holidays and festivals

(9.19%), food and drink (7.44%), time, date, month, seasons and years (6.78%), and

interests and hobbies (5.47%). Themes not included in any of the six textbook series

78
included such examples as computers, customs and lifestyles, gender equality, human

rights, neighborhood, shapes, size and measurement, and science and technology.

As implied from the present study, themes related to a young learner’s life

experiences were popular in the songs and rhymes featured in the six textbook series

(see Appendix J). Consistent with Liu’s (2006) study, in Taiwan elementary English

textbooks, the most popular themes were those that were related to students’ daily life

experiences, such as holidays and festivals, time, interests and hobbies. On the

contrary, themes not closely related to students’ background knowledge, for example,

gender equality, human rights, and science and technology, were not included in the

textbooks. However, the existence of themes, such as gender equality, human rights,

or science and technology, has a pedagogical value for language teaching and culture

learning. It is suggested that the theme coverage should offer divergent topics to

further enhance EFL learners’ foreign culture awareness and global perspectives.

The factor affecting the theme selection of songs and rhymes can be attributed to

one of the criteria for songs and rhymes: choosing songs and rhymes relevant to a

learner’s real life experiences (Abdellah, 2002; Beasley & Chuang, 2008). These

life-related themes are beneficial for young learners in second language acquisition.

Life-related themes create meaningful contexts for young learners to learn vocabulary

and they can be easily transferred to everyday life (Abbott, 2002). As for themes not

79
closely related to young learners’ background knowledge, they may be excluded by

the textbook editors because they are too abstract to be directly comprehended by

elementary students (Liu, 2006). Songs and rhymes are great language inputs as they

generally originate from people’s feelings, traditions or everyday life. The inclusion

of themes for the six textbook series conformed to the selection criteria suggested in

the literature: themes should be related to real life experience (Abdellah, 2002;

Beasley & Chuang, 2008; Richard-Amato, 2003; Richards, 1969), avoid problematic

issues (Lems, 2001), and exclude discriminatory topics (Beasley & Chuang, 2008;

Coromina, 1993; Lems, 2001).

Concerns with the Comprehensibility of Language Use

Vocabulary. With regard to vocabulary, as shown in Table 4.2, the results

revealed that in the six selected textbooks series, on average, 78.89% of the

vocabulary used in the songs and rhymes was from the 612-wordlist and 92.69% from

the 1200-wordlist. The lyrics of the songs and rhymes in all the textbook series

contained at least 74.44% of the vocabulary presented in the 612-wordlist and more

than 90.01% of the vocabulary in the 1200-wordlist. When looking at the Beyond

1200-wordlist category, the results showed that all the textbook series extended their

vocabulary size but no greater than 10 percent of the 1200-wordlist.

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Table 4.2
Mean Percentile Score of the Distribution of Vocabulary in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Mean
Category
612-wordlist 81.84a 79.48 82.11 74.44 74.48 80.77 78.90
1200-wordlist 93.46 93.31 95.25 90.01 91.55 92.58 92.69
Beyound-1200 6.54 6.69 4.75 9.99 8.45 7.42 7.31
Note. a= percentage

Language structure. According to the chi-square calculation (see Table 4.3), the

tenses used in the songs and rhymes were found to be significantly unevenly

distributed in Textbook A (χ2=236.576, p=.000), Textbook B (χ2=122.758, p=.000),

Textbook C (χ2=105.586, p=.000), Textbook D (χ2=130.571, p=.000), Textbook E

(χ2=105.031, p=.000) and Textbook F (χ2=113.945, p=.000), as did the total amount

(χ2=1438.11, p=.000) taken over the six textbook series. The distribution of tenses

centered on the present simple tense, which accounted for 79.40% of the coverage,

followed by the present progressive tense (10.20%). None of the tenses were past

progressive or past perfect.

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 Table 4.3
The Tense Distribution for the Songs and Rhymes in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Past simple 13a 2 0 10 5 0 30
b
11.02 2.20 0.00 11.90 7.69 0.00 6.00
Past 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
progressive 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Past perfect 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Present 90 67 74 66 52 48 397
simple 76.27 73.63 85.06 78.57 80.00 88.88 79.40
Present 7 19 10 7 5 3 51
progressive 5.93 20.88 11.49 8.33 7.69 5.56 10.20
Present 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
perfect 0.85 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20
Future 7 3 3 1 3 3 20
simple 5.93 3.30 3.45 1.19 4.62 5.56 4.00
Total 118 91 87 84 65 54 500
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 236.576*** 122.758*** 105.586*** 130.571*** 105.031*** 113.945*** 1438.11***

Note. a= frequency; b= percentage

***p < .001.

According to the chi-square calculation (see Table 4.4), the sentence patterns of

the songs and rhymes were also found to be significantly unevenly distributed in

Textbook A (χ2=891.175, p=.000), Textbook B (χ2=564.393, p=.000), Textbook C

(χ2=541.623, p=.000), Textbook D (χ2=572.559, p=.000), Textbook E (χ2=356.753,

p=.000) and Textbook F (χ2=369.505, p=.000). The overall distribution of the

sentence patterns across the six textbook series revealed a significant difference

(χ2=4230.855, p=.000) as well. Declarative was ranked first (44.42%). The sentence

82
 patterns accounting for more than 10 percent were wh-questions (18.01%), imperative

(14.36%) and exclamatory (12.38%). Passive sentences accounted for a relatively low

figure (0.11%). None of the sentences patterns applied tag questions.

Table 4.4
The Distribution of Sentence Patterns for the Songs and Rhymes in the Six Textbook
Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Declarative 93a 74 63 67 54 51 402
b
43.06 46.84 46.32 49.63 43.55 37.50 44.42
Interrogative 18 10 13 8 2 15 66
8.33 6.33 9.56 5.93 1.61 11.03 7.29
Wh-questions 52 32 22 19 14 24 163
24.07 20.25 16.18 14.07 11.29 17.65 18.01
Imperative 23 18 22 22 23 22 130
10.65 11.39 16.18 16.30 18.55 16.18 14.36
Tag questions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Exclamatory 25 10 13 17 28 19 112
11.57 6.33 9.56 12.59 22.58 13.97 12.38
Introductory 5 14 2 2 3 5 31
2.31 8.86 1.47 1.48 2.42 3.68 3.43
Passive 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0.00 0.00 0.74 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11
Total 216 158 136 135 124 136 905
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 891.175*** 564.393*** 541.623*** 572.559*** 356.753*** 369.505*** 4230.855***

Note. a= frequency; b= percentage

***p < .001.

Readability. In terms of readability, the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level Readability

Test was used for the measurement. The chi-square test (χ2=1701.661, p=.000)

83
showed that there was a statistically significant difference among the six series of

English textbooks (see Table 4.5). Likewise, a significant difference existed in each of

the textbook series: Textbook A (χ2=467.083, p=.000), Textbook B (χ2=60.846,

p=.000), Textbook C (χ2=182.795, p=.000), Textbook D (χ2=94.846, p=.000),

Textbook E (χ2=109.984, p=.000), and Textbook F (χ2=91.792, p=.000). The

readability of songs and rhymes in the six textbook series were located mostly

(59.08%) below grade one level, followed by grade one level (17.94%), grade two

level (7.00%), grade three level (7.00%), grade four level (4.60%), grade five level

(1.53%), and grade six level (1.31%). The results showed that more than 80% of the

songs and rhymes were under the readability level of grade two. Readability located

from grade seven to grade twelve accounted for a relatively small number which was

1.54 percent (0.22%+ 0.44%+ 0.22%+ 0.22%+ 0.44% = 1.54%) of the total.

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 Table 4.5
The Distribution of Readability in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
0.0-0.9 82 a 42 52 31 29 34 270
b
75.23 53.85 66.67 39.74 47.54 64.15 59.08
1.0-1.9 15 16 12 18 11 10 82
13.76 20.51 15.38 23.08 18.03 18.87 17.94
2.0-2.9 4 9 4 7 5 3 32
3.67 11.54 5.13 8.97 8.20 5.66 7.00
3.0-3.9 2 7 6 11 3 3 32
1.83 8.97 7.69 14.10 4.92 5.66 7.00
4.0-4.9 2 4 2 6 6 1 21
1.83 5.13 2.56 7.69 9.84 1.89 4.60
5.0-5.9 1 0 1 1 2 2 7
0.92 0.00 1.28 1.28 3.28 3.77 1.53
6.0-6.9 1 0 1 2 2 0 6
0.92 0.00 1.28 2.56 3.28 0.00 1.31
7.0-7.9 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0.00 0.00 0.00 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.22
8.0-8.9 0 0 0 1 1 0 2
0.00 0.00 0.00 1.28 1.64 0.00 0.44
9.0-9.9 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22
10.0-10.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
11.0-11.9 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.64 0.00 0.22
12 1 0 0 0 1 0 2
0.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.64 0.00 0.44
Total 109 78 78 78 61 53 457
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 467.083*** 60.846*** 182.795*** 94.846*** 109.984*** 91.792*** 1701.661***

Note. a= frequency; b= percentage

***p < .001.

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 In the present study, the presentation of the songs and rhymes investigated

exhibited not only the distinctive features but also special concerns with the content of

the lyrics. According to the results of the vocabulary, language structure, and

readability tests (see Table 4.2, Table 4.3, Table 4.4 & Table 4.5), the presentation of

songs and rhymes were deliberately controlled for the extent of the comprehensibility.

The findings showed that, on average, 92.96% of the lyrics were taken from the

1200-wordlist suggested by the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline, and that present

simple (79.40%) and declarative (44.42%) were the commonest language structures.

In addition, more than 80% of the lyric content was controlled under the readability

level of grade two. Both of these findings imply that “comprehensibility” did play an

important role when considering the songs and rhymes presented in the six textbook

series.

In terms of vocabulary control, the results of the vocabulary indicated that the

majority of the song and rhyme lyrics were controlled within the vocabulary levels

suggested for elementary students (MOE, 2008; Hsu, 2010). The research finding was

in line with Liu’s (2006) study which showed that the majority of the song lyrics in

elementary English textbooks were taken from the 1200-wordlist. However, different

from Liu’s study, the present study utilized two different wordlists: Hsu’s (2010)

612-wordlist, which acted as the threshold for assessing the basic vocabulary size for

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elementary students, and the 1200-wordlist in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline,

which acted as the maximum vocabulary size suggested for students under grade nine.

Taking the average across the six textbook series, more than 78% of the lyrics were

taken from words on the basic 612-wordlist. However, less than 10% of the words

were extended out of the 1200-wordlist (see Table 4.2). The findings further implied

that the words selected when composing songs and rhymes were carefully chosen

according to the suggested wordlist, whether in view of the basic vocabulary size for

elementary school students or the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline. With regards to

the vocabulary control, as shown in Table 4.2, the result indicated that there was no

big difference among the six textbook series.

The results of the language structures suggested that most of the songs and

rhymes were presented with language structures which were relatively simple and

easy to comprehend for young language learners. As shown in Tables 4.3 and 4.4,

present simple (79.40%) and declarative (44.42%) were the commonest language

structures. According to Chen’s (2010) content analysis and questionnaire survey of

the sentence patterns in ten approved elementary school English textbooks used in

Taiwan, declarative and imperative were judged to have a relatively easy level of

sentence difficulty. As indicated by Chang’s (2006) textbook research, the most

commonly-appearing sentence tense in Taiwan elementary English textbooks was

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present simple. Future tense was low in frequency and perfect tense did not appear at

all. The inclusion of language structure in low difficulty songs and rhymes could be

attributed to the fact that present simple tense and declarative are the basic and most

widely used sentences for young learners to comprehend (Chang, 2006). Furthermore,

the language structures, present simple tense and declarative, were consistent with the

“here and now principle” and they promoted the connection between the message

derived from the sentence and the learner’s surrounding environment (Krashen, 2009,

p. 23). Therefore, with the help of present simple tense and declarative, learners could

easily be equipped with the ability to make language input comprehensible.

In the present study, with regard to the comprehensibility of songs and rhymes,

whether being examined from vocabulary, language structures or readability, the

research findings suggested that the songs and rhymes presented in the six textbook

series were mostly controlled to an extent which was relatively easy for young

language learners to comprehend. The results were in line with the notion promoted in

the literature: the efficacy of using songs and rhymes as language input lies in the

level of comprehensibility of the lyrics (Richards, 1969).

However, what is the most suitable level of language input? Implied from

Krashen’s (2009) input hypothesis, the deliberate i+1 structure of language input is

inadequate. The “finely-tuned” input limits the learner to stick to the current

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comprehension level, which is viewed as hindering a learner’s progression (Krashen,

2009, p. 23). Instead, a “roughly-tuned” input was suggested as it provides more

opportunities for learners to review and re-practice the i+1 structure, and this

repetition occurs naturally. Although the findings of the present study confirmed that

the presentation of songs and rhymes, in terms of the lyric contents, were within the

deliberately controlled language input, the suitability remains doubtful.

Multiple Modes in Presenting Songs and Rhymes

The results (see Table 4.6) showed that the modes of presentation were,

statistically, unevenly distributed in and among the six textbook series (χ2=1536.36,

p=.000). Textual, pictorial and musical presentations taken together accounted for the

highest proportion (72.43%). Additionally, this type of presentation accounted for the

highest rank in Textbook A, Textbook B, Textbook C, Textbook E, and Textbook F.

This was followed by textual presentation (10.5%) and the pairing of pictorial and

musical presentations in third position (7.44%). The pairing of textual and pictorial

presentations came the fourth (6.13%). Other presentation types accounting for less

than two percent were pictorial and musical modes together (1.09%), pictorial

(0.88%), and musical (0.88%). Songs and rhymes, which were not presented in

textual, pictorial or musical modes of presentation, accounted for a relatively small

proportion (0.66%). The results indicated that most (100%-0.66%=99.34%) of the

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 textbook series used at least one combination of presentation modes to demonstrate

the songs and rhymes. The use of textual presentation, whether in isolation or in

combination, accounted for the highest percentage (10.50%+6.13%+7.44%+72.43%=

96.50%).

Table 4.6
Modes of Presentation in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
T 1a 0 0 43 4 0 48
0.92b 0.00 0.00 55.13 6.56 0.00 10.50
P 0 0 0 0 4 0 4
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.56 0.00 0.88
M 0 0 0 0 4 0 4
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.56 0.00 0.88
T+P 0 0 0 1 26 1 28
0.00 0.00 0.00 1.28 42.62 1.89 6.13
T+M 0 0 1 32 1 0 34
0.00 0.00 1.28 41.03 1.64 0.00 7.44
P+M 0 0 0 0 5 0 5
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.20 0.00 1.09
T+P+M 108 78 77 2 14 52 331
99.08 100.00 98.72 2.56 22.95 98.11 72.43
None 0 0 0 0 3 0 3
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.92 0.00 0.66
Total 109 78 78 78 61 53 457
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage; T= Textual; P= Pictorial; M= Musical

The research finding indicated that songs and rhymes were presented in a variety

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of visual and musical enhancements. Most (72.43%) of the songs and rhymes were

presented as a combination of pictorial, textual and musical presentations (see Table

4.6). According to Krashen’s (2009) input hypothesis, in order to step forward from

stage i to stage i+l, language learners need to be guided to the meaning rather than the

form of language input. Additionally, the existence of “extra-linguistic information”

(p. 21) builds the bridge between the inputs of i and i+1 structure. Using

extra-linguistic support, such as pictures, textual enhancements or reminders of tunes,

is crucial for enhancing language acquisition, especially for learners in the early

stages of second language instruction. The contribution of the variety of presentation

modes lies in the promotion of comprehending language input (Lems, 1996). Song

and rhyme lyrics presented with illustrations or musical cues build the connection

between song singing and text reading (Jalongo & Ribblett, 1997). When learners

were exposed to pictures illustrating the major or partial content of lyrics (Jalongo &

Ribblett, 1997), and the musical cues to trigger the acquired melody (Murphey, 1990),

the extent of comprehending the meaning of the lyrics was greatly enhanced.

Linguistically, with the help of different modes of presentation, it not only required

fewer demands but also provided a meaningful context in which learners could

comprehend the text. Cognitively, the merging of different presentation modes

deepened and lengthened the memorial duration of the memory. Affectively, vivid

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visual aids and familiar melodies attracted the attention of young learners, thereby

motivating their interest in learning (Hsieh, 2010; Murphey, 1990; Murphey, 2002).

Meaningful modes of presentation are beneficial for young learners’ language

learning. The effects raised by proper modes of presentation further strengthen

language growth.

The Instructional Design of Songs and Rhymes in Elementary School English

Textbooks

In this section, the discussion is oriented to the second research question: how is

English song and rhyme instruction designed and facilitated in Taiwan elementary

school English textbooks. The answer for the instructional design of songs and

rhymes is based on the results from both a global analysis and a detailed analysis. The

discussion is firstly directed to the purposes of applying songs and rhymes. This is

followed by discussions on the interdependency of activities, the design of teaching

techniques for songs and rhymes, and, lastly, the equipped teaching resources for

songs and rhymes.

Purposes of Applying Songs and Rhymes

The instructional purpose of songs and rhymes. In terms of the instructional

purpose of songs and rhymes, the results (see Appendix K) showed that the six series

of English textbooks claimed to use songs and rhymes to teach multiple dimensions of

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language learning to EFL young learners. The chi-square test showed that there was a

statistically significant difference (χ2=71.091, p=.000) among the six textbook series.

By further dividing the results into the five major sections, as shown in Table 4.8, the

results revealed that the teaching of language skills displayed the highest occurrence

(25.97%), followed by linguistic elements (22.73%), affective aspects (20.78%), other

aspects (20.13%), and lastly, cultural aspects (10.39%). Among these results, the

instructional purposes related to sharpening language skills and acquiring linguistic

elements accounted for the highest proportion (25.97% + 22.73% =48.7%).

In addition, the six publishers had different priorities when utilizing songs and

rhymes (see Table 4.7). For example, the teaching of linguistic elements was the top

priority (30.00%) in Textbook A, language skills (40.00%) were most important in

Textbook B, other aspects (38.89%) in Textbook C, language skills (33.33%) and

affective aspects (33.33%) in Textbook D, others aspects (50.00%) in Textbook E and

affective aspects (50.00%) and cultural aspects (50.00%) in Textbook F. It was also

observed that the distribution of utilizing songs and rhymes for instructional purposes

differed among the six publishers. For instance, Textbook A and Textbook B treated

songs and rhymes as a multi-functional avenue for teaching learners the various

aspects of English, including linguistic elements, language skills, affective aspects,

cultural aspects and other aspects. However, in Textbook F, songs and rhymes were

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 mainly used for affective purposes and cultural aspects only. In textbooks C, D and E,

the instructional purpose of teaching cultural aspects was neglected (see Table 4.7).

Table 4.7
Focal Aspects of Instructional Purposes of Songs and Rhymes in the Six Textbook
Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Linguistic 24a 24 6 8 8 0 70
elements 30.00b 30.00 16.67 16.67 16.67 00.00 22.73
Language 16 32 8 16 8 0 80
skills 20.00 40.00 22.22 33.33 16.67 00.00 25.97
Affective 16 8 8 16 8 8 64
aspects 20.00 10.00 22.22 33.33 16.67 50.00 20.78
Cultural 16 8 0 0 0 8 32
aspects 20.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 50.00 10.39
Others 8 8 14 8 24 0 62
10.00 10.00 38.89 16.67 50.00 00.00 20.13
Total 80 80 36 48 48 16 308
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 8.000 32.000*** 4.000 5.333 16.000** .000 20.961***
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage
**p < .01. ***p < .001.

Instructional objectives of the songs and rhymes. With regard to instructional

objectives (see Appendix L), the chi-square test showed a significant difference

(χ2=1660.84, p=.000) among the six textbook series, indicating that the instructional

objectives of the songs and rhymes were not equally distributed across the six selected

series. In addition, the results indicated a significant difference for each of the

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 textbook series: Textbook A (χ2=123.86, p=.000), Textbook B (χ2=100.72, p=.000),

Textbook C (χ2=238.61, p=.000), Textbook D (χ2=77.37, p=.000), Textbook E

(χ2=213.49, p=.000), and Textbook F (χ2=42.47, p=.000). The findings revealed that

the instructional objectives of using songs and rhymes were significantly different for

each of the six textbook series. The result displayed that the majority (99.7%) of the

instructional objectives were related to language abilities. However, the objectives

related to the interests and methods of learning English and cultures and customs,

were relatively small, with each accounting for 0.04% and 0.26%, respectively (see

Table 4.8).

Table 4.8
The Distribution of Three Dimensions of Competence Indicators Related to Songs and
Rhymes in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Language 724a 329 452 280 279 256 2320
abilities 100.00b 100.00 99.56 100.00 98.25 100.00 99.7
Learning methods 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
and interests 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.00 0.04
Cultures and 0 0 2 0 4 0 6
customs 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.00 1.40 0.00 0.26
Total 729 329 454 280 284 256 2327
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage

The result displayed a similar tendency among the six textbook series: the

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proportion of instructional objectives related to language abilities surpassed those

related to an interest in and methods of learning English and cultures and customs (see

Table 4.8). In Textbook E, the instructional objectives related to language abilities

accounted for 98.25% whereas the instructional objectives related to interest in and

methods of learning English accounted for just 0.35%, with instructional objectives

related to cultures and customs accounting for the remainder at 1.4%. In Textbook C,

the instructional objectives related to language ability accounted for 99.56%, whereas

objectives related to cultures and customs accounted for 0.44%. No objectives were

related to an interest in or methods of learning English. With regards to Textbooks A,

B, D and F, the instructional objectives were only related to language ability.

The major findings implied that the purpose of teaching songs and rhymes was

oriented heavily to the instruction of language abilities, but rarely landed on the

aspects of learning methods, learning interests, cultures and customs. The results

correspond to the textbook research conducted by Lan (2005), which indicated that

competence indicators related to speaking and reading accounted for the top two

purposes, while competence related to cultural and affective aspects was only

minimally distributed in the selected elementary English textbooks.

Another finding was that, in terms of the development of language skills through

songs and rhymes (see Appendix L), reading skill-building in song and rhyme

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instructions accounted for the highest proportion (36.97%). However, reflected by

both the description of competence indicators (see Appendix G) and the activity

designs of the six textbook series, songs and rhymes were mostly directed to

achieving an understanding or recognition of words or sentences, rather than

comprehension of the overall content of the songs and rhymes (e.g. 1-1-10-2 = 2.19%;

1-2-1-4 = 9.15%). The emphasis on recognizing words or understanding word

meaning in songs and rhymes implied that the instructional design of the songs and

rhymes in the six textbook series lacked multiplicity. In other words, the instructional

design of songs and rhymes revealed in the present study fails to promote other

aspects of language development, such as daily conversation, communicative

expressions, reading comprehension, literacy appreciation, lyrical composition or

cultural literacy.

The consistency between what the editors claimed in the phase of global analysis

and the actual designs used in the phase of detailed analysis was another issue worthy

of discussion. As suggested by McDonough and Shaw (2003), the consistency

between what was found in the detailed investigation and what was claimed by the

textbook publishers in the external evaluation stage, needed to be double checked.

When looking back at the data during the phase of the global analysis, there existed a

confliction. Given the information in the six textbook series, each of the textbook

97
editors claimed, in the introduction section of the teachers’ guides, that one of the

reasons for using songs and rhymes was to raise learning motivation or to stimulate

learning interest. Nonetheless, the editors’ claims were not actually reflected in the

real design content of the teachers’ guides. For example, as shown in Appendix K,

with regard to the instructional purpose of songs and rhymes related to affective

aspects in the phase of global analysis, the proportion was 20.78%. However, as

shown in Appendix L, the occurrence of the related instructional purpose in terms of

learning interest and motivation in the phase of detailed analysis was merely 0.04% in

Textbook E. In terms of cultural aspects, in the foreword of the teachers’ guides,

Textbooks B and F stated that songs and rhymes were used to help learners become

familiar with foreign cultures. Textbook A further indicated that songs and rhymes

were viewed as an avenue for young learners to realize the differences and similarities

between foreign and domestic cultures. However, in the phase of detailed analysis,

there were no corresponding occurrences shown in the real design of the instructional

objectives, as shown in Appendix L. The findings suggest that, in terms of the

purposes of applying songs and rhymes, there existed a gap between what the

publishers claimed in the introduction section and how the textbook editors actually

designed the teaching of songs and rhymes.

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 The Activity Design for Song and Rhyme Instructions

Instructional division of songs and rhymes. With respect to the instructional

division of songs and rhymes, the results revealed a statistically significant difference

(χ2=15.077, p=.000) for the instructional division of songs and rhymes.

Approximately 77% of the songs and rhymes were designed as obligatory teaching

units. As shown in Table 4.9, Textbooks A, B, C, D and F treated songs and rhymes as

an obligatory teaching unit. However, Textbook B made songs and rhymes either

obligatory or optional. In volumes five to eight of Textbook B, 23.08% of the songs

and rhymes were suggested as optional, allowing learners to take up the challenge

freely. Of the six textbook series, Textbook E was the only one that treated all songs

and rhymes as optional teaching units.

Table 4.9
Instructional Division of Songs and Rhymes in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Obligatory unit 8a 8 8 8 0 8 40
100.00b 66.67 100.00 100.00 0.00 100.00 76.92
Optional unit 0 4 0 0 8 0 12
0.00 33.33 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 23.08
Total 8 12 8 8 8 8 52
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
a b
Note. = frequency; = percentage

99
 Peripheral guides to the songs and rhymes. In respect of peripheral guides to

the songs and rhymes, the results (see Table 4.10) showed a significant difference

(χ2=36.459, p=.001), indicating that different peripheral guides were used to help

teachers to obtain a brief and overall arrangement for the use of songs and rhymes.

Most (73.39%) of the textbooks utilized tables, whereas only 26.61% of the textbooks

listed information in the appendixes. In their appendixes, Textbooks A, B and D

attached a song and rhyme list, which accounted for 22.02%. Textbook C provides

dance notations, which accounted for 4.59%. Among the three series, Textbook A

further attached each of the adaptation with the original songs and rhymes in the

appendix. With regard to various tables notifying the position of songs and rhymes in

the whole textbook volume, the tables suggesting a semester teaching schedule

accounted for the highest percentage (29.36%), followed by tables representing the

sequence of teaching activities in each lesson (14.68%), and tables outlining the

teaching steps in each unit (14.68%). Generally speaking, Textbooks A, B, C and D

attached both appendixes and tables while Textbooks E and F only offered tables in

the textbook series.

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 Table 4.10
Peripheral Guides for the Song and Rhyme Instructions in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks Total
A B C D E F
Category
Appendixes
Song list 8a 8 0 8 0 0 24
33.33b 25.00 0.00 50.00 0.00 0.00 22.02
Dance notation 0 0 5 0 0 0 5
0.00 0.00 38.46 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.59
Sub-total 8 8 5 8 0 0 29
33.33 25.00 38.46 50.00 0.00 0.00 26.61
Tables
Semester schedule 0 8 8 0 8 8 32
0.00 25.00 61.54 0.00 50.00 100.00 29.36
Activity sequence 0 0 0 8 8 0 16
0.00 0.00 0.00 50.00 50.00 0.00 14.68
Teaching points 0 8 0 0 0 0 8
0.00 25.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.34
Teaching notes 8 0 0 0 0 0 8
33.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.34
Teaching steps 8 8 0 0 0 0 16
33.33 25.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.68
Sub-total 16 24 8 8 16 8 80
66.67 75.00 61.54 50.00 100.00 100.00 73.39
Total 24 32 13 16 16 8 109
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage

Independency of activities. According to the chi-square calculation, the

characteristics of the tasks were found to be significantly unevenly distributed

(χ2=450.490, p=.000) over the six textbook series. The results (see Table 4.11)

demonstrated that most of the songs and rhymes (80.09%) were treated as a

stand-alone activity in a unit. 11.82% of the textbook series considered songs and

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 rhymes as optional within an activity and the remaining 8.11% of the textbook series

treated songs and rhymes as both a stand-alone activity in a unit and as an element of

an activity. None of the textbook series viewed songs and rhymes as only an element

of an activity. The results showed that the teaching of songs and rhymes was common

in the textbooks and they were usually taught as a stand-alone teaching activity in a

unit.

Table 4.11
Independency of Song and Rhyme Activities in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks Total
A B C D E F
Category
S 107a 55 73 32 46 53 366
98.17b 70.51 93.59 41.03 75.41 100.00 80.09
E 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
O 2 23 0 24 5 0 54
1.83 29.49 0.00 30.77 8.20 0.00 11.82
S+E 0 0 5 22 10 0 37
0.00 0.00 6.41 28.21 16.39 0.00 8.10
Total 109 78 78 78 61 53 457
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage; S= Stand-alone activity in a unit; E= Element of an
activity; O= Option within an activity

The findings indicated that songs and rhymes were found to be commonly

presented and regularly occurring teaching activities across the six textbook series

(see Table 4.10). Most of the songs and rhymes were treated as an obligatory teaching

102
unit (see Table 4.9) and designed as a stand-alone activity in a teaching unit (see Table

4.11). The findings that the majority (80.09%) of songs and rhymes was treated as a

stand-alone activity in a teaching unit and that they were a stand-alone activity in a

teaching unit, accounting for the highest proportion, affirmed the essential role of

songs and rhymes in the textbook designs. Consistent with the findings in the global

analysis phase, songs and rhymes were not treated in a supplementary role but as a

necessity, commonly appearing as a teaching unit across the six textbook series.

Supported by the results from an analysis of the peripheral guides for the songs and

rhymes (see Table 4.10), the existence of different forms of table among the six

publishers suggested that the teaching of songs and rhymes in each unit was designed

in a regular pattern. The consistency of the activity designs among most of the

textbook series implied that songs and rhymes were mostly treated as a regular and

stand-alone activity in a teaching unit rather than as an optional teaching activity in

elementary English classrooms. The results affirmed the necessary and important role

of songs and rhymes in elementary English textbooks.

Types of teaching techniques. With regards to the types of teaching techniques,

the chi-square test showed a significant difference (χ2=884.276, p=.000) for the six

textbook series, indicating that the types of teaching techniques were not equally

distributed across the six selected series. The results, as shown in Table 4.12, revealed

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 that most of the songs and rhymes (98.91%) were designed to be taught with

controlled teaching techniques. Only 0.88% of the songs and rhymes were designed as

both controlled and semi-controlled teaching techniques. 0.55% of the songs and

rhymes were designed as semi-controlled teaching techniques. None of them applied

free teaching techniques.

Table 4.12
Distribution of the Types of Teaching Techniques for the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
C 108a 78 78 78 61 49 452
99.08b 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 92.45 98.91
S 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22
F 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
C+S 0 0 0 0 0 4 4
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.55 0.88
Total 109 78 78 78 61 53 457
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage; C= Controlled; Se= Semi-controlled; F= Free

The findings indicated that the majority of songs and rhymes (98.91%) were

designed to be taught with controlled teaching techniques (see Table 4.12). Every

textbook series made use of controlled teaching techniques when designing each song

and rhyme instruction and the use of controlled teaching techniques accounted for the

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highest proportion for each of the textbook series. The emphasis on controlled

teaching techniques was supported by the actual teaching techniques applied in the

activity designs across the six textbook series. The instruction of the songs and

rhymes were mostly oriented to context explanation, narrative presentation or

recitation, reading aloud, drills or translation of the given text. For example, the

typical description on the teaching procedure excerpted from one set of the textbook

series was:

1.將歌謠海報貼在黑板上。2.帶領學生朗讀一段歌詞，並解釋歌詞裡的生字，

如：busy (忙碌的)。3.播放CD track 33…並讓學生跟唱。4.再次播放CD track

33，請學生一邊打拍子，一邊跟著大聲唱。5.練習數次後，播放CD track 34，

讓學生自己大聲唱。6.將全班分為兩組，一組唱問句，一組唱答句…。

1. Place the song and rhyme poster on the blackboard. 2. Lead the students to

read aloud the lyrics once and explain the meaning of any new words. For

example: busy (mang lu de). 3. Play CD track 33… and have students sing along.

4. Play CD track 33 again. Have students clap their hands while singing aloud.

5. Have students practice this several times. Play CD track 34 and have students

sing aloud. 6. Divide the students into two groups. Have one group sing the

wh-questions and have the other group sing the declarative sentences... (Chiu,

2009 , Vol. 6, p. 33)

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The dominant use of controlled teaching techniques implied that teachers were offered

lesson plans that were quite rigid rather than flexible or informative plans for teaching

the songs and rhymes. As a result, the instruction of songs and rhymes run the risk of

directing learners toward passive perception rather than active construction of the

language input.

The Teaching Resources Equipped for Teaching Songs and Rhymes

Teaching aids. With regards to the types of teaching aids eqipped, the results

(see Table 4.13) showed a significant difference (χ2=30.975, p=.001). The singing

demo CDs had the highest percentage (26.09%) among the six textbook series.

Posters came second (21.74%), whilst flash cards and karaoke versions of the CDs

had equal accountability (17.39%). The least frequently used of the teaching aids was

E-books (12%). To conclude, most of the teaching aids (26.09%+ 17.39%+ 13.04%=

56.52%) were attached to the course package in the form of disc storage formats,

which included CDs and VCD. Among these, the singing demo CDs were the most

commonly used teaching aids by the six publishers.

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 Table 4.13
Types of Teaching Aids for the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Karaoke CD 8a 8 8 0 0 8 32
20.00b 33.33 25.00 0.00 0.00 20.00 17.39
Singing CD 8 8 8 8 8 8 48
20.00 33.33 25.00 25.00 50.00 20.00 26.09
VCD 0 0 0 8 8 8 24
0.00 0.00 0.00 25.00 50.00 20.00 13.04
Poster 8 8 8 8 0 8 40
20.00 33.33 25.00 25.00 0.00 20.00 21.74
E-book 8 0 0 0 0 0 8
20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.35
Flash cards 8 0 8 8 0 8 32
20.00 0.00 25.00 25.00 0.00 20.00 17.39
Total 40 24 32 32 16 40 184
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage

Types of extra teaching resources. With respect to the types of extra teaching

resources, the chi-square test showed a significant difference (χ2=1138.995, p=.000)

for the six textbook series, indicating that the types of extra teaching resources were

not equally distributed across the six selected series. The results (see Table 4.14)

showed that, among these seven types, suggestions for the teaching procedure scored

the highest (35.54%), followed by the use of teaching aids (35.46%). As for the rest of

the extra types of teaching resource, each accounted for less than 10 percent of the

coverage: provision of translation (7.72%), cross referencing (6.78%), suggestions on

difficulties predicted (5.30%), clarity of content (4.60%), and the provision of

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 additional material (4.60%). From the results, it was revealed that each type of extra

teaching resource had been provided at least once by each of the the six textbook

series. However, except for the top two extra teaching resources, other types of extra

teaching resources accounted for no more than 29% of the total.

Table 4.14
Types of Extra Teaching Resources for the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
PT 8a 44 18 28 0 1 99
2.44b 20.85 8.65 11.24 0.00 0.66 7.72
CC 22 8 10 10 4 5 59
6.71 3.79 4.81 4.02 2.94 3.31 4.60
PAM 23 0 0 29 6 1 59
7.01 0.00 0.00 11.65 4.41 0.66 4.60
UTA 109 77 78 78 60 53 455
33.23 36.49 37.50 31.33 44.12 35.10 35.46
CR 52 1 1 26 3 4 87
15.85 0.47 0.48 10.44 2.21 2.65 6.78
STP 109 78 78 78 60 53 456
33.23 36.97 37.50 31.33 44.12 35.10 35.54
SDP 5 3 23 0 3 34 68
1.52 1.42 11.06 0.00 2.21 22.52 5.30
Total 328 211 208 249 136 151 1283
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 260.341*** 187.758*** 170.519*** 102.060*** 184.735*** 165.020*** 1138.995***
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage; PT= Provision of translation; CC= Clarity of
content; PAM= Provision of additional material; UTA= Use of teaching aids; CR=
Cross referencing; STP= Suggestion on teaching procedures; SDP= Suggestion on
difficulties predicted
***p < .001.

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 Featured characteristics of composition. With regard to the featured

characteristics of the song and rhyme compositions, the results showed a significant

difference (χ2=10.182, p<.01), indicating that divergent features were taken into

consideration when songs and rhymes were especially written for children’s English

learning (see Table 4.15).

The featured factors taken into account were found to be lyrics, rhythm, and

melody (see Table 4.15). Among the various featured characteristics, melody ranked

as the highest feature (45.45%), followed by lyrics (36.36%) and rhythm (18.18%).

However, rhythm gained the least attention (18.18%). Textbook C featured melodic

aspects, while Textbook F featured rhythmic aspects. Textbooks B, D and E used

lyrical and melodic features equally woven into the composition of their songs and

rhymes. Different from the other textbook series, Textbook A was the only one that

took all the lyrical, melodic and rhythmic characteristics into consideration when

designing songs and rhymes for language learning.

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 Table 4.15
Featured Characteristics of Song and Rhyme Compositions for the Six Textbook
Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Lyrics 8a 8 0 8 8 0 32
33.33b 50.00 0.00 50.00 50.00 0.00 36.36
Rhythm 8 0 0 0 0 8 16
33.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 18.18
Melody 8 8 8 8 8 0 40
33.33 50.00 100.00 50.00 50.00 0.00 45.45
Total 24 16 8 16 16 8 88
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
a b
Note. = frequency; = percentage

The findings implied that the six textbook series investigated in the current study

did not fully provide divergent types of teaching resources. Suggestions for teaching

procedures and the use of teaching aids were the most commonly used additional

teaching resources for each individual textbook series (see Table 4.14). In addition,

the distribution of different types of extra teaching resources displayed a significant

difference (χ2=1138.995, p=.000). The significant difference further indicated that

other types of extra teaching resources were neglected or were not provided. As

pointed out by Cunningsworth (1995), a reasonable teacher’s guide is “invaluable” for

effectively presenting “how to make the best use of the course” (p. 112). This could

be done by providing a statement on the course rationale, information about the

language, clarification of the relationship among the related contents, suggestions on

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practical material use, instructions for the selection or arrangement of the language,

guidance on teaching procedures, resources for further application or promotion of

teaching skills (Cunningsworth, 1995; Cunningsworth & Kusel, 1991). Therefore,

except for suggestions on teaching procedures and the use of teaching aids, teaching

resources which are feasible, flexible, and contextualized are needed for teachers to

refer to.

With regards to the teaching aids accompanying the course book package

provided by the six textbook series, more than half of the publishers chose a CD

featuring the sung versions together with posters or flashcards (see Table 4.13). The

results suggested that most of the textbook editors prepared their target learners to

learn songs and rhymes with the help of melody singing from CDs of the sung version

together with pictures and texts from posters or flashcards. In addition, four out of the

six publishers further used karaoke versions of the CDs to offer more opportunities

for learners to sing or chant independently with only an instrumental accompaniment.

Supported by the results from the featured characteristics of composition (see Table

4.15), among the various featured characteristics, melody accounted for the highest

(45.45%) percentage. Both the high proportion of the use of CDs and the supportive

results from the featured characteristics of composition seemed to highlight the

important role of “melody” in the teaching of songs and rhymes.

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 In the present study, when considering the positive effects of melody on

language learning through songs and rhymes, two main reasons are suggested to

contribute toward the emphasis on the effect of melody. Firstly, Murphey’s (1990)

assertion of the song-stuck-in-my-head-phenomena postulated that songs and rhymes

accompanied by a catchy or well-known melody could easily lead the listeners into

the state of involuntary mental rehearsal. Firstly, the lyrics, with the aid of melody,

automatically ‘din’ the songs and rhymes in the listeners’ minds so as to reinforce the

learning of language. The other reason might be contributed to the learning

atmosphere created by melody. Songs and rhymes are a genre rich in melody, which

is helpful for providing a non-threatening and friendly learning environment (Merrell,

2004). Therefore, the significance of the use of the melodic features of songs and

rhymes reinforces the notion that the music in songs and rhymes is “creating an

environment that is conductive to learning” (Woodall & Ziembroski, 2004, para. 4).

However, other types of teaching aids, such as multimedia, software and

programs, lacked provision. The multimedia teaching resources, such as VCD and

interactive E-books, accounted for a relatively small number in proportion (17.39%).

As shown in Table 4.13, only Textbook A provided an interactive E-book as a

teaching aid to be used along with the song and rhyme instructions. The results for the

provision of teaching aids in the present study showed there was a lack in the

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multiplicity of teaching aids. To equip and enable teachers and students to improve

their learning of songs and rhymes, it is suggested that a variety of teaching aids

should be included in the textbooks.

The Compliance of the Design of Songs and Rhymes with the Grade 1-9

Curriculum Guideline

After identifying the features of the presentation and instructional design of

songs and rhymes in elementary English textbooks, the discussion in this section is

further directed toward the extent of the agreement between the design of songs and

rhymes and the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline. The discussion is developed

according to the promotion of Communicative Language Teaching, the principles of

the material design, the implementation of competence indicators and theme selection

as recommended in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline (MOE, 2008).

The Promotion of Communicative Language Teaching

The findings revealed that the design of song and rhyme instructions was

inconsistent with one of the goals in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline: adapting a

Communicative Language Teaching approach as the principle for activity design.

According to the results detailing the types of teaching techniques (see Table 4.12),

over 98% of the songs and rhymes were designed to be taught using controlled

teaching techniques. Although the existence of controlled teaching techniques seemed

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to owe its value to acting as the stepping stone to extending language acquisition to

the communicative mode, the diversity in activity design cannot be sacrificed. As

Krashen (2009) noted, “language acquisition occurs when language is used for what it

was designed for, communication” (p. 1). Controlled teaching techniques, such as dull

drills or passive perception, would hardly advance the learner from their current

language level to the next stage of progression. Therefore, it is suggested that the

activity design should be moved from a controlled mode to a communicative mode.

Textbook editors should add more semi-controlled teaching techniques and free

teaching techniques for the teaching of songs and rhymes. In the literature, to date, a

great number of researchers have proposed various techniques for the teaching of

songs and rhymes. In terms of the communicative principle of activity design, songs

and rhymes can act as the repertoire to deduce grammatical rules (Mora, 2000), to

make predictions for the following text (Cullen, 1999), to generate conversations for

communication (Griffee, 1992), to develop the ability of literacy appreciation

(McCarthy, 1985), to construct compositions with similar text structure (Jalongo &

Ribblett, 1997) or to gain further understanding of foreign cultures and cultural

differences (Sokka-Meaney, 2008).

Principles of Material Design

With regards to the principles of material design, the existence of songs and

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rhymes reveals that they are a widely applied genre across the six textbook series. As

suggested in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline (MOE, 2008), genre diversity is one

of the most important principles when designing elementary English textbooks.

Among the various suggested genres, songs and rhymes are highly recommended.

Consistent with previous research, among the various genres suggested in the Grade

1-9 Curriculum Guideline, the inclusion of songs and rhymes was proven to be one of

the most commonly applied genres in the six textbook series (e.g. Chang, 2006, Liu,

2006, Shih, 2013; Wang, 2012). As indicated by the present study, songs and rhymes

are not only a commonly used genre but also obligatory teaching units in each of the

six textbook series. The regular appearance of songs and rhymes was in accordance

with previous research findings.

Implementation of Competence Indicators

With regard to the implementation of competence indicators, the results indicated

that the distribution of competence indicators related to songs and rhymes was not

consistent with the major principles delineated in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline

that states “put emphasis on listening and speaking, and view reading and writing as

facilitated roles” (MOE, 2008). For example, in terms of instructional objectives on

language abilities (see Appendix L), the finding of the present study showed that,

among the eighteen competence indicators, the indicator for developing listening

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skills (1-1-10-1, 1-1-10-2, 1-2-1-1, 1-2-1-2, 1-2-1-3, and 1-2-1-4) accounted for

31.88%, speaking skills (2-1-10-1 and 2-1-10-2) accounted for 31.03%, and reading

skills (3-1-4-1, 3-1-4-2, and 3-1-4-3) accounted for 36.79%. However, the indicator

for writing skills did not appear at all in the coding. Therefore, the findings in the

present study indicated that reading skill development earned the highest emphasis,

which was greater than the emphases on listening skills or speaking skills. In addition,

the promotion of writing skills through songs and rhymes was totally neglected.

As previously mentioned, among the four language development skills, the

competence indicators related to reading skills earned the highest emphasis. It was

observed that the major purpose of using songs and rhymes for reading skill

development across the six textbook series was to encourage the recognition of

vocabulary. When looking closely at the description for the competence indicators for

reading skills the results were as follows: 3-1-4-3, being able to understand the

meaning of high frequency words in songs, rhymes and stories (12.98%); 3-1-4-1,

being able to correctly recognize the high frequency words in songs, rhymes and

stories (11.95%); and 3-1-4-2, being able to read the high frequency words in songs,

rhymes and stories (11.86%). Consequently, it was found that the competence

indicators related to reading skills highly promoted the comprehension of words.

However, placing a greater emphasis on word recognition runs the risk of guiding

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 teachers and learners to perceive that learning songs and rhymes is only for learning

vocabulary. However, songs and rhymes are useful teaching materials that can

encourage learners to cultivate other reading skills, such as phonemic awareness,

reading comprehension, and literacy appreciation (McCarthy, 1985; Mizener, 2008).

The Selection of Themes

In total, the six textbook series covered 33 out of 40 (82.5%) of the suggested

themes in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline (see Appendix J). However, the

coverage of themes was unevenly distributed among the six textbook series. Most of

the themes (89.28%) were centered on the 40 themes suggested in the Grade 1-9

Curriculum Guideline. On the other hand, 10.72% of the themes were composed of

topics different from the suggested list (see Table 4.15).

Table 4.15
Distribution of Themes in the Six Textbook Series
Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Within the 94a 70 69 73 56 46 408
b
theme-list 86.24 89.74 88.46 93.59 91.80 86.79 89.28
Not on the 15 8 9 5 5 7 49
theme-list 13.76 10.26 11.54 6.41 8.20 13.21 10.72
Total 109 78 78 78 61 53 457
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 57.257*** 49.282*** 46.154*** 59.282*** 42.639*** 28.698*** 282.015***
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage
***p < .001.

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 With respect to the selection of themes in the six textbook series, the results

showed a high compliance with the suggested themes in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum

Guideline. As shown in Table 4.15, the six publishers covered 89.28% of the

suggested theme list.

However, there were also themes (10.72%) in the six textbook series that

featured topics that were different to the suggested 40-theme list detailed in the Grade

1-9 Curriculum Guideline. Taking a further look at the raw data, it was observed that

most of the themes extended from the 40-theme list were also related to young

learners’ life experiences, such as the alphabet, stationery, emotions, directions,

locations, opposites, self introduction, talents, daily supplies, and musical instruments.

The results suggested that although the six publishers covered 89.28% of the

suggested theme list, the suggested theme list retains room for a wider coverage of

other themes related to young learners’ real life experiences. Therefore, in addition to

using the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline as guidance, it is suggested that the

selection of themes is extended to other issues that students are interested in.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

The present study aimed to explore the presentation and instructional design of

English songs and rhymes through the examination of elementary school English

textbooks. In this chapter, the major findings based upon the research questions and

the discussions of the results are summarized. What follows are the implications for

pedagogical practice. Subsequently, the limitations of the present study are also

discussed. Suggestions for future research are presented in the last section.

Summary of the Major Findings

The purpose of the present study is to investigate the design and presentation of

songs and rhymes in elementary school English teachers’ guides through textbook

analysis. 457 songs and rhymes were selected from six textbook series and underwent

two phases of textbook analysis, consisting of global analysis and detailed analysis.

The major findings in the present study reveal that the presentation of songs and

rhymes has distinctive features, the instructional design of songs and rhymes lack

diversity and that the design of the songs and rhymes is not fully consistent with the

Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline. Further conclusions in relation to the major findings

of the present study are summarized as follows.

1. How are the content features of songs and rhymes presented in Taiwan

elementary school English textbooks?

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Synthesizing the results from the content properties of the coding scheme, the

results indicated that the songs and rhymes presented in the six textbook series

were mostly rhymed, written with life-related themes, presented with highly

repetitive lyrics, controlled by a relatively easy level of comprehensibility, and

presented mostly with a combination of textual, pictorial, and musical modes of

presentation. The results affirmed that the use of rhyme and repetition are salient

and commonly used features of songs and rhymes. In terms of the

comprehensibility of songs and rhymes, whether examined from vocabulary,

language structure or readability, the research findings suggested that most of the

songs and rhymes in the six textbook series were cautiously controlled in order to

be easily comprehensible for young language learners. Such purposeful

presentation echoes back to Richard’s (1969) appeal for the requirement to make

songs and rhymes a good language input. In addition, generally speaking, the songs

and rhymes investigated in the present study are presented in various modes,

including textual, pictorial and musical modes of presentation. The combination

facilitates young EFL learners’ English learning. The multiplicity of presentation

modes provides both visual and auditory stimulants that can quicken and deepen

the comprehension of language inputs. To summarize, the presentation of songs and

rhymes investigated in the current study display the distinctive features of songs

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 and rhymes and are especially concerned with the level of easiness for children’s

English learning.

2. How is the English song and rhyme instruction designed and facilitated in

Taiwan elementary school English textbooks?

The instructional design of songs and rhymes investigated in the present study

fails to fulfill the multi-faced roles of songs and rhymes as reviewed in the literature.

Firstly, the findings revealed that applying songs and rhymes for the purpose of

developing language abilities greatly surpasses the purposes of cultivating the aspects

of learning methods, learning interests, cultures and customs. However, the great

emphasis on developing language abilities through songs and rhymes remains

doubtful when treating songs and rhymes as the teaching material that can enhance

affective and cultural contributions to language learning. Secondly, it was found that

songs and rhymes were mainly designed as a stand-alone activity in a teaching unit by

using various kinds of controlled teaching techniques. Although controlled teaching

techniques help facilitate a basic level of language proficiency (Brown, 2007), more

flexible instructional design is required. From the perspective of the equipped

teaching resources for the use with songs and rhymes, the results indicated that the

provision centered on offering suggestions on teaching procedures and the use of

teaching aids, and supplying teaching aids in the form of disc storage. However, other

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types of teaching resources and multimedia teaching resources were neglected or

lacked provision. Given that teachers are now facing with students of various learning

styles and language proficiency levels, a lack of providing multi-faceted instructional

resources would take teachers a hard time on applying songs and rhymes effectively.

3. To what extent does the design of songs and rhymes in Taiwan elementary

school English textbooks correspond with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline?

The extent of compliance with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline was explored

from the perspectives of the promotion of Communicative Language Teaching, the

principle of material design, the implementation of competence indicators, and theme

selection. The major finding indicated that the instructional design of songs and

rhymes does not comply with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline in certain aspects

but does display highly compliance in others. In view of the incompleteness of a

match with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline, the results showed that the design of

songs and rhymes failed to fully reflect the advocacy of Communicative Language

Teaching by MOE (2008). In the present study, the design of types of teaching

techniques was largely geared to a controlled continuum but not to a communicative

continuum of teaching techniques. In terms of the implementation of competence

indicators, results for the instructional objectives revealed that the majority of the

competence indicator distribution was oriented to language abilities. The competence

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indicators related to learning methods, learning interests, cultures and customs were,

apparently, neglected. In addition, the proportion of instructional objectives for

developing language skills was not consistent with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum

Guideline that stated: “put emphasis on listening and speaking, and view reading and

writing as facilitated roles” (MOE, 2008). The instructional objectives put most

emphasis on developing reading skills but not listening or speaking skills. With regard

to the high level of compliance with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline, the findings

indicated that songs and rhymes were the commonly applied genre across the six

textbook series. Furthermore, the inclusion of themes was highly consistent to the

suggestion of themes in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline. However, there was also

consideration given to life-related themes beyond the suggested theme list in the

Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline.

Pedagogical Implications

Given the importance of using songs and rhymes for language teaching and the

dominating role of textbooks in classrooms, the present study incorporates an

evaluation model for textbooks and teachers’ guides with the selection criteria for

choosing songs and rhymes in order to probe the presentation and instructional design

of songs and rhymes in teachers’ guides. Based upon the major findings, some

pedagogical implications can be drawn from the present study.

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 Due to the fact that English has now been made an officially required subject at

grade three, it is hoped that students are equipped with the ability to use the language

communicatively and to expand their views of the world (MOE, 2008). Through

songs and rhymes, students are expected to extend their awareness of multicultural

literacy (Sokka-Meaney, 2008). By perceiving the cultural similarities and cultural

differences, together with the language use, students should be equipped with the

ability to communicate successfully in a variety of contexts (Richard-Amato, 2003).

Among the various teaching materials and instructional designs, songs and rhymes are

viewed as the great genre to open the window for learners to achieve these goals in a

less-threatening way. However, the instructional purposes of songs and rhymes

indicated in these textbook series have neglected the development of cultural aspects

and affective aspects. Hence, there is a need to bridge the gap by providing the

pleasure learning experience and by developing the cross-cultural communication

through teaching songs and rhymes in the elementary school English classroom.

In terms of the instructional design of songs and rhymes, the findings revealed

that the design lacked diversity across the six textbook series. The results in the

present study indicated that the design of the songs and rhymes was greatly centered

on developing language skills, using controlled teaching techniques and providing the

types of teaching resources which are insufficient for flexibility. It is necessary for

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textbook designers, whether starting from affective, cultural, cognitive or linguistic

aspects, to perceive the pedagogical values of songs and rhymes and to fully achieve

the multiple functions of songs and rhymes through divergent teaching activities and

techniques.

The textbook editor’s design has an influential impact on teachers’

decision-making regarding the way to present and teach songs and rhymes in the

classrooms. Consideration should be given to the teacher’s limitations as a non-native

English speaker, their language proficiency, cultural background, and the teaching

resources provided by the course book package that help determine the method of

application of the songs and rhymes. The present study suggested that textbook

designers should provide teaching materials from the viewpoint of non-native

speakers so as to help English teachers gain a deeper understanding of the choice and

teaching of suitable songs and rhymes, especially for young language learners.

Limitations of the Study

The present study was conducted to investigate how songs and rhymes were

presented and designed as instructional activities in teachers’ guides. Although a great

amount of effort was taken to ensure this research was sound, several limitations must

be considered when interpreting the study findings.

One limitation of the present study is the number of textbook samples. The

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samples were only selected from six out of the ten textbook series currently approved

by MOE (2008). Other commercially published textbook series were not included.

Therefore, the validity of the findings in respect to other textbook series is unknown.

Because of this, the results cannot be widely generalized.

Furthermore, the present study restricted the research to teachers’ guides only. Data

selected from EFL teachers, students, or textbook editors were untouched. Hence, the

findings of the research limited the investigation as they were only reflected from

teachers’ guides. The investigation from a single side of the related variables in the field

of English education in Taiwan has, therefore, only revealed a part of the whole picture of

second language education.

Another limitation of this study is related to the rater used to build up reliability for

the coding. The inter-rater recruited in the present study was an undergraduate who had

majored in the field of English education. Additionally, the coding procedure referred to

Neuendorf’s (2002) suggestion. The co-coder and the researcher were from similar

educational and professional backgrounds. However, only one inter-rater from a similar

background was recruited in the present study. Although the value of inter-rater reliability

was higher than 0.8, the degree of reliability could be improved by adding more

inter-raters.

The other limitation of the present study lies in the construction of the coding

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scheme. The coding scheme developed in this study synthesized evaluation models in

the pre-use evaluation process and the selection criteria for songs and rhymes. As

reviewed in the literature, a huge number of evaluation models for ESL and EFL

textbooks have been developed for different language contexts. Consideration of

applying songs and rhymes as teaching materials or activities were multi-faced. When

analyzing practicality and efficacy, the research could not include all the

considerations into the coding scheme. Thus, the major findings of the present study

may not have revealed other hidden issues which were left out from the analysis.

Suggestions for Future Research

The current study explores ways of presentation, ways of instructional design

of songs and rhymes in elementary English textbooks and the extent of compliance

with the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline. In order to reduce the limitations of the

study, some directions for future studies are suggested.

Further research replicating the present study could use a larger sample size of

English textbooks. English textbooks using songs and rhymes, whether at the level of

elementary school, junior high school, or senior high school or in the context of native

speakers or non-native speakers could also be included. Moreover, a comparison

between textbooks of different levels and textbooks of various English learning

environments would be helpful in delineating the features and the pedagogical roles of

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songs and rhymes in divergent contexts.

Different sources of data collection could also be conducted so as to reinforce the

research findings. In the present study, only teachers’ guides were investigated. It was

difficult to discover whether the design of songs and rhymes catered to learners’

learning interests and the levels of their language, whether teachers’ opinions were

matched with their practical teaching experience in the classroom, and whether editors

and educational experts’ notions on applying songs and rhymes were fully carried out

in the teachers’ guides. Therefore, as suggested in the following, firstly, the findings

from teachers’ guides could be further compared with the results derived from student

interviews and surveys so as to examine the extent of the suitability of the material

and the interest of second language learners. Secondly, studies geared to teachers’

interviews and surveys are suggested to help with a reflection on the real applications

of songs and rhymes in language classrooms. Information regarding teachers’

teaching philosophies, attitudes and approaches to using songs and rhymes could help

mirror the teachers’ impact, interpretation, needs, dilemma or difficulties when using

songs and rhymes, and the way that songs and rhymes play a role in second language

teaching. Despite the data gathering from students and teachers, information retrieved

from textbook editors or educational experts are also worthy of exploration. An

understanding of the editorial process when creating textbooks would help with

128
understanding the rationales and considerations when applying songs and rhymes in

textbooks.

Furthermore, different evaluation models containing various criteria related to

songs and rhymes in textbooks are suggested for future research. An evaluation model

applying process approach (Hemsley, 1997) is also recommended. As indicated by

Ellis (1997, p. 36), traditionally, textbooks undergoing “predictive evaluation” were

checklist-based and left out the effects after being used by teachers and students.

Therefore, “retrospective evaluation” is required to examine the actual worth of

textbooks. Carrying out a retrospective evaluation aids with further understanding of

the actual suitability, both for teachers and students. Further research could also

combine predictive evaluation and retrospective evaluation together to examine the

consistency so as to gain in-depth findings on textbook research. On the other hand,

further research could also make an effort to examine the various classifications of

song and rhyme analyses. Investigation of issues such as genre diversity, authenticity,

musicality, rhythmic organization, phonological phrasing, the matching between

musical segmentation and linguistic segmentation, students’ interests, the suitability

of songs and rhymes for learners, and the variety of teaching activities are also

recommended.

129
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154
 Appendix A

Coding Sheet of Songs and Rhymes (Global Analysis)

Code:

Coding Category Description

Instructional purposes

Instructional division

Featuring characteristics

Peripheral guides

Teaching aids

155
 Appendix B

Coding Sheet of Songs and Rhymes (Detailed Analysis)

Code:
Content properties
Rhymes □ Yes Theme
□ No Repetition □ Word
Vocabulary 612-word list: □ Phrase
1200-word list: □ Sentence
Beyond-1200: □ Paragraph
Readability Reading level: Modes of □ Textual
Language presentation □ Musical
structure □ Pictorial
Instructional properties
Instructional Types of extra □ Provision of translation
objectivities teaching □ Clarity of content
resources □ Cross referencing
□ Use of teaching aids
Independency □ Stand-alone activity □ Provision of additional
of activities □ Element of an activity materials
□ Option within an activity □ Suggestions on teaching
Types of □ Controlled procedures
teaching □ Semi-controlled □ Suggestions on difficulties
techniques □ Free predicted

156
 Appendix C

The 612-word List

A─ a, about, above, across, after, again, against, air, all, almost, along, also, always,
am, an, and, angry, animal, another, answer, any, anything, apple, are, arm,
around, art, as, ask, asked, at, ate, aunt, away

B─ baby, back, bad, dag, ball, banana, bathroom, be, bear, because, bed, bedroom,
bee, been, before, began, being, bell, below, best, better, between, big, bike, bird,
birthday, black, blue, boat, body, book, bookstore, both, box, boy, bread,
breakfast, bring, brother, brown, bus, but, buy, by, bye

C─ cake, call, called, came, can, candy, car, card, carry, cat, chair, change, chicken,
children, Chinese, Christmas, city, classroom, claus, clean, close, clothes, cloudy,
coat, coffee, cold, color, come, computer, cook, cookies, cool, corn, could,
country, cow, cream, cry, cup, cut

D─ dad, dance, day, dear, desk, did, didn’t, different, dinner, dirty, do, doctor, does,
dog, doll, done, don’t, door, down, draw, dress, drink, drive, duck, during

E─ each, ear, early, earth, eat, egg, eight, eighteen, eighty, elephant, eleven, end,
English, enough, eraser, even ever, every, example, excited, eye, eyes, e-mail

F─ face, family, fan, far, farm, farmer, fast, fat, father, feel, feet, few, fifteen, fifty,
find, fine, fire, first, fish, five, floor, flower, fly, food, foot, for, form, forty, found,
four, fourteen, Friday, friend, from, fruit, full, funny

G─ game, garden, gave, get, girl, give, glasses, go, goes, going, good, got, grandma,
grandpa, grass, gray(grey), great, green, ground, group, grow

H─ had, half, hamburger, hand, happy, hard, has, hat, have, he, head, hear, heard,
help, her, here, high, hill, him, himself, his hold, home, hope, hors, hospital, hot,
house, how, however, hundred, hungry, hurt

I─ I, ice, if, important, in, into, is, it, its, it’s, I’m

J─ jacket, Japan, juice, jump, just

157
K─ keep, key, kid, kind, kitchen, kite, kitty, knew, know

L─ land, large, last, later, laugh, learn, leave, left, leg, let, letter, library, life, light,
like, line, lion, listen, little, live, living, long, longer, look, love, lunch

M─ mad, made, mailman, make, man, many, marker, math, may, me, men, might,
milk, mine, mom, Monday, money, monkey, moon, more, morning, most, mother,
mouth, move, MRT, much, music, must, my, myself

N─ name, near, need, nest, never, new, next, night, nine, nineteen, ninety, no, noodles,
nose, not, now, number, nurse

O─ of, off, office, officer, often, old, on, once, one, only, open, or, orange, order,
other, our, out, over, own, o’clock

P─ page, pair, pants, paper, park, part, party, PE, pen, pencil, people, pick, picture,
pie, pig, pink, pizza, place, plane, plants, play, please, point, police, post, present,
pretty, pull, purple, put

R─ rabbit, rain, rainy, ran, read, red, restaurant, rice, ride, right, ring, room, round,
ruler, run

S─ sad, said, same, sandwich, Santa, sat, Saturday, saw, say, school, science, sea,
second, see, seed, seem, seen, sentence, set, seven, seventeen, seventy, several,
shall, she, sheep, ship, shoe, shoes, shop, short, shorts, should, show, sick, side,
since, sing, singer, sister, sit, six, sixteen, sixty, sky, sleep, small, snow, so socks,
sofa, some, something, song, soon, sound, soup, speak, spring, stand, star, start,
station, stick, till, stop, story, street, student, study, such, summer, sun, Sunday,
sunny, sure, sweater, swim

T─ table, Taiwan, take, talk, tall, taxi, tea, teacher, telephone, tell, ten, than, thank,
that, the, their, them, then, there, these, they, thin, thing, think, third, thirteen,
thirty, this, those, though, thought, three, through, Thursday, tiger, time, tired, to,
today, together, told, too, took, top, toward, town, toy, train, tree, true, try,
Tuesday, turn, turned, TV, twelve, twenty, two, T-short

U─ UK, uncle, under, until, up, upon, us, USA, use, usually

158
V─ very

W─ walk, want, warm, was, wash, watch, water, way, we, wear, weather, Wednesday,
week, well, went, were, what, when, where, which, while, white, who, whole,
whose, why, will, wind, window, windy, winter, wish, with, without, woman,
woo, words, work, world, would, write

Y─ year, yellow, yes, yesterday, yo-yo, you, young, your

Z─ zoo

159
 Appendix D

The 1200-word List in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline

A─ a(an), a few, a little, a lot, a.m., able, about, above, abroad, across, act, action,
actor, actress afraid, after, afternoon, again, age, ago, agree, ahead, air, airplane
(plane), airport, all, almost, along, already, also, always, America, American, and,
angry, animal, another, answer, ant, any, anyone (anybody), anything, apartment,
appear, apple, April, arm, around, arrive, art, as, ask, at, attack, August, aunt,
autumn (fall), away

B─ baby, back, bad, badminton, bag, bake, bakery, balcony, ball, banana, band, bank,
barbecue, base, baseball, basket, basketball, bat, bath, bathroom, be (am, is, are,
was, were, been), beach, bean, bear, beautiful, because, become, bed, bedroom,
bee, beef, before, begin, behind, believe, bell, belong, below, belt, bench, beside,
between, bicycle (bike), big, bird, birthday, bite, black, blackboard, blanket, blind,
block, blow, blue, boat, body, boil, book, bookstore, bored, boring, born, borrow,
boss, both, bottle, bottom, bow, bowl, box, boy, bread, break, breakfast, bridge,
bright, bring, brother, brown, brush, bug, build, bun, burn, bus, business,
businessman, busy, but, butter, butterfly, buy, by

C─ cage, cake, call, camera, camp, can (could), candle, candy, cap, car, card, care,
careful, carry, case, castle, cat, catch, celebrate, cellphone, cent, center,
centimeter, chair, chalk, chance, change, cheap, cheat, check, cheer, cheese, chess,
chicken, child, China, Chinese, chocolate, choose, chopsticks, Christmas, church,
circle, city, clap, class, classmate, classroom, clean, clear, clerk, climb, clock,
close, clothes, cloud, cloudy, club, coat, coffee, cola, cold, collect, color, comb,
come, comfortable, comic, common, computer, convenient, cook, cookie, cool,
copy, corner, correct, cost, couch, count, country, course, cousin, cover, cow,
crazy, cross, cry, cup, cut, cute

D─ dance, dangerous, dark, date, daughter, day, dead, deal, dear, December, decide,
delicious, dentist, department store, desk, dictionary, die, different, difficult, dig,
dining room, dinner, dirty, dish, do (does, did, done), doctor (Dr.), dodge ball,
dog, doll, dollar, door, dot, down, dozen, dragon, draw, drawer, dream, dress,
drink, drive, driver, drop, drum, dry, duck, dumpling, during

160
E─ each, ear, early, earth, east, Easter, easy, eat, egg, eight, eighteen, eighty, either,
elementary school, elephant, eleven, else, e-mail, end, engineer, English, enjoy,
enough, enter, envelope, eraser, eve, even, evening, ever, every, everyone
(everybody), everything, example, excellent, except, excited, exciting, excuse,
exercise, expensive, experience, eye

F─ face, fact, factory, fail, fall, family, famous, fan, far, farm, farmer, fast, fat, father
(dad, daddy), favorite, February, feed, feel, festival, fever, few, fifteen, fifty, fight,
fill, finally, find, fine, finger, finish, fire, first, fish, fisherman, five, fix, floor,
flower, flute, fly, follow, food, foot, for, foreign, foreigner, forget, fork, forty, four,
fourteen, fox, free, French fries, fresh, Friday, friend, friendly, frisbee, frog, from,
front, fruit, fry, full, fun, funny, future

G─ game, garden, garbage, gas, gate, get, ghost, giant, gift, girl, give, glad, glass,
glasses, glove, glue, go, goat, good, good-bye (goodbye, bye), goose, grade, gram,
grandfather (grandpa), grandmother (grandma), grape, grass, gray, great, green,
ground, group, grow, guava, guess, guitar, guy, gym

H─ habit, hair, half, Halloween, ham, hamburger, hand, handsome, hang, happen,
happy, hard, hard-working, hat, hate, have (has, had), he (him, his, himself), head,
headache, health, healthy, hear, heart, heat, heavy, hello, help, helpful, hen, here,
hey, hi, hide, high, hike, hill, hippo, history, hit, hobby, hold, holiday, home,
homework, honest, honey, hop, hope, horse, hospital, hot, hot dog, hotel, hour,
house, housewife, how, however, hundred, hungry, hunt, hurry, hurt, husband

I─ I (me my mine myself), ice, ice cream, idea, if, important, in, inch, insect, inside,
interest, interested, interesting, Internet, interview, into, invite, island, it (its,
itself)

J─ jacket, January, jeans, job, jog, join, joy, juice, July, jump, June, junior high
school, just

K─ kangaroo, keep, key, kick, kid, kill, kilogram, kind, king, kiss, kitchen, kite, knee,
knife, knock, know, knowledge, koala

L─ lake, lamp, land, language, lantern, large, last, late, later, laugh, lawyer, lazy, lead,
leader, learn, least, leave, left, leg, lemon, lend, less, lesson, let, letter, lettuce,
library, lid, lie, life, light, like, line, lion, lip, list, listen, little, live, living room,

161
 lonely, long, look, lose, loud, love, lovely, low, lucky, lunch

M─ machine, mad, magic, mail, mailman (mail carrier), make, man, many, map,
March, mark, marker, market, married, mask, mat, math (mathematics), matter,
may (might), May, maybe, meal, mean, meat, medicine, medium, meet, meeting,
menu, middle, mile, milk, million, mind, minute, Miss, miss, mistake, modern,
moment, Monday, money, monkey, month, moon, more, morning, mop, most,
mother (mom, mommy), motorcycle, mountain, mouse, mouth, move, movie,
Mr., Mrs., MRT, Ms., much, mud, museum, music, must

N─ nail, name, national, nature, near, neck, need, neighbor, never, new, news,
newspaper, next, nice, night, nine, nineteen, ninety, no, nobody, nod, noise, noisy,
noodle, noon, north, nose, not, note, notebook, nothing, notice, November, now,
number, nurse

O─ o'clock, October, of, off, office, officer, often, oil, OK, old, on, once, one, only,
open, or, orange, order, other, out, outside, over, own, ox

P─ p.m., pack, package, page, paint, pair, pants, papaya, paper, parent, park, part,
party, pass, past, paste, pay, PE (physical education), peach, pear, pen, pencil,
people, perhaps, person, pet, photo, piano, pick, picnic, picture, pie, piece, pig,
pin, pink, pipe, pizza, place, plan, planet, plant, plate, play, player, playground,
please, pleasure, pocket, point, police, polite, pond, pool, poor, popcorn, popular,
pork, possible, post office, postcard, pot, pound, power, practice, pray, prepare,
present, pretty, price, prince, princess, prize, problem, program, proud, public,
pull, pumpkin, puppy, purple, push, put

Q─ quarter, queen, question, quick, quiet, quite, quiz

R─ rabbit, race, radio, railway, rain, rainbow, rainy, raise, rat, read, ready, real, really,
recorder, red, refrigerator, remember, repeat, reporter, rest, restaurant, restroom,
rice, rich, ride, right, ring, rise, river, road, ROC, robot, rock, roll, roller skate
(roller blade), room, rope, rose, round, row, rule, ruler, run

S─ sad, safe, sail, salad, sale, salesman, salt, same, sandwich, Saturday, save, say,
scared, school, science, scooter, screen, sea, season, seat, second, secretary, see,
seed, seesaw, seldom, sell, send, senior high school, sentence, September, serious,
set, seven, seventeen, seventy, several, shake, shall, shape, share, shark, sharp, she

162
 (her, hers, herself), sheep, shine, ship, shirt, shoe(s), shop, shopkeeper, short,
shorts, should, shoulder, shout, show, shy, sick, side, sidewalk, sight, sign, simple,
since, sing, singer, sir, sister, sit, six, sixteen, sixty, size, skate, skirt, sky, sleep,
slide, slim, slow, small, smart, smell, smile, smoke, snack, snake, snow,
snowman, snowy, so, soccer, socks, sofa, soldier, some, someone (somebody),
something, sometimes, somewhere, son, song, soon, sore, sorry, sound, soup,
south, space, spaghetti, speak, special, spell, spend, spider, spoon, sports, spring,
square, stairs, stamp, stand, star, start, station, stay, steak, still, stomach, stop,
store, story, straight, strange, stranger, straw, strawberry, street, strong, student,
study, stupid, subject, successful, sugar, summer, sun, Sunday, sunny,
supermarket, sure, surf, surprise, surprised, sweater, sweet, swim, swing

T─ table, tail, Taiwan, take, talk, tall, tape, taste, taxi, tea, teach, teacher, team,
teenager, telephone (phone), television (TV), tell, temple, ten, tennis, terrible, test,
than, thank, that, the, theater, then, there, these, they (them, their, theirs,
themselves), thick, thin, thing, think, third, thirsty, thirteen, thirty, this, those,
though (although), thousand, three, throat, throw, Thursday, ticket, tidy, tie, tiger,
time, tired, to, toast, today, toe, together, tomato, tomorrow, tonight, too, tool,
tooth, top, total, touch, towel, town, toy, traffic, train, trash, treat, tree, trick, trip,
trouble, truck, true, try, T-shirt, tub, Tuesday, turkey, turn, turtle, twelve, twenty,
twice, two, type, typhoon

U─ umbrella, uncle, under, understand, unhappy, uniform, until, up, USA, use, useful,
usually

V─ vacation, vegetable, very, vest, video, violin, visit, voice

W─ wait, waiter, waitress, wake, walk, wall, wallet, want, warm, wash, watch, water,
watermelon, wave, way, we (us, our, ours, ourselves), weak, wear, weather,
Wednesday, week, weekend, welcome, well, west, wet, whale, what, when,
where, whether, which, white, who, whose, why, wife, will (would), win, wind,
window, windy, winter, wise, wish, with, without, woman, wonderful, word,
work, workbook, worker, world, worry, write, writer, wrong

Y─ yard, year, yellow, yes (yeah), yesterday, yet, you (your, yours, yourself,
yourselves), young, yummy

Z─ zebra, zero, zoo

163
 Appendix E

Suggested Sentence Patterns of Songs and Rhymes in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum
Guideline

Language Structure Types of Sentence Example

Sentence Pattern Declarative This is a book.
Time flies.
Interrogative Do you walk to school?
Is it your vest? Yes, it is. (No, it isn’t.)
Does he cook well? Yes, he does. (No, he doesn’t.)
Wh-questions Where are you going? I am going to school.
How old are you? I’m five years old.
What time is it? It’s ten o’clock.
How much is it? It’s ten dollars.
Imperative Raise your hand.
Tag questions She likes me, doesn’t she?
Exclamatory What a wonderful world!
Introductory There is a map.
Passive The toy was sold out.
Tense Past simple There was an old house.
Michael ate beef last night.
Past progressive Fiona was talking to her mother all night long.
Past perfect They had believed in nature food.
Present simple I am a girl.
Tom takes bus to school.
Present progressive Peter is sleeping now.
Present perfect Mary has done his job.
Future simple Ben will graduate next month.
Ben is going to graduate next month.

164
 Appendix F

Suggested Themes of Songs and Rhymes in the Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline

Animals Interests and hobbies

Appearance Manners
Home appliances Money & prices
Clothing/Accessories Nation & languages
Colors Nature
Computers Neighborhood
Customs & lifestyles Numbers
Daily routines Occupations
Eating out Parts of the body
Environment & pollution School life
Families, family relationships & kinship terms Shapes, sizes & measurements
Famous or interesting people Shopping
Famous or interesting places Special events
Food & drinks Sports & exercises
Friends & personal relationship Study habits or plans
Gender equality Time, date, month, seasons & years
Health Transportation
Holidays & festivals Traveling
Houses & apartments Weather & climate
Human rights Science & technology

165
 Appendix G

The Interpretation of Competence Indicators of Songs and Rhymes in the

Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guideline

I. Language Abilities

Competence 1-1-10 Being able to aurally understand the major content of simple
indicator songs and rhymes.
Illustration Major meaning Example
1-1-10-1
Being able to aurally understand Play songs and rhymes repeatedly
the key words and phrases of and invite students to pay attention to
simple songs and rhymes. the key words and phrases.
1-1-10-2
Being able to aurally understand Discuss the content of songs and
the overall meaning of simple rhymes after having student listen to
songs and rhymes. the video.

Competence 1-2-1 Being able to aurally understand the rhythm, rimes and content of
indicator simple songs and rhymes.
Illustration Major meaning Example
1-2-1-1
Being able to realize the mood and Remind student of the intended
emotion conveyed from songs and mood of songs and rhymes.
rhymes (e.g. delightful, sorrowful,
or excited).
1-2-1-2
Being able to experience the speed Guide students to clap their hands
and strength of singing songs and rhythmically while listening to songs
rhymes. and rhymes.
1-2-1-3
Being able to aurally recognize the Have student find the riming words
rimes and riming words. while listening to songs and rhymes.
1-2-1-4
Being able to understand the major Ask student comprehensive
content. questions about the content of songs
and rhymes.

166
Competence 2-1-10 Being able to chant and sing songs and rhymes.
indicator
Illustration Major meaning Example
2-1-10-1
Being able to correctly repeat the Put the songs and rhymes posters on
acquired songs and rhymes. the black board, play the CD, and
(1) Being able to repeat the major have students read aloud accordingly.
vocabulary and sentences in the
songs and rhymes correctly.
(2) Being able to speak out the
major vocabulary and sentences in
the songs and rhymes correctly.
2-1-10-2
Being able to correctly read aloud, Have students chant or sing songs
chant and sing songs and rhymes. and rhymes chorally, individually or
(1) Being able to read aloud songs group them to compete with others.
and rhymes rhythmically.
(2) Being able to chant and sing
songs and rhymes melodically.

Competence 3-1-4 Being able to recognize the high frequency words in songs,
indicator rhymes and stories.
Illustration Major meaning Example
3-1-4-1
Being able to correctly recognize Put the songs and rhymes posters on
the high frequency words in songs, the black board, point and read aloud
rhymes and stories. the lyrics word by word to students.
3-1-4-2
Being able to read the high Lead students to read aloud those
frequency words in songs, rhymes high frequency words in songs and
and stories. rhymes.
3-1-4-3
Being able to understand the Review the learnt vocabulary.
meaning of high frequency words Explain the meaning of high
in songs, rhymes and stories. frequency words in songs and
rhymes.

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II. The Interests and Methods of Learning English

Competence 6-1-10 Eager to explore the meaning of and try to imitate daily life
indicator English.
Illustration Major meaning Example
6-1-10-2
Being able to sing along with and Play pop English songs clips, invite
explore the meaning of lyrics students to sing along with the clip,
while listening to English songs or and share their feelings about the
phrases of other pop songs. song.

Competence 6-1-12 Being able to participate in the activities aiming at promoting

indicator English abilities willingly.
Illustration Major meaning Example
6-1-12-3
Being able to willingly take part in Encourage students to perform songs
English competition or or rhymes on stage.
performance in or outside out Hold English songs singing
schools (songs and rhymes, poetry competition.
chanting, or drama etc.).

Competence 6-2-1 Being able to enjoy contacting with English movies, songs,
indicator broadcasts or books.
Illustration Major meaning Example
6-2-1-1
Being able to willingly read, listen Collect lists of English songs and
to, understand and appreciate the have students vote for their favorite
contents of English movies, songs, ones.
broadcasts or books recommended
by teachers.

6-2-1-2
Being able to actively search for Assign students to find out their
interesting English movies, songs, favorite song and try to introduce this
broadcasts or books, try to read try song to classmates.
to listen and understand and
appreciate their contents.

168
 6-2-1-3
Being able to share those English Encourage students to find out
movies, songs, broadcasts or English songs related to Halloweens
books with others willing. and share with others next class.

III. Cultures and Customs

Competence 7-1-4 Being able to understand foreign traditions, conventions, and

indicator customs.
Illustration Major meaning Example
7-1-4-1
Being able to understand those Have student to sing Ten Little
foreign traditions introduced from Witches during the coming of
classroom learning materials Halloween.
(festivals, life styles, food, and
songs and rhymes etc.).
7-1-4-2
Being able to get to know the Invite students to find out the
related English vocabulary and representative thing in Halloween
sentences of the aforementioned from the song Jack-O-Lantern.
foreign traditions.

169
 Appendix H

Taxonomy of Language Teaching Techniques

Types of Teaching
Teaching Techniques Definition
Techniques
Controlled Warm-up Mimes, dance, songs, jokes, play. This
Techniques activity gets the students stimulated, relaxed,
motivated, attentive, or otherwise engaged
and ready for the lesson. It does not
necessarily involve use of the target language.
Setting Focusing in on lesson topic. Teacher directs
attention to the topic by verbal or nonverbal
evocation of the context relevant to the lesson
by questioning or miming or picture
presentation, possibly by tape recording of
situations and people.
Organizational Structuring of lesson or class activities
includes disciplinary action, organization of
class furniture and seating, general procedures
for class interaction and performance,
structure and purpose of lesson, etc.
Content explanation Grammatical, phonological, lexical
(vocabulary), sociolinguistic, pragmatic, or
any other aspects of language.
Role-play Selected students or teacher illustrate the
demonstration procedure(s) to be applied in the lesson
segment to follow. Includes brief illustration
of language or other content to be
incorporated.
Dialogue/Narrative Reading or listening passage presented for
presentation passive reception. No implication of student
production or other identification of specific
target forms or functions (students may be
asked to “understand”).
Dialogue/Narrative Reciting a previously known or prepared text,
recitation either in unison or individually.
Reading aloud Reading directly from a given text.

170
Checking Teacher either circulating or guiding the
correction of students’ work, providing
feedback as an activity rather than within
another activity.
Question-answer, Activity involving prompting of student
display responses by means of display questions (i.e.,
teacher or questioner already knows the
response or has a very limited set of
expectations for the appropriate response).
Distinguished from referential questions by
the likelihood of the questioner’s knowledge
of the response and the speaker’s awareness
of that fact.
Drill Typical language activity involving fixed
patterns of teacher prompting and student
responding, usually with repetition,
substitution, and other mechanical alterations.
Typically with little meaning attached.
Translation Student or teacher provision of Ll or L2
translations of given text.
Dictation Student writing down orally presented text.
Copying Student writing down text presented visually.
Identification Student picking out and producing/labeling or
otherwise identifying a specific target form,
function, definition, or other lesson-related
item.
Recognition Student identifying forms, as in
Identification (i.e., checking off items,
drawing symbols, rearranging pictures), but
without a verbal response.
Review Teacher-led review of previous
week/month/or other period as a formal
summary and type of test of student recall
performance.
Testing Formal testing procedures to evaluate student
progress.
Meaningful drill Drill activity involving responses with
meaningful choices, as in reference to

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 different information. Distinguished from
Information exchange by the regulated
sequence and general form of responses.
Semicontrolled Brainstorming A form of preparation for the lesson, like
Techniques Setting, which involves free, undirected
contributions by the students and teacher on a
given topic, to generate multiple associations
without linking them; no explicit analysis or
interpretation by the teacher.
Storytelling Not necessarily lesson-based, a lengthy
(especially when presentation of story by teacher or student
student-generated) (may overlap with Warm-up or Narrative
recitation). May be used to maintain attention,
motivate, or as lengthy practice.
Question-answer, Activity involving prompting of responses by
referential means of referential questions (i.e., the
questioner does not know beforehand the
response information). Distinguished from
Question-answer, display.
Cued Student production of narrative or dialogue
narrative/Dialogue following cues from miming, cue cards,
pictures, or other stimuli related to
narrative/dialogue (e.g., metalanguage
requesting functional acts).
Information transfer Application from one mode (e.g., visual) to
another (e.g., writing), which involves some
transformation of the information (e.g.,
student fills out diagram while listening to
description). Distinguished from
Identification in that the student is expected
to transform and reinterpret the language or
information.
Information exchange Task involving two-way communication as in
information-gap exercises, when one or both
parties (or a larger group) must share
information to achieve some goal.
Distinguished from Question-answer,
referential in that sharing of information is

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 critical for the task.
Wrap-up Brief teacher- or student-produced summary
of point and/or items that have been practiced
or learned.
Narration/Exposition Presentation of a story or explanation derived
from prior stimuli. Distinguished from Cued
narrative because of lack of immediate
stimulus.
Preparation Student study, silent reading, pair planning
and rehearsing, preparing for later activity.
Usually a student-directed or oriented project.
Free Techniques Role play Relatively free acting out of specified roles
and functions. Distinguished from Cued
dialogues by the fact that cueing is provided
only minimally at the beginning, and not
during the activity.
Games Various kinds of language game activity not
like other previously defined activities (e.g.,
board and dice games making words)
Report Report of student-prepared exposition on
books, experiences, project work without
immediate, stimulus, and elaborated on
according to student interests. Akin to
Composition in writing mode.
Problem solving Activity involving specified problem and
limitations of means to resolve it; requires
cooperation on part of participants in small or
large group.
Drama Planned dramatic rendition of play, skit ,
story, etc.
Simulation Activity involving complex interaction
between groups and individuals based on
simulation of real-life actions and
experiences.
Interview A student is directed to get information from
another student or students.
Discussion Debate or other form of grouped discussion of
specified topic, with or without specified

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 sides/positions prearranged.
Composition As in Report (verbal), written development
of ideas, story, or other exposition.
A propos Conversation or other socially oriented
interaction/speech by teacher, students, or
even visitors, on general real-life topics.
Typically authentic and genuine.

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 Appendix I

Types of Repetition

Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
W 7a 3 5 6 1 4 26
6.42 b 3.85 6.41 7.69 1.64 7.55 5.69
Ph 4 6 9 6 0 2 27
3.67 7.69 11.54 7.69 0.00 3.77 5.91
S 33 22 24 31 20 15 145
30.28 28.21 30.77 39.74 32.79 28.30 31.73
P 4 6 5 1 3 9 28
3.67 7.69 6.41 1.28 4.92 16.98 6.13
W+Ph 0 0 2 5 0 1 8
0.00 0.00 2.56 6.41 0.00 1.89 1.75
W+S 14 7 10 9 10 1 51
12.84 8.97 12.82 11.54 16.39 1.89 11.16
W+P 2 2 0 2 1 1 8
1.83 2.56 0.00 2.56 1.64 1.89 1.75
Ph+S 2 3 1 7 2 7 22
1.83 3.85 1.28 8.97 3.28 13.21 4.81
Ph+P 3 1 1 1 1 2 9
2.75 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.64 3.77 1.97
S+P 17 9 0 1 8 6 41
15.60 11.54 0.00 1.28 13.11 11.32 8.97
W+Ph+S 2 0 0 0 1 0 3
1.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.64 0.00 0.66
W+Ph+P 0 0 0 0 2 0 2
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.28 0.00 0.44
W+S+P 3 1 2 0 6 2 14
2.75 1.28 2.56 0.00 9.84 3.77 3.06
Ph+S+P 2 0 0 0 2 0 4
1.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.28 0.00 0.88
W+Ph+S+P 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22
No repetition 15 18 19 9 4 3 68
13.76 23.08 24.36 11.54 6.56 5.66 14.88

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Total 109 78 78 78 61 53 457
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 136.963*** 67.821*** 73.026*** 101.949*** 75.607*** 44.585*** 699.726***
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage; W= Word; Ph= Phrase; S= Sentence; P= Paragraph
***p < .001.

176
 Appendix J

Distribution of Themes

Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
1 15 a 14 14 17 10 5 75
13.76 b 17.95 17.95 21.79 16.39 9.43 16.41
2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0.00 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22
3 0 1 1 1 1 1 5
0.00 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.64 1.89 1.09
4 0 2 2 1 1 1 7
0.00 2.56 2.56 1.28 1.64 1.89 1.53
5 2 1 3 1 1 1 9
1.83 1.28 3.85 1.28 1.64 1.89 1.97
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
8 7 5 0 1 4 0 17
6.42 6.41 0.00 1.28 6.56 0.00 3.72
9 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.64 0.00 0.22
10 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22
11 6 1 2 1 1 2 13
5.50 1.28 2.56 1.28 1.64 3.77 2.84
12 2 5 3 2 0 1 13
1.83 6.41 3.85 2.56 0.00 1.89 2.84
13 0 3 0 1 0 1 5
0.00 3.85 0.00 1.28 0.00 1.89 1.09
14 6 4 6 9 2 7 34
5.50 5.13 7.69 11.54 3.28 13.21 7.44
15 1 3 0 2 1 3 10
0.92 3.85 0.00 2.56 1.64 5.66 2.19
16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

177
17 0 0 0 2 1 0 3
0.00 0.00 0.00 2.56 1.64 0.00 0.66
18 7 7 9 7 9 3 42
6.42 8.97 11.54 8.97 14.75 5.66 9.19
19 6 1 2 1 1 0 11
5.50 1.28 2.56 1.28 1.64 0.00 2.41
20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
21 10 0 5 1 3 6 25
9.17 0.00 6.41 1.28 4.92 11.32 5.47
22 2 3 3 2 2 2 14
1.83 3.85 3.85 2.56 3.28 3.77 3.06
23 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.89 0.22
24 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.89 0.22
25 1 0 1 0 1 0 3
0.92 0.00 1.28 0.00 1.64 0.00 0.66
26 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
27 2 1 3 1 1 1 9
1.83 1.28 3.85 1.28 1.64 1.89 1.97
28 3 2 1 1 2 1 10
2.75 2.56 1.28 1.28 3.28 1.89 2.19
29 0 2 1 1 0 0 4
0.00 2.56 1.28 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.88
30 3 2 2 1 0 0 8
2.75 2.56 2.56 1.28 0.00 0.00 1.75
31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
32 1 2 0 2 2 0 7
0.92 2.56 0.00 2.56 3.28 0.00 1.53
33 2 3 0 2 1 1 9
1.83 3.85 0.00 2.56 1.64 1.89 1.97
34 1 0 5 2 6 0 14
0.92 0.00 6.41 2.56 9.84 0.00 3.06
35 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.64 0.00 0.22

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 36 11 4 2 6 2 6 31
10.09 5.13 2.56 7.69 3.28 11.32 6.78
37 2 0 2 4 1 1 10
1.83 0.00 2.56 5.13 1.64 1.89 2.19
38 3 2 0 2 1 0 8
2.75 2.56 0.00 2.56 1.64 0.00 1.75
39 0 1 2 2 0 1 6
0.00 1.28 2.56 2.56 0.00 1.89 1.31
40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
41 15 8 9 5 5 7 49
13.76 10.26 11.54 6.41 8.20 13.21 10.72
Total 109 78 78 78 61 53 457
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 87.872*** 62.923*** 59.846*** 110.308*** 62.361*** 39.321*** 626.759***
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage; 1= Animals; 2= Appearance; 3= Home appliances;
4= Clothing/Accessories; 5= Colors; 6= Computers; 7= Customs and lifestyles; 8=
Daily routines; 9= Eating out; 10= Environment and pollution; 11= Families, family
relationships and kinship terms; 12= Famous or interesting people; 13= Famous or
interesting places; 14= Food and drinks;15= Friends and personal relationship; 16=
Gender equality; 17= Health; 18= Holidays and festivals; 19= Houses and apartments;
20= Human rights; 21= Interests and hobbies; 22= Manners; 23= Money and prices;
24= Nation and languages; 25= Nature; 26= Neighborhood; 27= Numbers; 28=
Occupations; 29= Parts of the body; 30= School life; 31= Shapes, sizes and
measurements; 32= Shopping; 33= Special events; 34= Sports and exercises; 35=
Study habits or plans; 36= Time, date, month, seasons and years; 37= Transportation;
38= Traveling; 39= Weather and climate; 40= Science and technology; 41= Others
***p < .001.

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 Appendix K

Aspects of Instructional Purposes of Songs and Rhymes

Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
Linguistic elements
Phonemic awareness 8a 8 6 8 8 0 38
b
10.00 10.00 16.67 16.67 16.67 0.00 12.34
Intonation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Word recognition 8 8 0 0 0 0 16
10.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.19
Sentence pattern 8 8 0 0 0 0 16
10.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.19
Sub-total 24 24 6 8 8 0 70
30.00 30.00 16.67 16.67 16.67 0.00 22.73
Language skills
Listening 0 8 0 8 0 0 16
0.00 10.00 0.00 16.67 0.00 0.00 5.19
Speaking 8 8 0 8 8 0 32
10.00 10.00 0.00 16.67 16.67 0.00 10.39
Reading 8 8 8 0 0 0 24
10.00 10.00 22.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.79
Writing 0 8 0 0 0 0 8
0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.60
Sub-total 16 32 8 16 8 0 80
20.00 40.00 22.22 33.33 16.67 0.00 25.97
Affective aspects
Learning interest 8 8 8 8 8 0 40
10.00 10.00 22.22 16.67 16.67 0.00 12.99
Learning motivation 8 0 0 8 0 8 24
10.00 0.00 0.00 16.67 0.00 50.00 7.79
Sub-total 16 8 8 16 8 8 64
20.00 10.00 22.22 33.33 16.67 50.00 20.78
Cultural aspects
Cultural difference 8 0 0 0 0 0 8
10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.60

180
 Foreign cultures 8 8 0 0 0 8 24
10.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 50.00 7.79
Sub-total 16 8 0 0 0 8 32
20.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 50.00 10.39
Others
Repetitive practice 8 0 6 0 0 0 14
10.00 0.00 16.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.55
Mnemonic ability 0 8 0 0 8 0 16
0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 16.67 0.00 5.19
Time filler 0 0 0 0 8 0 8
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 16.67 0.00 2.60
Song singing 0 0 8 8 8 0 24
0.00 0.00 22.22 16.67 16.67 0.00 7.79
Sub-total 8 8 14 8 24 0 62
10.00 10.00 38.89 16.67 50.00 0.00 20.13
Total 80 80 36 48 48 16 308
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square .000 .000 .667 .000 .000 .000 71.091***
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage
***p < .001.

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 Appendix L

Distribution of Instructional Objectivities

Textbooks
A B C D E F Total
Category
1-1-10-1 80 a 15 69 22 46 40 272
11.5 b 4.56 15.20 7.86 16.20 15.63 11.69
1-1-10-2 18 27 0 0 3 3 51
2.49 8.21 0.00 0.00 1.06 1.17 2.19
1-2-1-1 0 0 1 0 7 0 8
0.00 0.00 0.22 0.00 2.46 0.00 0.34
1-2-1-2 89 15 24 28 7 25 188
12.29 4.56 5.29 10.00 2.46 9.77 8.08
1-2-1-3 0 0 8 0 2 0 10
0.00 0.00 1.76 0.00 0.70 0.00 0.43
1-2-1-4 24 36 72 9 35 37 213
3.31 10.94 15.86 3.21 12.32 14.45 9.15
2-1-10-1 105 77 58 43 46 27 356
14.50 23.40 12.78 15.36 16.20 10.55 15.30
2-1-10-2 86 64 61 74 35 46 366
11.88 19.45 13.44 26.43 12.32 17.97 15.73
3-1-4-1 108 28 59 29 31 23 278
14.92 8.51 13.00 10.36 10.92 8.98 11.95
3-1-4-2 106 24 45 47 27 27 276
14.64 7.29 9.91 16.79 9.51 10.55 11.86
3-1-4-3 108 43 55 28 40 28 302
14.92 13.07 12.11 10.00 14.08 10.94 12.98
6-1-10-2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
6-1-12-3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
6-2-1-1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.00 0.04
6-2-1-2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
6-2-1-3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

182
7-1-4-1 0 0 1 0 2 0 3
0.00 0.00 0.22 0.00 0.70 0.00 0.13
7-1-4-2 0 0 1 0 2 0 3
0.00 0.00 0.22 0.00 0.70 0.00 0.13
Total 724 329 454 280 284 256 2327
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Chi-square 123.865*** 100.729*** 238.617*** 77.371*** 213.493*** 42.477*** 1660.846***
Note. a= frequency; b= percentage; 1-1-10-1= Being able to aurally understand the key
words and phrases of simple songs and rhymes; 1-1-10-2= Being able to aurally
understand the overall meaning of simple songs and rhymes; 1-2-1-1= Being able to
realize the mood and emotion conveyed from songs and rhymes;1-2-1-2= Being able
to experience the speed and strength of singing songs and rhymes; 1-2-1-3= Being
able to aurally recognize the rimes and riming words; 1-2-1-4= Being able to
understand the major content; 2-1-10-1= Being able to correctly repeat the acquired
songs and rhymes; 2-1-10-2= Being able to correctly read aloud, chant and sing songs
and rhymes; 3-1-4-1= Being able to correctly recognize the high frequency words in
songs, rhymes and stories; 3-1-4-2= Being able to read the high frequency words in
songs, rhymes and stories; 3-1-4-3= Being able to understand the meaning of high
frequency words in songs, rhymes and stories; 6-1-10-2= Being able to sing along
with and explore the meaning of lyrics while listening to English songs or phrases of
other pop songs; 6-1-12-3= Being able to willingly take part in English competition or
performance in or outside out schools; 6-2-1-1= Being able to willingly read, listen to,
understand and appreciate the contents of English movies, songs, broadcasts or books
recommended by teachers; 6-2-1-2= Being able to actively search for interesting
English movies, songs, broadcasts or books, try to read try to listen and understand
and appreciate their contents; 6-2-1-3=Being able to share those English movies,
songs, broadcasts or books with others willing; 7-1-4-1= Being able to understand
those foreign traditions introduced from classroom learning materials; 7-1-4-2=
Being able to get to know the related English vocabulary and sentences of the above
mentioned foreign traditions.
***p < .001.

183