Constituent Materials of Concrete by Nick Gromicko and Kenton Shepard Concrete is a composite material consisting of a binder, which is typically cement, rough and fine aggregates, which are usually stone and sand, and water. These comprise the constituent materials of concrete. But because of the many variables of the raw materials and how they are processed and combined, there are many opportunities for problems to appear in concrete. Having a fundamental understanding of the different materials and manufacturing processes may help those who inspect concrete to know what problems to look for, where to look for them, and how to recognize them, In simple terms: © cement + wate! cement paste; ‘* cement paste + sand = mortar; and ‘* mortar + stone = concrete. Admixtures may be included in the mix to control setting properties. The chemical reactions that take place when different constituent materials are combined can vary depending on the properties of the individual materials. The materials can vary in their chemical makeup and performance characteristics, depending on where they were mined or quarried, and according to the manufacturing methods used and conditions in the manufacturing plant, Binders Binders are fine, granular materials that form a paste when water is added to them. This paste hardens and encapsulates aggregates and reinforcement steel. Immediately after water is added, cement paste begins to harden through a chemical process called hydration. Hydration takes place at different rates according to the different properties of the binders and admixtures used, the water-to-cement ratio, and the environmental conditions under which the concrete is placed. The ways in which binders affect concrete, mortar and similar products can vary with the chemical and physical properties of the source materials, the constituent materials, the mix design, and, toa lesser extent, the variations in the cement manufacturing process. Portland CementPortland cement There are different types of cement, but Portland cement is the binder used most widely. Although Portland cement is named after an area in England where its use was originated, today it is manufactured all over the world, ASTM International defines Portland cement as “hydraulic cement (cement that forms a water-resistant product) produced by pulverizing clinkers consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an inter-ground addition.” Portland cement is made by fusing calcium-bearing materials with aluminum-bearing materials. The calcium may come from limestone, shells, chalk, or marl, which is a soft stone, or hard mud, sometimes called mudstone, that is rich in lime. ‘The Cement Manufacturing Process The basic operations of cement plants are roughly similar but may vary according to location, The manufacturing process that follows describes what takes place in a quarry and cement plant in Colorado.Alimestone layer about 18 feet thick breaks the surface and slants away underground. Quarrying operations follow it down to a level of about 200 feet before it is no longer profitable to pursue. The dark-colored rock pictured above contains limestone and two kinds of shale, all of which are used in producing cement. The light-colored material is called over-burden, which is not used in manufacturing, but is set aside to be replaced later during reclamation after the quarry has reached the end of its permit period and is closed. The flat area in the quarty wall, called the lift or bench, is the depth to which holes are drilled before charges are set for blasting. Here, it is about 80 feet. Because of Homeland Security requirements, most quarries subcontract the blasting operations. After blasting, the waste stone is brought to the end of the quarry where quarrying first began. It will be the first material to be filled back in as part of the reclamation process. Usable stone is hauled by truck and either dumped into the primary crusher or piled nearby.