Ou EDITION Calculus and Analytic Geometry George B. Thomas, Jr. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Ross L. Finney With the collaboration of Maurice D. Weir Naval Postgraduate School Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Reading, Massachusets + Menlo Park Calfomia > — New York DonMils, Ontario. * Wokingham, England = Amsterdam Bonn + Sydney © Singapore Tokyo + Maid Sanjuan + Milan + PasAcquisitions Editor Development Editor ‘Managing Editor Senior Production Supervisor Senior Marketing Manager ‘Marketing Coordinator Prepress Buying Manager Art Buyer Senior Manufacturing Manager ‘Manufacturing Coordinator = e World Student Series Laurie Rosatone Production Editorial Services Barbara Pendergast Marianne Lepp Art Editors Susan London-Payne, Connie Hulse Karen Guardino Copy Editor ‘Barbara Flanagan Jennifer Bagdigian Proofreader Joyce Grandy Andrew Fisher Text Design Martha Podren, Podren Design; Benjamin Rivera Geri Davis, Quadrata, Ine ‘Sarah MeCracken Cover Design Marshall Hearichs Joseph Vetere Cover Photo John Lund Tony Stone Worldwide Roy Logan Composition ‘TSI Graphics, In. Evelyn Beaton Technical Ilustration Tech Graphics Photo Credits: 142, 238, 408, 633, 722, 875, 899, From PSSC Physics 2, 1965; D.C. Heath & Co. with Education Development Center, Inc., Newton, MA. Reprinted with permission 186, APYWide World Photos 266, Scott A. Burns, Urbana, IL 287, Joshua E. Bares, Univer- sity of Hawaii 354, Marshall Henrichs 398, © Richard F.Voss/IBM Research 442, © Susan Van Eten 872, AP/Wide World Photos 888, © 1994 Nelson L. Max, University of Califor: niafBiological Photo Service; Graphic by Alfted Gray 938, ND Roger-Viollet 1068, [NASAJJt Propulsion Laboratory Reprinted with corrections, une, 1998 Copyright © 1996 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.All rights reserved. No ‘art ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted, inany form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, or otherwise, Without the prior writen permission ofthe publisher. Printed inthe United States of| America 456789 10-VH.99 98 ISBN 0-201-40015-4Contents Tothe Instructor vil Tothe Student >i Preliminaries Real Numbers andthe Real Line 1 Coordinates, Lines, and Increments 8 Functions "17 Shifing Graphs 27 ‘rigonometrc Functions 35 QUESTIONS TOGUIDE YOURREVIEW 47 PRACTICE EXERCISES 48, ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 49) Limits and 4.1 Rates of Change and Limits SI nui 12 Rules forFinding Limits 61 Continuity 413 Target Values and Formal Definitions of Limits 66 14 Extensions ofthe Limit Concept 78 15 Continuity 87 1.6 Tangent Lines 97 (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YoURREVIEW I03__PRACTICE EXERCISES 104 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 108 Derivatives 2.1 The Derivative of a Function 109 22 Differentiation Rules 121 23 RatesofChange 131 24 Derivatives of Tigonometsic Functions 143 25° TheChain Rule 154 2.6 Implicit Ditferemiation and Rational Exponents 164 27 — Related Rates of Change 172 QUESTIONS To GUIDE YOURREVIEW 180__PRACTICE EXERCISES 181 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 185 Applications of 3:4 ome Values of Functions 189 Derivatives 32 TheMean Value Theorem 196 3.3 TheFint Derivative Test for Local Exteme Vales 205iv Contents 34 35 37 38 Graphing with y’and y” 209 Limits x >=, Asympiotes,and Dominant Terms 220 Optimization 233, Linearization and Different Newton's Method 260 (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 268 PRACTICE EXERCISES 269 [ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 272 Is 248 Integration 44 Applications of 51 Integrals 52 Indefinite Integrals 275 Differential Equations, nital Value Problems, and Mathematical Modeling 282 Integration by Substitution—Running the Chain Rule Backward 290 Estimating with Finite Sums 298 Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals 309 Propentes, Area, and the Mean Value Theorem 323 ‘The Fundamental Theorem 332 Substitution in Definite Integrals 342 Numerical Invgration 346 (QUESTIONS TOGUIDE YOUR REVIEW 356 __PRACTICEEXERCISES 357 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—TMEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 360 Areas Between Curves 365 Finding Volumes by Slicing 374 Volumes of Solids of Revolotion—Disks and Washers 379, Cylindrical Shells 387 Lengths ofPlane Curves 393, ‘Areas of Surfaces of Revolution 400 ‘Moments and Centers of Mass 407 Work 418 Fluid Pressures and Forces 427 ‘The Basie Patter and Other Modeling Applicasons 434 (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 444 PRACTICE EXERCISES 444 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 447 Transcendental 61 Functions 62 Inverse Functions and Theit Derivatives 449 Natural Logarithms — 458 ‘The Exponential Function 467 and logex 474 Growth and Decay 482 LHopita’sRule 491 Relative Rates of Growth 498, Inverse Trigonometric Functions 04 Derivatives of Inverse Tigonometic Functions; Integrals 513, Hyperbolic Functions 520 First Onder Differential Equations $29 Euler's Numerical Method: Slope Fields S41 QUESTIONS TOGUIDE YOUR REVIEW S47___PRACTICE EXERCISES S48, ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS SSI Techniques of 7 Integration 72 Basic Integration Formulas 555, Inegration by Pans 5362Infinite Series Conic Sections, Parametrized Curves, and Polar Coordinates Vectors and Analytic Geometry in Space Vector-Valued Functions and Motion in Space 101 10.2 103 104 105 106 10.7 a na 3 na ns Contents Partial Fractions 569 ‘Trigonomettc Substitutions 578 Integral Tables and CAS 583 Improper Integrals 594 (QUESTIONS 10 GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 605 PRACTICE EXERCISES 605 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 69, Limits of Sequences of Numbers 613 ‘Theorems for Calculating Limits of Sequences 622 Infinite Series 630 ‘The Integral Tet for Series of Nonnegative Terms 640 Comparison Tess for Series of Nonnegative Terms G44 ‘The Ratio and Root Tess for Series of Nonnegative Terms 639 Alterating Series, Absolute and Conditional Convergence 655 Power Series 663 ‘Taylor and Maclaurin Series 672 Convergence of Taylor Series; Err Estimates 678 Applications of Power Series 688. (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 699 PRACTICE EXERCISES 700 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 703, Conic Sections and Quadratic Equations 709 Classifying Conic Sections by Eccentricity 723 Quadratic Equations and Rotations 728 Parametrizatons of Plane Curves 734 Calculus with Parametrized Curves 744 Polar Coordinates 751 Graphing in Polar Coordinates 756 Polar Equations for Cnie Sections 764 Iniegration in Polar Coordinates 770 (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW T77__-PRACTICE EXERCISES 78, ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 783, Vectors inthe Plane 787 ‘Cartesian (Rectangular) Coordinates and Vectors in Space 795 Dot Products 806 Cross Products 815, Lines and Planes in Space 822 Cylinders and Quadri Surfaces 829 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 841 (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 47 PRACTICE EXERCISES 848 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 851 \ector-Valued Functions and Space Curves 855 Modeling Projectile Motion 868 ‘Are Length and the Unit Tangent Vector T 876 ‘Curvature, Torsion, and the TNB Frame 881 Planetary Motion and Satellites 893, (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 902 PRACTICE BXERCISES 902 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 905 vvi Contents Multivariable 12.1 Functions of Several Variables 909 Functions and 122 Limitsand Continity 917 123 Paria Derivatives 924 Partial Derivatives — 12:4 itfeeniabiliy,Linaiaton, and Difeentials 933 125 TheChain Rule 948 426 Parl Devvatives with Constrained Variables 952 127 Directional Derivatives, Gradient Vectors, nd Tangent Planes 957 128 Extreme Values and Saddle Points 970 329° Lagrange Muipliers 980 1210 Taylor's Formula 989 ‘QuESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 958 PRACTICE EXERCISES 994 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 98 Multiple Integrals 131 Doubletmegrls 1001 482 Areas Momenis,and Centers of Mass 1012 433 DoublntgrasinPolarForm 1020 334 Tipe lnepralsin Rectangular Coordinates 1026 435 Massesand Momentsin Tree Dinensions 1034 436 Triple inepralsin Cylindrical nd Spherical Coordinates 1039 437 Substitution in Malipl Inegrals 1048 (QuesmiossToGuine Your RevIEW 1055 PRACTICEENERCISES 1056 ‘Soomowat ExeRCists “THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 1058 Integration in 1441 Linetnegrals 1061 Vector Fiel 442 Vector Fields, Work Cirultion and Fox 1067 rect Fields 143, Path Independence, Potential Functions, and Conservative Fields 1076 444 Green's Theorem inthe Plane 1084 445 Sorace Area and Surface Integrals 1096 445 Parnmetied Surfaces 1106 447 Stokes Theorem 1114 448 The Divergence Theorem anda Unified Theory 1123 ‘Quesmions 10 Gumpe Your Review 1134 PracticeEXERGISES 1134. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES —THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 137 Appendices AA Mathematical Induction A-1 82 Proofsof Limi Theorems in Section 12 At ‘3° Complex Numbers A-7 AA Simpson's One-‘Thint Role A-17 AS Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem andthe Songer Form of 'Hopita's Rule 18 AS Limite Tha Arse Fequendy 4-20 A The Distributive Law for Vector Cross Products A-2L ‘AB Deverminans and Cramer's Rule A-22 ‘AQ Euler's Theorem andthe Increment Theorem A-29 Answers A385, Index 61 A Brief Table of integrals 1CAS Explorations and Projects (Listed by chapter and section) Preliminaries P4 How the graph of y= (axis affected by changing a PS How the graph of fx)=A sin (2n/B\x~C)) + D responds to changes in A, B, and D Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity 1.1 Comparing graphical estimates of limits with CAS symbolic limit caleulations 1.3. Exploring the formal definition of li for pectic epsilons graphically 1.6 Observing the convergence of secant ins to tangent lines Chapter 2 Derivatives 21 Givens) finds) asa limit. Compare the graphs off and f” and plot selected tangents 26 Differentiate implicitly and pot implicit curves together with angent fines Chapter 3 Applications of Derivatives 3.1 Finding avout extrema by analyzing anf” rumerialy and praphically 3.7 __ Estimating the error in a linearization by plotting f(x), 149), and 7G) LO) Chapter 4 Integration 44 Find he average vale of sand the point or points were itis assumed 45° Exploring Riemann sums an thi mits 47a) Investigating the reltnshp of Fu) = [3/19 ato F(x) and f(x) 1) Analyzing F0 = [ode Chapter 5 Application of Integrals 5.1 Finding imersectons of cures 55 Atelength estimates Chapter 6 — Transcendental Functions 6.1. ping invene function nd ter devatves 6.12 Exploring differential equations gphically and mamer- caly with slope fils and Esler approximations Chapter? Techniques of integration 75 Using CAS o iterate, An example of aCAS-esitant it by finding deltas integra 7.6 Exploring the convergence of improper integrals, Chapter 8 Infinite Series 8.1 Exploring the convergence of sequences. Compound interest with deposits and withdrawals. The logistic ditference equation and chaotic behavior 85 Exploring Tz (IMn"sin*n)) a series whose conver gence or divergence has not yet been determined 8.10 Comparing functions’ liner, quadratic, and cubic approximations Chapter 9 Conic Sections, Parametrized Curves, and Polar Coordinates 35 Exploring the geometry of curves that are defined implc- ily o explicitly by parametric equations. Numerical estimate ofthe lengths of nonelementary paths 9.8 How the graph of r= kel +e cos 8 is affected by changes ine and k How the ellipse r= a(1 ~e*)(1 +2608 8) responds to changes ina and e Chapter 10 Vectors and Analytic Geometry in Space 10.6 Viewing quaric surfaces from different positions 10.7 Equations of spheres in cylindrical, spherical, and reetan ‘ular coordinate systems: Coordinate conversions and surface plo Chapter 11. Vector-Valued Functions and Motion in Space 11.1 Plotting tangents to space curves. Exploring the general hetix 11.4 Finding and ploting circles of curvature inthe plane. Finding x, T, N, and B for curves in space Chapter 12 Multivariable Functions and Partial Derivatives 12.1 Ploting surfaces <= (x, ) and associated level cures. Inplicit and parametrized surtaces 12.8 —Chssfyng critical points and identifying extreme valves Using information gathered from surface pots, lvel curves and discriminant values 12.9 Implementing the method of Lagrange multipliers for functions of thee and four independent variables Chapter 13 Multiple Integrals 133° Changing Cartesian integrals into equivalent polar integrals for evaluation 134 Evaluating tiple integrals over slid regions Chapter 14 _ Integration in Vector Fields 14.1) valuing fof» 2)ds numerically 14.2 Exiting the work done by a vectored slong a given path inspace 14.4 ‘Applying Green's theorem o find counterclockwise circulationTo the Instructor This Is a Major Revision ‘Throughout the 40 years that it has been in print, Thomas/Finney has been used to support a variety of teaching methods from traditional to experimental. In response tothe many exciting currents in teaching calculus inthe 1990s, the new edition is the most extensive revision of Thomas/Finney ever. We have built on the traditional strengths of the book—excellent exercises, sound mathematics, variety in applica- tions—to produce a flexible text that contains all the elements needed to teach the ‘many different kinds of courses that exist today. ‘A book does not make a course: The instructor and the students do. With this in ‘mind we have added features to Thomas/Finney 9th edition to make it the most flex- ‘ible caleulus teaching resource yet. ‘The exercises have been reorganized to facilitate assigning a subset of the ‘material ina section The grapher explorations, all accessible with any graphing calculator, many suitable for in-class and group work, have been expanded, New Computer Algebra System (CAS) explorations and projects that re- 4uire a CAS have been included. Some of these can be done quickly while others require several hours. All are suitable for either individual or group ‘work, You will find a list of CAS exercise topics following the Table of Contents ‘+ Technology Connection notes appear throughout the text suggesting exper ‘ments students might do with a grapher to supplement their understanding of a given topic. These notes are meant to encourage students to think of their grapher asa casually available tool, like a pencil ‘© We revised the entire frst semester and large pars of the second and third ‘semesters to provide what we believe is a cleaner, more visual, and more ac- cessible book. ‘With all these changes, we have not compromised our belief thatthe fundamental goal of a calculus book is to prepare students to enter the scientific community. Students Will Find Even More Support for Creative Problem Solving ‘Throughout this book, we have included examples and discussions that encourage students to think visually and numerically. Almost every exercise set has easy t052, Recovering 3 faneon rm its dete 2) ete flowing oman 1 gape cn fe ‘ee ical (28) 1 The gph of ft de fl espe ied 1 Tae gop a he pit 2.9, i) The See fit ep noe aig 21 218 Th deviate graph for tees 2 1) Regn pa asi te ph st (2.0) Tothe Instructor ix Technology Tat Ves You can experinent with gt vals 06 3 aphing uly. Graph he unton gether wih target ital sine ty Inia ies above and bow te proposed ii. Adjust te range or we ‘nom veil tbe fans behavior asic the tage nr lee. Then ‘ete what happens when Ju ty to Bid an tera of t-vaues that wil cp the fncion rates within the ere nena See ao Execs 7-14 CAS Execs 61-63) For exami, his for fl) = VTF~Zand tne tata (1.822) nthe ans That, pap j= fe) athe ns y= L895 = 22. Then {the ret terial (198, 2.02) a (1.998, 2000), mid-level exercises that require students to generate and interpret graphs 28 4 (00! for understanding mathematical ot real-world relationships Many sections also contain a few more challenging problems to extend the range ofthe mathematically curious. ‘This edition has more than 2300 figures fo appeal tothe studens* seometric inition. Drawing lessons aid students with difcule 3- dimensional sketches, enhancing thee ability to think in space In this edition we have increased the use of visualization internal tthe disus- sion, The burden of exposition is shared by art in the body of the text when we fel that pictures and text together will convey ideas better than words alone Throughout the text, students are asked to experiment, investigate, and explain, Writing exercises are placed throughout the text. In ad tion, ach chapter end contains ist of questions that sk students tor view and summarize what they have leaned. Many ofthese exercises ‘make good writing assignments 149 tad thes tance ine Students Will Master Techniques Problem Solving Strategies We believe thatthe students learn best when proce- ural techniques ae laid out as clearly as possible. To this end we have revisited the summaries ofthe steps used to solve problems, adding some where necessary, delet- ing some where a thought process rather than a technique was at issue, and making ‘each one cleat and useful. As always, we are especially careful that examples in the text follow the steps outlined by the discussion, Exercises Every exercise set has been reviewed and revised. Exercises are now {grouped by topic, with special sections for grapher explorations. Many sections also,x To the Instructor have a set of Computer Algebra System (CAS) Explorations and Projects, a new fea- tute for this edition, Within each group, the exercises are graded and paired. Within this framework, the exercises generally follow the order of presentation of the text. Exercises that requite a calculator or computer are identified by icons: calcu- lator exercise, 88 graphing utility (such as graphing calculator) exercise, and @Com- puter Algebra System exercise Hidden Bohovor Sonctines ting fc wil age ea ere ear ere others ig! pre Checklist for Graphing a Function y = fi) 1 Lak for sme 2 tate fncton ashi of «hon faction? Analyze dina ens. Divide aoa! uncos ino polyoma + remaige. 4. Check for asymp and vemmable dscotnules, Ts thoes 2eo denominator aay pit? What hoppers t= 0? Compute fan solve f= 0. Keni el pois ard eerie Intals f ie a Compute" odeemineconciviyandinfleton points Sketch he gaps pene shape Evan fa special values endpoint, ra points, itcep) Graph wing dominant ems, peel shape, and special pois for Within the exercise sets, we have practice exercises, exercises that encourage critical thinking, more challenging exercises (in subsections marked “Applications and Theory”), and exercises that require writing in English about concepts. Writing, exercises are placed both throughout the exercise sets, and in an end-of-chapter fea ture called “Questions to Guide Your Revies Chapter End At the end of each chapter are three features with questions that summarize the chapter in different ways Questions to Guide Your Review ask students to think about concepts and ver- balize their understanding without trying to calculate numeric answers. These are, as always, suitable for writing exercises. Practice Exercises provide a review of the techniques, ideas, and key applica- tions. Additional Exercises—Theory, Examples, Applications supply challenging ap- plications and theoretic problems that deepen the understanding of mathemati- eal ideas. Applications, Technology, Bring Calculus to Life Applications and Examples Ithas been ahellmark ofthis book through the years that weillastrate applications of calculus with real data based on sleady Faia it uations ot situations students are likely to encounter soon. Throughout the text, we cite sources forthe data andor antics from which the application ae dawn, help- ing students understand that calculi curent, dynam fed, Most ofthese app istory—Features Thatirr A tosesaipcment To fd te vlan of wae ie ced by 2 sben smo pie pao the ‘tonne 0 ber of eng mee the et ‘Snare AG) of he tee orion he al tach farce pe thn we Spon le ena hee Fea none arr cane le ‘Spin pt rece fre rating oop Mean ‘Sown tore Te comon sua! eg (mee Baneet nme aoa) ih'= 256 8 tat? 17 hse ie Tothe Instructor xi cations are directed toward science and engineering, but there are many from biology and the social sciences as well. ‘Technology: Graphing Calculator and Computer Algebra Sys- tems Explorations Viriually every section ofthe text contains cal- ‘culator exercises that explore numerical patterns and/or graphing calculator exercises that ask students to generate and interpret ‘graphs as a tool to understanding mathematical and real-world rela- tionships. Many of the calculator and graphing calculator exercises are suitable fr classroom demonstration or for group work by stu- dents in or out of class. Computer Algebra System (CAS) exercises have been added 0 every chapter. These exercises, 160 in all, have been tested on both Mathematica and Maple. A full lst of CAS exercise topics follows the Table of Contents. ‘As in previous editions, sec'x has been defined so that range,(0, 2/2) U (2, n), and derivative, Lite V? 1), agree with, the results returned by Computer Algebra Systems and scientific cal- culators. [Notes appear throughout the text encouraging students fo ex- plore with graphers. 2) ite Pps Splice voli the at Stain | Sumer aren) History Any student is enriched by seeing the human side of ‘mathematics. As in earlier editions, we feature history boxes that de- scribe the origins of ideas, conflicts concerning ownership of ideas, and interesting sidelights into popular topics such as fractals and chaos. 2) The gee in he ute ae fr tea, ich igh (lig ow ay nds of a ner Ppe bce (Dupacenen gen pao alo a ‘in ego = 20 or are veel) The Many Faces of This Book Mathematics Is a Formal and Beautiful Language A good part of the beauty ofthe calculus lies inthe fact that iti a stunning cre- ation ofthe human mind. As in previous editions we have been care- ful o say only what is true and mathematically sound, In this edition we reviewed ‘every definition, theorem, corollary, and proof for clarity and mathematical correct- Even Better Suited to Be the Reference Text in a Reform Course Whether cal- culus is taught by a traditional lecture or entirely in labs with individual and group learning which focuses on numeric and graphical experimentation, ideas and tech- niques need to be articulated clearly, This book provides the exercises for computer and grapher experiments and group learning and, ina traditional format, the summa- tion ofthe Iesson—the formal statement of the mathematics and the clear presenta- tion of the technique. ‘Students Will Learn from This Book for Many Years to Come We provide far ‘more material than any one instructor would want to teach. We do ths intentionally. ‘Students can continue to learn calculus from this book long after the class has ended. It provides an accessible review of the calculus a student has already studied. It is a resource for the working engineer or scientist.xl To the Instructor Content Features of the Ninth EcTothe Instructor xiii Supplements for the Instructor OmniTest? in DOS-Based Format: This easy-to-use software is developed ex- clusively for Addison-Wesley by ips Publishing, a leader in computerized testing and assessment. Among its features are the following. ‘+ DOS interface is easy to learn and operate. The windows look-alike inter- face makes it easy to choose and control the items as well asthe format for each test ‘+ You can easily create make-up exams, customized homework assign- ‘ments, and multiple test forms to prevent plagiarism. OmniTest’ isxiv To the Instructor ng the program can automatically insert new num- bers into the same equation—creating hundreds of variations of that equa tion. The numbers are constrained to keep answers reasonable. This allows {you to create a virtually endless supply of parallel versions of the same test, ‘This new version of OmniTest also allows you to “lock in” the values shown in the model problem, if you wish. ‘© Test items are keyed by section to the text. Within the section, you can se- leet questions that test individual objectives from that section. ‘© You can enter your own questions by way of OmniTest™s sophisticated ‘editor—complete with mathematical notation. Instructor's Solutions Manual _ by Maurice D. Weir (Naval Postgraduate School) ‘This two-volume supplement contains the worked-out solutions for all the exercises inthe text. Answer Book contains short answers to most exercises in the text. Supplements for the Instructor and Student ‘Student Study Guide by Maurice D. Weir (Naval Postgraduate School). Orga- nized to correspond with the text, this workbook in a semiprogrammed format in- creases student proficiency with study tips and additional practice. Student Solutions Manual by Maurice D. Weir (Naval Postgraduate School) ‘This manual is designed for the student and contains carefully worked-out solutions toll of the odd-numbered exercises inthe text. Differential Equations Primer A short, supplementary manual containing ap- ‘proximately @ chapter’s-worth of material. Available should the instructor choose 10 ‘cover this material within the calculus sequence. Technology-Related Supplements Analyzer” This program is a tool for exploring functions in calculus and many other discipline. It can graph a function of a single variable and overlay graphs of, other functions. It can differentiate, integrate, or iterate a function. It can find roots, ‘maxima and minima, and inflection points, as well as vertical asymptotes. In addi- tion, Analyzer* can compose functions, graph polar and parametric equations, make “sauilines Sr-erceydnako roimated.roayueices. with changing,narameters. IeX- ploits the unique flexibility ofthe Macintosh wherever possible, allowing input to be either numeric (from the keyboard) or graphic (with a mouse). Analyzer” runs on ‘Macintosh Il, Plus, or better. ‘The Calculus Explorer Consisting of 27 programs ranging from functions to vee- ‘or fields, this software enables the instructor and student to use the computer as an “electronic chalkboard.” The Explorer is highly interactive and allows for manipula- tion of variables and equations to provide graphical visualization of mathematical relationships that are not intuitively obvious. The Explorer provides user-friendly ‘operation through an easy-to-use menu-driven system, extensive on-line documenta- tion, superior graphics capability, and fast operation. An accompanying manualTothe Instructor xv cludes sections covering each program, with appropriate examples and exercises. Available for IBM PC/compatibles. InSight A calculus demonstration software program that enhances understanding of calculus concepts graphically. The program consists of ten simulations. Each pre- sents an application and takes the user through the solution visually. The format is interactive. Available for IBM PC/compatibes. Laboratories for Calculus I Using Mathematica By Margaret Hoft, The Univer- sity of Michigan-Dearborn. An inexpensive collection of Mathematica lab experi- ‘ments consisting of material usually covered in the first term of the calculus se~ uence. Math Explorations Series Each manual provides problems and explorations in calculus. Intended for self-paced and laboratory settings, these books are an excel- Tent complement othe text. Exploring Calculus with a Graphing Calculator, Second Edition, by Char- lene E. Beckmann and Ted Sundstrom of Grand Valley State University. Exploring Calculus with Mathematica, by James K. Finch and Millianne Lehmann of the University of San Francisco. Exploring Calculus with Derive, by David C. Amey of the United States Mili- tary Academy at West Point Exploring Caleulus with Maple, by Mark H. Holmes, Joseph G. Ecker, William E. Boyce, and William L. Seigmann of Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst- tute, Exploring Caleulus with Analyzer*, by Richard E, Sours of Wilkes Univer- sity Exploring Calculus with the IBM PC Version 2.0, by John B. Fraleigh and Lewis I Pakula of the University of Rhode Island.xvi Tothe nstructor Acknowledgments ‘We would like to express our thanks forthe many valuable coati- butions ofthe people who reviewed this book as it developed through its various stages: Manuscript Reviewers Erol Barbu, University of Idaho Neil. Berge, University of linois at Chicago George Bradley, Duquesne University Thomas R.Caplinget, Memphis State University Curis L. Card, Black ills Stare University James C. Chesla, Grand Rapids Community College PM, Dearing, Clemson University Maureen H. Fenrick, Mankato State University ‘Stuart Goldenberg, CA Polytechnic State University Johnny L- Henderson, Auburn University James V. Herod, Georgia Institue of Technology Paul Hess, Grand Rapids Community College Alice J Kelly, Santa Clara University Jeuel G.LaTore, Clemson University Pamela Lowry, Lawrence Technological University Jobn E. Marin, Il, Sana Rosa Junior College James Martino, Johns Hopkins University James R. MeKinney, California Sate Polytechnic University Jeff Morgan, Texas A & M University F.1.Papp, University of Michigan—Dearborn Peter Ross, Santa Clara University Rouben Rostamian, University of Maryland—Battimore County William L. Siegmann, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute John R. Smart, University of Wisconsin—Madison Dennis C. Smolarski 8.1, Sanza Clara University Bobby N, Winters, Pitisburgh State University ‘Technology Notes Reviewers Lynn KamstraIpina, University of Wyoming Robert Flagg. University of Southern Maine Jeffrey Stephen Fox, University of Colorado at Boulder James Martino, Johns Hopkins University Cat W. Moms, University of Missouri—Columbia Robert G. Stein, California State Universty—San Bernardino ‘Accuracy Checkers Steven R. Finch, Massachuserts Bay Community College Paul R. Lezak, MathSof Ine. John R. Mati, Tarrant County Junior College Jeffrey D. Oldham, Stanford University Exercises In addition, we thank the following people who reviewed the exe: cise sels for content and balance and contributed many of the in teresting new exercises: Jennifer Eales Szydlik, University of Wisconsin Madison ‘Aparna W. Higgins, University of Dayton William Higgins, Witenberg University Leonard F. Klosinski, Sanza Clara University David Mann, Naval Postgraduate Schoo! Kirby C. Smith, Teas A & M University Kirby Smith was als a pre-evison reviewer and we wish to ‘thank him for his many helpful suggestions ‘We would like to express our appreciation to David Canrigh, Naval Postgraduate School, for his advice and his contributions to the CAS exercise ses, and Gladwin Bartel, at Otero Junior Col lege, for is many helpful suggestions. Answers ‘We would like to thank Cymthis Hutcherson for providing answers for exercises in some ofthe chapters inthis edition. We also ap- preciate the work of an outstanding tam of graduate students at ‘Stanford University, who checked every answer in the text fora ‘curacy: Miguel Abreu, David Cardon, Tanya Kalich, Jeffrey D. ‘Oldham, and Jule Roskies Jeffrey D. Oldham also tested al the CCAS exercises, and we thank him fr his many helpful sugges- Other Contributors ‘We are particularly grateful to Maurie D. Weir, Naval Postgradu- ate School, who shared his teaching ideas throughout the prepara tion ofthis book. He produced the final exercise sets and wrote most ofthe CAS exercises for this edition. We appreciate his con- ‘tan encouragement and thoughtful advice, ‘We thank Richard A. Askey, University of Wisconsin—Mati- son, David MeKay, Oregon State University, and RichardG. ‘Montgomery, Southern Oregon State Coleg, for sharing their teaching ideas for this edition. ‘We are aso grateful fo Erich Laurence Havenstein, College ‘of DuPage, for generously providing an improved treatment of chaos in Newton's method, and to Robert Carson, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, for improving the exposition ia the section on relative rates of growth of functions.To the Student What Is Calculus? Calculus isthe mathematics of motion and change. Where there is motion or growth, ‘where variable forces are at work producing acceleration, calculus is the right math- cematics to apply. This was tre inthe beginnings ofthe subject, and itis true today. Calculus was first invented to meet the mathematical needs ofthe scientists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, needs that were mainly mechanical in na- ‘ure, Differential calculus dealt with the problem of calculating rates of change. It enabled people to define slopes of curves, to calculate velocities and accelerations of moving bodies, to find firing angles that would give cannons their greatest range, ‘and to predict the times when planets would be closest together or farthest apart. In- tegral calculus dealt with the problem of determining a function from information about its rate of change. It enabled people to calculate the future location of a body from its present position and a knowledge ofthe forces acting on it, to find the areas Of irregular regions in the plane, to measure the lengths of curves, and to find the volumes and masses of arbitrary solids ‘Today, calculus and its extensions in mathematical analysis are far reaching in ‘deed, and the physicists, mathematicians, and astronomers who first invented the subject would surely be amazed and delighted, as we hope you will be, to see what a profusion of problems it solves and what a range of fields now use it in the mathe- ‘matical models that bring understanding about the universe and the world around us, ‘The goal ofthis edition is to present a modern view of calculus enhanced by the use of technology. How to Learn Calculus Learning calculus is not the same as learning arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. In those subjects, you lear primarily how to calculate with numbers, how to simplify, algebraic expressions and calculate with variables, and how to reason about points. lines, and figures in the plane. Calculus involves those techniques and skills but de- velops others as well, with greater precision and at a deeper level. Calculus intro: duces so many new concepts and computational operations, in fact, that you will no longer be able 10 leam everything you need in class. You will have to learn a fair amount on your own or by working with other students. What should you do to Team? Read the text. You will not be able to learn all the meanings and connections ‘you need just by attempting the exercises. You will need to read relevantTo the Student passages in the book and work through examples step by step. Speed reading ‘will not work here. You are reading and searching for detail in a step-by-step logical fashion. This kind of reading, required by any deep and technical con- tent, takes attention, patience, and practice. 2. Do the homework, keeping the following principles in mind. a) Sketch diagrams whenever possible ) Write your solutions in a connected step-by-step logical fashion, as if you were explaining to someone else. ‘€) Think about why each exercise is there. Why was it assigned? How is it re- lated to the other assigned exercises? 3. Use your calculator and computer whenever possible. Complete as many gra- pher and CAS (Computer Algebra System) exercises as you can, even ifthey are rot assigned. Graphs provide insight and visual representations of important ‘concepts and relationships. Numbers can reveal important patterns. A CAS gives you the freedom to explore realistic problems and examples that involve calculations that are too difficult or lengthy to do by hand, 4. Try on your own to write short descriptions of the key points each time you complete a section ofthe text I you succeed, you probably understand the ma- terial. Fyou do not, you will know where there is a gap in your understanding. Leaming calculus is a process—it does not come all at once. Be patient, perse- vere, ask questions, discuss ideas and work with classmates, and seck help when you need it right away. The rewards of learning calculus will be very satisfying, both in- tellectually and professionally. GBT, Jr, State College, PA RLF, Monterey, CAPreliminaries Overview This chapter reviews the main things you need to know to start calculus. ‘The topics include the real number system, Cartesian coordinates in the plane, straight lines, parabolas, circles, functions, and trigonometry. Real Numbers and the Real Line ‘This section reviews real numbers, inequalities, intervals, and absolute values Real Numbers and the Real Line ‘Much of calculus is based on properties ofthe real number system. Real numbers are numbers that can be expressed as decimals, such as ‘The dots ... in each case indicate that the sequence of decimal digits goes on forever, ‘The real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a number Tine called the real line. ‘The symbol R. donotes either the real number system or, equivalently, the real line. Properties of Real Numbers ‘The properties ofthe real number system fall into three categories: algebraic prop- erties, order properties, and completeness. The algebraic properties say thatthe real ‘numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (except by 0) to produce ‘more real numbers under the usual rules of arithmetic. You can never divide by 0. 12 Preliminaries “The order properties of real numbers are summarized in the following lis. ‘The symbol = means “implies” Notice the rules for multiplying an inequality by a number. Multiplying by a Positive number preserves the inequality; ‘multiplying by a negative number reverses the inequality. Also, reciprocation reverses the inequality for numbers of the same sign. Rules for Inequalities Ifa, 6, and ¢ are real numbers, then: L acbratccbte 2 a 0 ac —b < 8 a>05130 6. Wan psn orbah mnt a <> ‘The completeness property of the real number system is deeper and harder to define precisely. Roughly speaking, it says that there are enough real numbers to complete” the real number line, in the sense that there are no “holes” or “gaps” in it. Many of the theorems of calculus would fail if the real number system were not complete, and the nature of the connection is important. The topic is best saved for a more advanced course, however, and we will not pursue it Subsets of R We distinguish three special subsets of real numbers 1. The natural numbers, namely 1,2,3,4, 2. The integers, namely 0,1, +2, 23... 3. The rational numbers, namely the numbers that can be expressed in the form ofa fraction m/n, where m and n are integers and n # 0. Examples are 1 4 200 37 Pop pe mM eT. ‘The rational numbers are precisely the real numbers with decimal expansions that are either a) terminating (ending in an infinite sting of zeros), for example, 3 3 = 0:75000...=0.75 or ) repeating (ending with a block of digits that repeats over and over), for example 2B __ The hr indicates the 2.090009... = 2.9. block of repeating i digi ‘The set of rational numbers has all the algebraic and order properties of the real numbers but lacks the completeness property, For example, there #8 no rational number whose square is 2; there isa “hole in the rational ine where w2 should beTable 1 Types of intervals, 1. Real Numbers and the Real Line 3 Real umber tat are not ational ar clled Irrational numbers. Tey are char- acterized by having nomteinatng and nonepating decimal expansions Examples ate x, V2. 95, and loge} Intervals A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least two numbers and contains all the real numbers lying between any two of its elements. For example, the set of all real numbers x such that x > 6 is an interval, as isthe set of all x such that 2 < x < 5. The set of all nonzero real numbers is not an interval; since 0 is absent, the set fails to contain every real number between —1 and 1 (for example) Geometrically, intervals correspond to rays and line segments on the real line, along with the real line itself, Intervals of numbers corresponding to line segments are finite intervals; intervals corresponding to rays and the real line are infinite Intervals. ‘A finite interval is said to be closed if it contains both of its endpoints, half- ‘open if it contains one endpoint but not the other, and open if it contains neither endpoint. The endpoints are also called boundary points; they make up the in- terval’s boundary, The remaining points of the interval are interior points and together make up what is called the interval's interior. Finite: Notation ab) (61 (6) @.b) (@,00) [a,00) (20.6) (20,01 (20,00) Set Graph (la a} tele =a) br <3) —_— ° fale =) IR Get ofall real 7 numbers)4 Preliminaries Solving Inequalities ‘The process of finding the interval or intervals of numbers that satisfy an inequality in x is called solving the inequality. EXAMPLE 1 Solve the following inequalities and graph their solution sets on the ral line a) We-1 5 can hold only if x > 1, because otherwise 6/(x ~ 1) is undefined or negative. Therefore, the inequality will be preserved if we multiply both sides by (x — 1), and we have zs Muliply bo sides bys =. Nese ‘Add 5 wboth sides. =e ore ‘The solution set is the half-open interval (1, 11/5] (Fig. le). a Absolute Value ‘The absolute value of a number x, denoted by |x|, is defined by the formula Pett EXAMPLE2 —[3|=3, 0|=0, |-3|= . |-lall=lal Notice that |x| 20 for every real number x and jx] = if and only if x =0.It i important to remember that vat = a). Do not write va% = a unless you already know that a = 0. —1=s——sI— $ ° 3 eth 1-4-9 t 4 2 Absolute values give distances between points on the number line. Notice that absolute value bars in ‘expressions like |—3+5) also work lke parentheses: We do the arithmetic inside before taking the absolute value. 1 Real Numbers and the Real Line 5 Since the symbol J/@ always denotes the nonnegative square root ofa, an alternate efinition of |x| is Ix] = v2. Geometrically, |x| represents the distance from x to the origin O on the real line. More generally (Fig. 2) ‘The absolute value has the following properties. the distance between x and y: Absolute Value Properties 1 ‘A numbsrand it nea hav the same absolute wae 2. fab|= lab} The abst vale oF pret the rd the alate vais a (g- 2 The ble ve ofa gust ithe qin of the absolute values 4. a+) <|a\+[b| The triangle inequality ‘The absolute value of the sum of two numbers is less than or equal to the sum of their absolute values. a and b differ in sig, then |a + bs less than |a| + [In all oer cases, a + Bl equals [a+ J EXAMPLE 3 345) 1345) =3-5 2<|-3/+/5|=8 EXAMPLE 4 Solve the equation |2r Solution ‘The equation says that 2x — 3 = +7, so there are (wo possibilities: eel 2e-3=—7 Miter ste ue 2x 2x Solve a wu ‘The solutions of [2x ~ 3) Inequalities Involving Absolute Values ‘The inequality [a) < D says thatthe distance from a to 0 is less than D. Therefore, ‘a must lie between D and —D.6 Preliminaries implies and i implied by. ——— =< 5 % 12 The solution set of the inequality ix 5] <9 is the interval (-4, 14) graphed hhere (Example 5). ® 4 Graphs of the solution sets (a 1, 21 ‘and (b) (=e, 112, «) in Example 7 Intervals and Absolute Values If Dis any positive number, then jal20+0 eternal ara a temed 4 1 MF 2) < 30-6 Solve the inequalities in Exercises 19-34, expressing the solution sets 1s intervals or unions of inervals. Als, graph each solution set on the ral line Wie? mus? ah yotts3 Bisnet pened myst 3 tt wfleijer mbt} 1 maze wyssiet feat z {er 3 B-3r>5 3B Quadratic Inequalities Solve the inequalities in Exercises 35-42. Express the solution ses 25 intervals ot unions of intervals and graph them, Use the result a! = [a as appropriate a8 8 <2 Beaded Maeved Logpel Pe Miers b MEW —1/2, what can you say about x? ) Confirm your findings in (a algebraically 5 Cartesian coordinates. Coordinates, Lines, and Increments ‘This section reviews coordinates and lines and discusses the notion of increment Cartesian Coordinates in the Plane ‘The positions of all points in the plane can be measured with respect to two perpendicular real lines in the plane intersecting in the O-point of each (Fig. 5). These lines ate called coordinate axes in the plane. On the horizontal x-axis, numbers are denoted by x and inerease to the right. On the vertical y-axis, numbers are denoted by y and increase upward. The point where x and y are both 0 is the Origin of the coordinate system, often denoted by the letter O. If P is any point in the plane, we can draw lines through P perpendicular to the two coordinate axes Ifthe lines meet the x-axis at a and the y-axis at b, then a i the x-coordinate of P, and b is the y-coordinate. The ordered pair (a,b) is the points coordinate pair. The x-coordinate of every point on the y-axis is 0, The y-coordinate of every point on the x-axis is 0. The origin is the point (0,0) ‘The origin divides the x-axis into the positive x-axis to the right and the negative x-axis to the left. It divides the y-axis into the positive and negative y- axis above and below: The axes divide the plane into four regions called quadrants, ‘numbered counterclockwise as in Fig. 6. A Word About Scales ‘When we plot data in the coordinate plane or graph formulas whose variables have different units of measure, we do not need to use the same scale on the two axes, If ‘we plot time vs. thrust for a rocket motor, for example, there is no reason to place ‘the mark that shows 1 sec on the time axis the same distance from the origin as the ‘mark that shows 1 Ib on the thrust axis. When we graph functions whose variables do not represent physical measure- ‘ments and when we draw figures in the coordinate plane to study their geometry and trigonometry, we try to make the scales on the axes identical. A vertical unit2 Coordinates, Lines, and Increments 9 sh0.3) Second int gacrant 24°02) Guadeane co Go 6 The points on the axes all have coordinate pairs, ‘but we usually label them with single numbers. Notice the coordinate sign patterns in the quadrants. Of distance then looks the same as a horizontal unit. AS on a surveyor's map or a scale drawing, line segments that are supposed to have the same length will look as if they do and angles that are supposed to be congruent will look congruent. Computer displays and calculator displays are another mater. The vertical ‘and horizontal scales on machine-generated graphs usually differ, and there are corresponding distortions in distances, slopes, and angles. Circles may look like ellipses, rectangles may look like squares, right angles may appear to be acute ‘or obtuse, and so on. Circumstances like these require us to take extra care in interpreting what we see. High-quality computer software usually allows you to ‘compensate for such scale problems by adjusting the aspect ratio (ratio of vertical to horizontal scale). Some computer screens also allow adjustment within a narrow range, When you use & grapher, try to make the aspect ratio 1, oF close to it. Increments and Distance When a particle moves from one point in the plane to another, the net changes in its coordinates are called increments. They are calculated by subtracting the ‘coordinates of the starting point from the coordinates of the ending point. EXAMPLE 1 In going from the point AC4, the increments in the 4- and y-coordinates are dx=2-4=-2, ay 3) to the point B(2, 5) (Fig. 7), a =) Definition ‘An increment in a variable is a net change in that variable, Ifx changes from x; f0 x, the increment in x is Arenoa. EXAMPLE 2. From C(5,6) to D(S, 1) (Fig. 7) the coordinate increments are 0 ay=1-6=-5 a 7 Coordinate increments may be positive, negative, or zero. Ax =5-10 Preliminaries tristan is doin aP + ln—wP 28.93) ‘The distance between points in the plane is calculated with a formula that comes from the Pythagorean theorem (Fig. 8) Distance Formula for Points in the Plane ‘The distance between P(x), »1) and Q(x, y2) is d= VAx? + Oy = Vea + = 8 To calculate the distance between Plas, yr) and Qtr, y2), apply the Pythagorean theorem to triangle PC. EXAMPLE 3 48) The distance between P(~1,2) and QG, 4) is VO~ CIF O= Di = VOTO = VD = VES = V5. 1b). The distance from the origin to P(x, y) is VE OF + = OF = VF + a Graphs ‘The graph of an equation or inequality involving the variables x and yis the set of, all points P(x, y) whose coordinates satisfy the equation or inequality. EXAMPLE 4 Circles centered at the origin a) Ifa > 0, the equation x? +)? = ents all points P(x, y) whose dis- tance from the origin is ix? 9 4. These points lie on the circle of radius a centered at the origin, This circle is the graph of the equation x+y' sa? Fig, 9) 1) Points (x,y) whose coordinates satisfy the inequality x2 + y* 2 8 the set of all numbers obtained by squaring numbers greater than or equal 10 2. In symbols, the range is (27}x = 2} or (yly = 4) oF [4 0). EXAMPLE 3 Funetion Domain x) Range (9) ein (0.1) (20.0)U00,09) (20,0) (0, 00) (0.2) (0.9) (eo.4l (0.20) ‘The formula y = /T=¥? gives areal y-value for every x in the closed interval from —1 to 1. Beyond this domain, 1 ~ x? is negative and its square root is not a real number. The values of 1 — x? vary from 0 to 1 on the given domain, and the square roots of these values do the same, The range of /T — x? is [0,1] ‘The formula y = 1/x gives areal y-value for every x except x = 0. We cannot divide any number by zero. The range of y = 1/x, the set of reciprocals of all nonzero real numbers, is precisely the set of all nonzero real numbers ‘The formula y = VX gives a real y-value only if x = 0. The range of y = V® is (0,00) because every nonnegative number is some number's square rot (namely, itis the square rot ofits own square).20 Preliminaries 25 This circle isnot the graph of a function y = fait falls the vertical line test. x | yee Computers and graphing calculators graph functions in much this way—by stinging together plowed points—and the same question arises. In y = YF=Z, the quantity 4—x cannot be negative. That is, 4 — x > 0, or x <4. The formula gives real y-values forall x < 4. The range of /4=¥ is 0, 20), the set of all square roots of nonnegative numbers. a Graphs of Functions ‘The graph of a function fis the araph ofthe equation y = f(x). It consist ofthe points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates (,y) are input-output pars for f Not every curve you draw is the graph of a function. A function f can have only one value f(x) foreach x in its domain, so n0 vertical line ean intersect the graph ofa function more than once. Thus, acirle cannot be the graph of a function since some vertical lines intersect the circle twice (Fig 25). If ais in the domain of 2 function f then the vertical line x = a will intersect the graph of fin the single point (a, f(a). EXAMPLE 4 — Graph the function y Solution Step 1: Make a table of xy-pairs that satisfy the function rule, in this case the over the interval [—2, 2] equation y = x? Step 2: Plot the points (x,y) whose Step 3: Draw a smooth curve through coordinates appear in the table. the plotted points. Label the curve with its equation, How do we know that the graph of y = x? doesn’t look like one of these curves?26 Useful graphs. Domain: (x, Range (0,2) _— Domain: (=) 3 Functions 21 To find out, we could plot more points. But how would we then connect them? The basic question still remains: How do we know for sure what the graph looks like between the points we plot? The answer lies in calculus, as we will see in Chapter 3. There we will use a marvelous mathematical tool called the derivative to find a ‘curve’s shape between plotted points. Meanwhile we will have to settle for plotting points and connecting them as best we can. Figure 26 shows the graphs of several functions frequently encountered in calculus. It is a good idea to Tear the shapes of these graphs so that you can recognize them or sketch them when the need arises. Donan: 2, =) Domain: (2) Range: =.=) Range: (0.2) Range: C2.0)0 (0,2) Domain: (0%) Range: (0.2) Ranges 2%) 1 1 a 2 3 ah x x 4 x Domain: (=, 0) (0, Doman: (0) Range: (0.2) Range” (0.2) y= mi for sleted22 Preliminaries Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (except Where the denominator is zero) to produce new functions. If fand g are functions, then for every x that belongs to the domains of both fand g, we define functions f+ a. f—8, and fg by the formulas (f + 8)) = fx) +8) (= 90) = fe) ~ 200 f9)) = Feet At any point of D(J)P D(g) at which g(x) #0, we can ls define the function fig by the formula, (Qin = 22 eotere £09 40, & a(x) Functions ean also be multiplied by constants: If¢ is @ real number, then the function ef is defined forall x in the domain of f by (cA)tx) = ef), EXAMPLE 5 Function Formula Domain £ (0.00) 8 (oo. 3e (20.0) Ste (=D) NDi) ine fon) es fon fee T= (0.1) fis 10,1) = 1 excluded) aif 1) (© =O excluded) Gy Composite Functions Composition is another method for combining functions Definition fffand g are functions, the composite function © g ("fcircle g") is defined by (Fogyx) = Siete) ‘The domain of f © g consists ofthe numbers xin the domain of g for which 152) ies in the domain off3 Functions 23 few ‘The definition says that two functions can be composed when the range of the first lies in the domain of the second (Fig. 27). To find (f 0 g)(x), we first find g(x) Sige) and second find f(g(x)) si ‘To evaluate the composite function g © f (when defined), we reverse the order, * finding f(x) first and then g(f(x)). The domain of g o f is the set of numbers x in the domain of f such that f(x) lies in the domain of g. ‘The functions fog and go f are usually quite different. a0), EXAMPLE 6 If f(x) = JF and g(x) =x +1, find a) (fogs) db) (eof) 9) (Fo fix) 4) (go8)x). 27 The relation of Fog to g and f Solution ‘Composite Domain a) (fost [-1, 00) ») (wot fo)+1=yF+1 10,00) 9 (fe VIG) = VR = x" (0,00) @ (gogle)=a6g0) = 8G) Ha 41ar42 — Ror (-o0,00) To see why the domain of fo g is [=1,c0), notice that g(x) = x-+ 1 is defined for all real x but belongs to the domain of f only if x +1 > 0, that is to say, if xBe1 Even Functions and Odd Functions—Symmetry ‘A function y = f(x) is even if f(—x) = /(4) for every number x in the domain of f: Notice that this implies that both x and —x must be in the domain of f: The function f(x) = x is even beceuse f(—x) = (-x)? =? = f(a). ‘The graph of an even function y = /(x) is symmetric about the y-axis. Since (x) = f(x), the point (x,y) lies on the graph if and only ifthe point (—x, ») lies on the graph (Fig, 284). Once we know the graph on one side of the y-axis, we automatically know it on the other sie. A function y= f(x) is odd if f(=x) = ~f(x) for every number x in the domain of f- Again, both x and —x must lie in the domain of f¢ The function {Fls) = ¥ is odd Because f(x) = (-2) -f@). ‘The graph of an odd function y = /(x) is symmetric about the origin. Since f(~x) = ~f(4). the point (x,y) les on the graph if and only ifthe point (—x, —y) lies on the graph (Fig. 286). Here again, once we know the graph of f on one side ‘of the y-axis, we know it on both sides. con 28 (2) Symmetry about the y-axls. If (x,y) ison the graph, so is (-x,y)-(b) Sym- metry about the origin. If, y) ison the graph, 50 is (=x, ~y).24 Preliminaries 29 The absolute value function 30 To graph the function y = f(x) shown here, we apply different formulas to different parts ofits domain (Example 7) 131. The graph of the greatest integer function y= Lx lies on or below the line =x, 50 it provides an integer floor for x Piecewise Defined Functions Sometimes a function uses different formulas on different parts of its domain. One example is the absolute value function mel Bt whose graph is given in Fig. 29. Here are some examples. EXAMPLE 7 The function = x<0 f=] #, Oses1 xed is defined on the entire real ine but has vats given by different formulas depending on the postion of x (Fig 30. a EXAMPLE 8 The greatest integer function ‘The function whose value at any number x isthe greatest integer less than or equal 10 x is called the greatest integer function or the integer floor function. It is ’ 26, Graph the folowing equations and explain why they are not graphs of functions of x ® kl +bI Even and Odd Functions In Exercises 27-38, say whether the function is even, odd onthe. 2. f(x) =3 2%. fo) 3h 66) eel Ste Beas 36. (= 1) 38 h(t) =2Ie1 +1 Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients In Bxercses 39 and 40, find the domains and ranges of fg. f+ 8. and f vg BW. fay=n gay=Vve=T 4. fe) = JETT, gi) = VE=T In Exercises 41 and 42, find the domains and ranges of f.8, f/s and g/f. AL fi) =2 ge) B flyal, galt ve 24126 Preliminaries Composites of Functions 4B. IF fe) = x45 and g(x) = 2? ~ 3, find the following. ®) fe) » ef 8 fe) @ (fo) 2 FYC3) © s@e) 8) fU@) hy (et) AIF fs) =x =1 and g(x) = 1/41) ind the following ® £02) » ara) 8 fe) @ fe) © TY) sea) 8) sua) hy (et) 4S. Mute) = 4x ~ 5, v(x) = 2°, and f(x) = I, find formulas for the following, 2) wocseen) b) wi feoed)) © uiseny) @) v(fus))) © Fuivn)) fee) 46. If f(2) = Ji, els) = 4/4, and h(x) = 4x — 8, find formulas for the following. a) haifa by Argun”) © gth(fo)) a) asthe) © fle) H fig Let fox) =x=3, 90) = V% A) =H, and jO0 ‘ress each of the functions in Exercises 47 and 48 as a composite involving one or more of fg, and j a. » a 0 48, » a 5 49. Copy and complete the following table ao) oe) a rT by rt? ° ® ° t nt x 150, 4 magic trick, You may have heard of a magic trick that goes like this: Take any number. Add 5. Double the result. Subtract 6 Divide by 2. Subtract 2. Now tell me your answer, and TI tell you what you started with Pick a number and ty it ‘You can sce whi umber and follow the steps to make a formal number you end up with is going on if you let x be your original la) for he Piecewise Defined Functions Graph the functions in Exercises 51-54, sso=(F, TEES) a r= [2 saa [i 52° & Osx '55, Find a formula foreach function graphed. The Greatest and Least Integer Func 857, For what values of xis (a) Lx = 0° () [x 158, What real numbers «satisfy the equation Lx} = [x1? 58, Does [=*] 60. Graph the function Le) forall real x? Give reasons for your answer, ld, x20 I x0 Why is f(x) called the integer part of x? Even and Odd Functions G1, Assume that f is an even function, ¢ is an odd function, and both fand g are defined on the ene real ine FR. Which of the following (where defined) are even? odd? Sie4 Shifting Graphs 27 ” fe » Sie © «/f %& Grapher ® fat Oo ease D fes 63, (Continuation of Example 5.) Graph the functions f(x) = JE ® kof ») for D foe and g(x) = Vix together with thei (a) sum, (b) product, {2 Can a function be both even and odd? Give reasons for your _(¢) two differences, (4) two quotient. 64, Let f(s) = x~7 and g(x) =7, Graph fand g together with Sogand go f. 33 To sift the graph of f(x) = up (or ‘down), we add positive (or negative) constants to the formula for f Shifting Graphs ‘This section shows how to change an equation to shift its graph up or down or to the right or left. Knowing about this can help us spot familiar graphs in new locations. It can also help us graph unfamiliar equations more quickly. We practice mostly with circles and parabolas (because they make useful examples in calculus), but the methods apply to other curves as well. We will revisit parabolas and circles in Chapter 9. How to Shift a Graph ‘To shift the graph of a function y = f(x) straight up, we add a positive constant to the righthand side of the formula y = f(x), EXAMPLE 1 Adding 1 10 the righthand side of the formula y = 3? to get 22-41 shifts the graph up 1 unit (Fig. 33). a ‘To shift the graph of a function y = f(x) straight down, we add a negative constant tothe right-hand side ofthe formula y = f(x), EXAMPLE 2. Adding ~2 to the right-hand side of the formula y = x* to get 2 shifts the graph down 2 units (Fig. 33). a ‘To shift the graph of y = f(x) to the left, we add a positive constant to EXAMPLE 3 Adding 3 t0.x in y =x? to get y = (x +3)? shifts the graph 3 units to the left Fig. 34) a ataposie > y= er) 34 To shift the graph of y =x? to the left, we add a positive constant to x. To shift the graph to the right, we add a negative constant to x28 Preliminaries ponte ee 35 The graph of y =» shifted to three new positions in the xy-plane, ‘To shit the graph of y = (2) tothe right, we add a negative constant tox EXAMPLE 4 — Adding 20 xin y to get y = (x — 2)? shifts the graph 2 units to the right (Fig. 38). a Shift Formulas ‘VerricaL SHIFTS yo k= f(x) or Shifts the graph up k units if k > 0 y= FC) +k Shifts it down [kl units if k <0 Horizonta SHIFTS y=fa-h Shifts the graph right h units if h > 0 Shifts it left Yh] units if h < 0 EXAMPLE 5 ‘The graph of y= (x 2)! —2 is the graph of y = x° shifted 2 ‘units to the right and 2 units down. The graph of y = (x-+ 1)? +3 is the graph of| y= 2 shifted I unit to the left and 3 units up (Fig. 35). a Equations for Circles AA circle is the set of points in a plane whose distance from a given fixed point in the plane is constant (Fig. 36). The fixed point is the center of the circle the constant distance isthe radius. We saw in Section 2, Example 4, thatthe circle of radius a centered at the origin has equation x? + y* = a*. If we shift the circle to By) place its center at the point (i, k), its equation becomes (x — h)* + (y ~ k)® ‘The Standard Equation for the Circle of Radius a Centered at the Point h, &) AY +b? a) Gah sO- 8 of * 36 A crcl of radius a in the xy-plane, EXAMPLE 6 If the citcle x° + y* = 25 is shifted 2 units to the left and 3 units with center at (hf) up, its new equation is (x + 2)* + (y — 3)? = 25. As Bq, (1) says it should be, this is the equation ofthe circle of radius 5 centered at (hk) = (~2,3). EXAMPLE 7 The standard equation for the circle of radius 2 centered at G.4is @-37 +0 -47 = OF @-3F +O 4 = 4,4 Shifting Graphs 29 ‘There is no need to square out the x- and y-terms in this equation. In fact, it is better not to do so. The present form reveals the cicle's center and radius.) EXAMPLE 8 Find the center and radius of the circle (=P +045) Solution Comparing (eh? +8 with +O 45r=3 shows that h = 1 = 5, and a= V3. The center is the point (h,) = (1,5); the radius is a = V3. a Technology Square Window's We use the term "square window” when the units oF scalings on both axes are the same, In a square window graphs are true in shape. They are distorted in @ nonsquare window. ‘The term square window does not refer to the shape of the graphic dis- play. Graphing calculators usually have rectangular displays. The displays of Computer Algebra Systems are usually square. When a graph is displayed, the x-unit may differ from the y-unit in order to fit the graph in the display, resulting in a distoned picture. The graphing window can be made square by shrinking or stretching the units on one axis to match the scale on the other, giving the true graph. Many systems have built-in functions to make the win- dow “square.” IF yours does not, you will have to do some calculations and set the window size manually to get a square window, or bring to your viewing some foreknowledge ofthe tre picture. (On your graphing utility, compare the perpendicular lines yy = x and y2=—x+4 in a square window and @ nonsquare one such as [—10, 10] by (10, 10}. Graph the semicircle y = VB x? in the same windows. << | ax ZA semicircle graphed distorted by a rectangular window. If an equation for a circle is not in standard form, we can find the circle’s center and radius by first converting the equation to standard form. The algebraic technique for doing so is completing the square (see inside front cover). EXAMPLE 9 Find the center and radius of the circle xt yb ede —6y—3 <0.30 Preliminaries Ennion (r=? +69 = 82> a? gt teee S ee Interior ¢e— ? + - Wh? a? EXAMPLE 10 Inequality Region 224 y2<1 Interior ofthe unit circle 224) <1 Unit circle plus its interior Phy > 1 Exterior of the unit circle P4721 Unit circle plus its exterior a Parabolic Graphs ‘The graph of an equation like y = 3x? or y = —5x? that has the form year? is a parabola whose axis (axis of symmetry) is the y-axis. The parabola’s vertex (Point where the parabola and axis cross) lies at the origin. The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and downward if a <0. The larger the value of [al, the narrower the parabola (Fig. 38). If we interchange x and y in the formula y 1x2, we obtain the equation2 ene atxigin 39 The parabola x = ay” is symmetric ‘bout the a-axis. It opens tothe right if 2>0 and to the left ita <0, y 40. The graphs of the functions y = VX and y = =X join atthe origin to make the graph of the equation x =? (example 11) 41. The parabola y = ax, a>, shifted h Units to the right and k units up. 4 Shifting Graphs 31 With x and y now reversed, the graph is a parabola whose axis is the x-axis and whose vertex lies at the origin (Fig. 39). EXAMPLE 11 The formula x = y* gives.x asa funtion of y but does not give y asa function of x If we solve for y, we find that y = +x. For each positive Value of x we get avo valves of y instead ofthe required single value. ‘When taken separately, the formulas y = / and y = ~ yx do define functions of x. Each formula gives exactly one value of y for each possible value of x. The raph of y = Vr isthe upper half ofthe parabola x = y®. The graph of y = —J/F is the lower half (Fig. 40). a The Quadratic Equation y = ax? +bx+c, a#0 To shift the parabola y = ax* horizontally, we rewrite the equation as y= ace ‘To shift it vertically as well, we change the equation to yok =atx—hy @ ‘The combined shifts place the vertex atthe point (h,k) and the axis along the line x=h Fig. 4b), Normally there would be no point in multiplying out the right-hand side of Eq, (2). In this case, however, we can learn something from doing so because the resulting equation, when rearranged, takes the form ax’ + bx +e ® ‘This tells us thatthe graph of every equation ofthe form y = ax? + bx +0, #0, is the graph of y = ax? shifted somewhere else. Why? Because the steps that take us from Eq. 2) to Eq. () ean be reversed to take us from (3) back to (2). The curve y= ax? + dx +c has the same shape and orientation as the curve y = ax ‘The axis of the parabola y = ax? + br + tums out tobe the ine x = ~b/(2a). The yimercept,y = c is obtained by setting x = 0. ‘The Graph of y = ax + bese, a40 The graph of the equation y = ax? + bx + c,a £0, isa parabola. The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and downward if a < 0. The axis is the line b oa ® ‘The vertex ofthe parabola is the point where the axis and parabola intersect. Its x-coordinate is x = ~b/2a; its y-coordinate ig found by substituting x = —b/2a in the parabola’s equation. EXAMPLE 12 Graphing a parabola Graph the equation y32. Preliminaries I vereris( Pint symmetric \ wth yitecept \ 2a) Inerept a (0,8) 19 Tnerepts at yscdands=2 42 The parabola in Example 12. Exercises 4 Shifting Graphs 1. Figure 43 shows the graph of y = tions. Write equations for the new graphs Poston(a) | y =r \ 43, The parabolas in Exercise 1. shifted to two new posi Solution We take the following steps. Step 1: Compare the equation with y = ax? + bx + to identify a, b, and c. ‘Step 2: Find the direction of opening. Down, because a <0. ‘Step 3: Find the axis and vertex. The axis is the line aan De 5a) 899g TD so the -eoordinate of the vertex is 1. The y-coordinae is i 9 ya-3CVP- CD 44= 3 ‘The vertex is (—1, 9/2). ‘Step 4: Find the x-intercepts (if any) set y =0 nthe o Paros sation, 0 Solve as wal (-Do+4)=0 4 ‘Step 5: Sketch the graph. We plot points, sketch the axis (lightly), and use what wwe know about symmetry and the direction of opening to complete the graph Gg. 42), ‘Write equations for the new sraphs. \ 4 je (a) Pasion (6) 44 The parabolas in Exercise 2. 2, Figure 4 shows the graph of y = x? shifted to two new positions‘3. Match the equations listed in (a)-() to the graphs in Fig. 4. a) y=u-Di-4 ») +2 yah 42 @ yat43P-2 y Poston 1 Pesiion’3 ay 45. The parabolas in Exercise 3. 4. Figure 46 shows the graph of y = —x? shifted to four new posi- tions. Write an equation foreach new graph x ua 3 wy \e 29 © @ 45 The parabolas in Exercise 4. ercises 5-16 tell how many units and in what diretion the graphs ofthe given equations are to be shifted. Give an equation forthe shifted graph. Then sketch the original and shifted graphs together, Exercises 433 lubeling each graph with its equation. Use the graphs in Fig. 26 for reference as needed. Sx hy 249 Down, let 2 6 thy =25 Updiets Te y= Left, down | 8& y= Right 1, down 1 9 ya JE Left O81 10, y=—J% Right 3 = 7 Up? sa yeu mes pansion! Wx=y Left 14, x= ~3y? Up 2, right 3 x Up 1, right 1 16. y= 1/x? Left 2, down 1 Graph the Functions in Exercises 17-36, Use the graphs in Fig. 26 for reference as necded, 4 * Be y= +QV +1 a, y= 4-2 aye i uo iy 7 “ar 37. The accompanying figure shows the graph of a function f(x) with domain (0,2) and range (0,1. Find the domains and ranges ofthe folloving functions, and sketch their graphs a fay 42 b fey-1 9 20 @ -s) © fe+2) 5 fe-0 8) foo by) ~sa+D4134. Preliminaries 38, The accompanying figure shows the graph ofa function (2) with ‘domain (=, 0} and range [3.0]. Find the domains and ranges ofthe following functions, and sketch their graphs. a) 0 ») 20) © si+3 @ 1-8 © st?) D st~2) ) sl-9 by a=) Circles In Exercises 39-44, find an equation for the circle with the given center C(h A) and radius a. Then sketch the circle in the x»plane. Include the circles center in your sketch. Also, label the cizcle's x= and y-intecepts, if any, with their coordinate prs. 39..C0,2), a=2 40. (3,0), @=3 4 C19, a= V0 CU), a= v2 8. CCV5,-9, a=? 44.60.12), a=5 Graph the circles whose equations are given in Exercises 4S-S0. Label each circles center and intercepts (if any) with their coordinate pais. 4S. Phy dar dy t4=o 46.8 + yr Hay + 16=0 41.8 $y —3y-4=0 4 xt ty 4/4) 20 BS by bey 0. by HOE Parabolas Graph the parabotas in Exercises 51-58, Label the vertex, axis, and mercepts in each ease. SL yarta2e-3 S2 ya har$3 SB yaa tae sty 58. ym nxt -6r-5 56. ae tars atin $3 ny poeeed siyclieret mya ‘59. Graph the parabola y = x ~.°. Then find the domain and range of fs) = vr (60. Graph the parabola y = 3~2x — x2, Then find the domain and range of g(x) = V3=2r =. Inequalities Describe the regions defined by the inequalities and pairs of inequal ites in Exercises 61-68, OL Pty>7 @ etyes GB HIP ty s4 PH O-2 24 GBttyot, etyted 6 Pay s4 OHH SA 1. 2 +y 4660, yo — Pty dr t2y> 4, >? 69. Write an inequality that describes the points that ie inside the circle with center (2, 1) and radius V6. 70, Write an inequality that describes the points that lie outside the circle with center (4,2) and radius 4 ‘TL, Writ a pur of inequalities that describe the points that le inside or on the circle with center (0,0) and radius J, and on oF to the right of the vertical line though (1,0) "72 Write pair of inequalities that describe the points that lie outside the ciele with center (0, 0) and radius 2, and inside the circle tha has center (1,3) and passes through the origin. Shifting Lines "3, The line y=mx, which passes through the origin, is shifted vetially and horizontally t© pass through the point (x09). Find an equation for the new line. (This equation is called the ine's point-slope equation) ‘TA, The line y =x is shifted verically o passthrough the point (0,b). What isthe new line's equation? Intersecting Lines, Circles, and Parabolas In Exercises 75-82, graph the two equations and fin the points in hich he graphs intersect. 7. ya2, Py Boxty=h =p +y Thynr=l, yaet Thxty=0 y=-U-1F 1 @-ty Lotty @ CAS Explorations and Projects In Exercises 83-86, you wll explore graphically what happens to the raph of y = flax) as you change the value of the constant a. UseCAS or computer grpher to perform the following steps 8) Potthe function y = f(x) together with the function y = fax) Pan 5 Trigonometric Functions 35 [-10,19] for a= 2,3, and 10 over the specie itera. Describe what ya BO=D ‘happens to the graph as a increases through positive values. SO)" ST ) Plot incon y = 7) andy = fox forthe negative values 1 3 What happens tothe graph in this sation? 8 SOD = 3 © Plot the function y= f(x) and y= flax) forthe fractional 40-410 vals «1/213, 1/4 Desens win happens ote gph a6. x) = AEH gy when lal < 1 Degrees asians Trigonometric Functions ‘This section reviews radian measure, trigonometric functions, periodicity, and basic \tigonometrc identities. Radian Measure In navigation and astronomy, angles are measured in degrees, but in calculus itis best to use units called radians because of the way they simplify later calculations (Section 2.4) Let ACB be a central angle in a unit circle (circle of radius 1), as in Fig. 47, 47 The radian measure of angle ACB is 48 The angles of two common triangles, in degrees and radians. Taree the length of the arc Aa. ‘The radian measure @ of angle ACB is defined to be the length of the circular are AB. Since the circumference of the circle is 2x and one complete revolution of a circle is 360°, the relation between radians and degrees is given by the following equation, x radians = 180° EXAMPLE 1 Conversions (Fig. 48) Convert 45° to radians: 45. 5-5 180 ‘omvert = rad to degrees: 6 P= 3 Convert $ rad to deg eae36 Preliminaries Psiive Neste 49. Angles in standard postion in the xy-plane. Conversion formulas 1 degree = 25 (~ 0.02) radians Degrees radians: mutply by 1 radian 180 Go age Ratan deem 122 Cinie fra 51 The radian measure of angle ACB is the length @ of arc A’ on the unit circle centered at C. The value of @ can be found from any other circle as sir ‘An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at ‘the origin and its initial ray lies along the positive x-axis (Fig. 49). Angles measured ‘counterclockwise from the positive x-axis are assigned positive measures; angles measured clockwise are assigned negative measures. ‘When angles ae used to describe counterclockwise rotations, our measurements ccan go arbitrarily far beyond 2x radians or 360°. Similarly, angles describing clockwise rotations can have negative measures of all sizes (Fig. 50). 50. Nonzero radian measures can be positive or negative. ‘There is a useful relationship between the length s of an arc AB on a circle of radius r and the radian measure @ of the angle the are subtends at the circle’s center C (Fig. 51). If we draw a unit circle with the same center C, the arc A'B? cut by the angle will have length 8, by the definition of radian measure. From the similarity ofthe circular sectors ACB and A’CB', we then have s/r = 0/1.hypotenase opposite be om be x uno = cae o= ai} np 52 Trigonometrc ratios of an acute angle. Pes) '53. The trigonometric functions of a ‘general angle @ are defined in terms of x, yand 1 adjacent ‘54. The new and old definitions agree for acute angles. 5 Trigonometric Functions 37 Radian Measure and Are Length Notice that these equalities hold precisely because we are measuring the angle in radians, ‘Angle Convention: Use Radians From now on in this book it is assumed that all angles are measured in radians unless degrees or some other unt is stated explicitly. When we talk about the angle 2/3, we mean 2/3 radians (which is 60°), not x /3 degrees. ‘When you do calculus, keep your calculator in radian mode. EXAMPLE 2 Consider a circle of radius 8. (a) Find the central angle subtended by an are of length 27 on the circle. (b) Find the length of an arc subtending a central angle of 32/4. Solution a) 6 The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions You are probably familiar with defining the wigonometric functions of an acute angle in terms ofthe sides ofa right triangle (Fig. 52). We extend this definition to ‘obtuse and negative angles by first placing the angle in standard positon ina circle of radius r We then define the trigonometric functions in terms of the coordinates, of the point Prx, y) where the angle's terminal ray intersects the circle (Fig. 53) Sine: sing = * Cosecant: ese = © r y Cosine: cos. = = Secant: seco = 2 » x Tangent: tano => Cotangent: cot @ =~ These extended definitions agree with the right-triangle definitions when the angle is acute (Fig. 54), ‘As you can see, tan and sec@ are not defined if x = 0. This means they are38 Preliminaries '55. The Cartesian coordinates of a point inthe plane expressed in terms of rand 2. 156. The acute reference triangle for an angle 6. 57 The triangle for calculating the sine and cosine of 2nP radians (Example 3) not defined if @ is 4/2, 37/2, .... Similarly, cot and ese are not defined for values of @ for which y=0, namely @=0, sim, & 2, Notice also the following definitions, whenever the quotients are defined. tang = S08 ‘The coordinates of any point P(x, y) in the plane can now be expressed in terms of the point’ distance from the origin and the angle that ray OP makes with the postive x-axis (Fig. 55). Since x/r = cos@ and y/r = sin®, we have sind. o reosé, y Values of Trigonometric Functions If the circle in Fig. 53 has radius become 1, the equations defining sin@ and cos cosd =x, sind =y. We can then calculate the values of the cosine and sine directly from the coordinates ‘of P if we happen to know them, or indirectly from the acute reference triangle made by dropping a perpendicular from P to the x-axis (Fig. 56). We read the magnitudes of x and y from the triangle’s sides. The signs of x and y are determined by the {quadrant in which the triangle lies. EXAMPLE 3 Find the sine and cosine of 2xr/3 radians. Solution ‘Step 1: Draw the angle in standard position in the unit circle ane write in the Tengths of the sides of the reference triangle (Fig. 57).5 Trigonometric Functions 39 y Step 2: Find the coordinates ofthe point P where the angle’s terminal ray cuts the circle: s a 2n 1 cos = = x-coordinate of P sinpos alles 3 - 2 an v3 “ in = = y-coordinate of sin = y-coordinate of P= o T c A useful rule for remembering when the basic trigonometric functions are tan pos 05 pos positive and negative is the CAST rule (Fig. $8). EXAMPLE 4 Find the sine and cosine of —x /4 radians. 58 The CAST rule. Solution ‘Step 1: Draw the angle in standard position in the unit circle and write in the lengths of the sides of the reference triangle (Fig. 59) 59. The triangle for calculating the sine and cosine of “ald radians (Example 4) Step 2: Find the coordinates of the point P where the angle’s terminal ray cuts the circle: ) = yoni ot? a Calculations similar to those in Examples 3 and 4 allow us to fil in Table 2. Table 2. Values of sin 6, cos 8, and tan @ for selected values of 6 Degrees 10-35-90 as sw 13S 180) radians) =x 3nd m0 sin @ 0 Va 1 YO CCS vino cos 0 1 -¥in 0 Vn 1 Vn fin 1 0 YR | tne o 1 - 0 va 1 4 “1 °40. Preliminaries Domain: (2) Range: (1.1 Range: ( {60 The graphs of the six basic ‘trigonometric functions as functions of radian measure, Each function's periodicity shows clearly in its graph, Period 2: sin (x +22) 0s (x +2) sec (x +22) ose (62) =esex yorcosx Domain: (=, 2) Ranges) (111 Doman: ll el numbers excepto Steger malipls of 72 Range: =.=) Domain: x «0,9, 2m Domain: x #0, =m, =2m, Ranges, -11U 1 Range: (=) Graphs ‘When we graph trigonometric functions inthe coordinate plane, we usually denote the independent variable by x instead of 8. See Fig. 60, Periodicity ‘When an angle of measure x and an angle of measure x + 2 are in standard posi tion, their terminal rays coincide. The two angles therefore have the same trigono- tmettic values. For example, cos (x + 2) = cos x, Functions like the wigonometic functions whose values repeat at regular intervals ae called period. Definition ‘A function f(x) is periodic if there is a positive number p such that SO + p) = f(x) for all x The smallest such value of p is the period of f ‘As we can sec in Fig. 60, the tangent and cotangent functions have period p ‘The other four functions have period 2 Figure 61 shows graphs of y = cos 2x and y = cos(x/2) plotted against the ‘graph of y = cos.x. Multiplying x by a number greater than 1 speeds up a trigono- metric function (increases the frequency) and shortens its period. Multiplying x by 8 positive number less than 1 slows a trigonometric function down and lengthens its period.5 Trigonometric Functions 41 61 (a) Shorter period: cos2x. (b) Longer period: cos 4/2) 62 The reference triangle for a general angle 8 ‘The importance of periodic functions stems from the fact that much of the behavior we study in science is periodic. Brain waves and heartbeats are periodic, as are houschold voltage and electric current. The electromagnetic field that heats food in a microwave oven is periodic, as are cash flows in seasonal businesses and the behavior of rotational machinery. The seasons are periodic—so is the weather. ‘The phases of the moon are periodic, as are the motions of the planets. There is strong evidence that the ice ages are periodic, with a period of 90,000-100,000 years If so many things are periodic, why limit our discussion to trigonometric func- tions? The answer lis ina surprising and beautiful theorem from advanced calculus that says that every periodic function we want to use in mathematical modeling can be written as an algebraic combination of sines and cosines. Thus, once we learn the calculus of sines and cosines, we will know everything we need to know to ‘model the mathematical behavior of periodic phenomena, Even vs. Odd ‘The symmetries in the graphs in Fig. 60 reveal thatthe cosine and secant functions are even and the other four functions are odd: Even oaa sin (=x) = =sinx tan (~x) = ~tanx ese (—x) = —esex cot (~x) = ~cotx Identities Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the reference right triangle we obtain by dropping a perpendicular from the point P(cosé, siné) on the unit circle to the a-axis (Fig, 62) gives cos? 8 + sin? @ @ ‘This equation, true for all values of 8, is probably the most frequently used identity in tigonometry.42 Preliminaries, Dividing Eg. (2) in turn by cos* # and sin®@ gives the identities 1+tan’o 1+e0t'o ‘You may recall the following identities from an earlier course. Al the trigonometric identities you will need in this book drive from Eqs. (2) and 3). Angle Sum Formulas c08(A + B) = cos A.cos B~ sin Asin B sin(A-+ B) = sin AcosB +e0s Asin B 8) ‘These formulas hold for all angles A and B. There are similar formulas for cos (A ~ B) and sin (A ~ B) (Exercises 35 and 36), Substituting @ for both A and B in the angle sum formulas gives two more useful idem Instead of memorizing Eqs. (3) you might Find it helpful to remember Egs. (4), and then recall where they came from, Double-angle Formulas cos 20 = cos? @ ~ sin® @ ® sin 26 = 2 sin 8 cos 8 Additional formulas come from combining the equations cox? 8 +sin? = 1, cos? A — sin? 6 = cos 28. We add the two equations to get 2 cos? @ = from the fist to get 2sin? @ = 1 — cos 28. +08 20 and subtract the second Additional Double-angle Formulas 1400s 26 a ° cos 28 a ° ‘When @ is replaced by 8/2 in Eqs. (5) and (6), the resulting formulas are called hhalf-angle formulas. Some books refer to Eqs. (5) and (6) by this name as well.Exercises 5 43 (aos 8.asin 6) 163 The square of the distance between A ‘and B gives the law of cosines. The Law of Cosines Ifa, b, and c are sides of a triangle ABC and if 6 is the angle opposite ¢, then a This equation is called the law of cosines. ‘We can see why the law holds if we introduce coordinate axes with the origin at C and the positive x-axis along one side of the triangle, as in Fig. 63. The coordinates of A are (b, 0); the coordinates of B are (a cos 8, a sin 8). The square of the distance between A and B is therefore (acos 6 — 6)? + (asin 6)? (cos! 0 + sin’ 8) +6? — 2ab cos 8 T 4B 2ab cos 8. Combining these equalities gives the law of cosines. ‘The law of cosines generalizes the Pythagorean theorem. If = 1/2, then cos =O and ct = a? +0" Exercises 5 Radians, Degrees, and Circular Arcs 4 CALCULATOR If you roll a L-m-diameter wheel forward 30 1. On a circle of radius 10 m, how long isan arc that ubtends ao over Level ground, through what angle wil the wheel tum? central angle of (a) 4sr/5 radians? (b) 110"? “Anse in radians the nearest tent) and degees (othe nearest, 2. A central angle ina circle of radius 8 is subtended by an are of aad length 10x. Find the angle’s radian and dearee measures 3, CALCULATOR You want to make an 80° angle by marking an Evaluating Trigonometric Functions anc onthe perimeter of a 12in-iameter disk and drawing lines 8, Copy and complete the table of function values shown on the from the ends ofthe ae tothe dsk's center. To the nearest tenth following page. Ifthe function is undefined at a given angle, ofan inc, how long should the are be? enter “UND.” Do not use calculator or tables.44 Preliminaries ° ) What is the average ofthe highest and lowest mean daily temperatures shown? Why is this average the vertical shift ofthe funtion? CAS Explorations and Projects In Exercises 67-70, you will explore graphically the general sie function on s00) = asia(Fa-o) +0 2 you change the vals ofthe constants A, B, C, and D. Use a CCAS or computer grapher to perform the eps in the exercises 67. The period B. Set he constants A = 3,C 3, 2x, Se over the interval a) Plot f(x) for the values B 165. Normal mean air temperature at Fairbanks, Alasks, plotted as data points The approximating sine function is to =2780( 2-100) 025 “Temperature CP) (Source: "Is the Curve of Temperature Lege tt | Variation a Sine Curve?" by B. M. Lando I I | and C. A, Lando, The Mathematics 7 Teacher, 76, Fig. 2, p. 535 [September ZL 197) Ta Feb Mar Ape ‘May Ton Jal Aug Sep Ox Nov Der Jan Feb Nir—4r < x = 4 Deseribe what happens to the graph ofthe general sine function asthe period increases. 1b) What happens to the graph for negative values of B? Try it with B= —3 and B= —27 (68. The horizontal shift C, Sethe constans A = 3, B= 6, D 4) Plot f(x) for the values © = 0, 1, and 2 over the interval ~4 ), x 30.0) ’ a b) When is OP perpendi Functions and Graphs 4 Are there two function fand g such tht fog = go f? Give reasons for your answer. 4. Are there two fanetions and g with the following property? The sraphs of f and are not stright lines but the graph of fo is 8 staight line. Give reasons for you answer 5. If f(a) is odd, can anything be said of g(x) = f(a) — 22 What it Fis even instead? Give reasons for your answer. 6. If ¢(2) is an odd function defined forall values of x, can anything be sald about g(0)? Give reasons for your answer, Graph the equation [x] + I 1 lex, 8. Graph the equation y + Jy] = + [x] Trigonometry In Exercises 9-14, ABC is an arbitrary triangle with sides a,b, and ¢ ‘opposite angles A, B, and C, respectively 9, Find bit a= V3,A=n/3,B=H/4 10, Find sin Bifa =4,b=3,A=x/4, AL, Find cos 4 if a 12, Find cia 13, Find sin B if 14, Find sinc if a Derivations and Proofs 15, Prove the following identies a) Lesmx sine Ginx Treose La cox at Treonx "3 »50 Preliminaries 16, Explain the following “proof without words” ofthe law of cosines (Source: "Proof without Words: The Law of Cosine,” Sidney H. Kung, Mathematics Magazine, Vol. 63, No.5, Dec. 1990, p. 342.) S Zo 17, Show thatthe area of triangle ABC is given by (1/2)absinC = (1/2)besin A = (1/2}ca sin B © a = o * 18, Show that the area of wrangle ABC is given by V5t5= ays = BS =6) where s = (a+b-+¢)/2 is the semi- Perimeter ofthe wiangle" 19, Properties of inequalities. a and b are real numbers, we say that ais less than B and write @ Ill 22. Generating the wang inequity. Prove by mathematical indoion th he fllovingineuaes hold oy la numbers bers jaz, ..-,d (Mathematical induction is reviewed in Ap. pendix 1.) 8) fay taste tal < Ja + eal +--+ ll by Jay apt --+-F al > Ja ~ lagl — => — lal 23, Show that if fis both even and odd, then f(x) =0 for every x in the domain off 24, a) Even-odd decompositions. Let fbe a function whose do ‘main is symmetric about the origin, that is, —x belongs to the domain whenever x does. Show that fis the sum of an ‘even funetion and an odd function fle) = Ex) + 00), here Fis an even function and O isan odd function. (int Let E(2) = (f (8) + f(—-0)/2. Show that E(x) = EC), so that Eis even, Then show that OCs) = f(s) ~ Ex) i odd) b) Uniqueness. Show that there is only one way to write fas the sum of an even and an odd function. (Hint: One way is sien in part (a). If also f(x) = Ey(x) + Oy(x) where Ey is even and 0; is odd, show that £ — E, = 0; ~ 0. Then use Exercise 23 to show that E = E and O = 0.) positive. Use this definion o prove the following properics of 8 Grapher Explorations—Effects of Parameters inequalities Ifa , and care real numbers, then geese ey = ena sao too i 6 ocees oo bel ta eevee “Asterisk denotes more challenging problem. 25, What happens to the graph of y = ax?-+bx +6 as, a) a changes while b and ¢ remain fixed? Db) b changes (a and c fixed, a #0)? ©) changes (a and b fixed, a #0)? 26, What happens to the graph of y = a(x +6)? +e as 4) a changes while band c remain fixed? Db) b changes (a and c fixed, a #0)? ©) e changes (a and b fixed, a #0)? 27, Find ll values ofthe slope ofthe line y -winercept exceeds 1/2. us +2 for which theCHAPTER Limits and Continuity OVERVIEW The concept of limit of a function is one of the fundamental ideas that distinguishes calculus from algebra and trigonometry. In this chapter we develop the limit, frst intuitively and then formally. We use limits to describe the way a function f varies. Some functions vary continuously; small changes in x produce only small changes in f(x). Other functions can have values that jump or vary erratically. We also use limits to define tangent lines to graphs of functions. This geometric application leads at once to the important concept of derivative ofa function. The derivative, which we investigate thoroughly in Chapter 2, quantifies the way a function's values change. Free fall [Near the surface of the earth ll bodies fal ‘with dhe same constant acceleration, The distance a body falls aftr it is released from rest is a constant multiple ofthe square of the time elapsed. At least, that is what ‘happens when the body falls in a vacuum, ‘where there is no air slow it down. The ‘suare-oftime rule also holds for dense, heavy objects like rocks, ball bearings, and steal tools during the first few seconds of thei fall through ait, before their velocities build up to where air resistance begins to matter. When air resistance is absent or insignificant and the only foree acting on a falling body is the force of gravity, we call the way the body falls free fall. Rates of Change and Limits In this section we introduce two rates of change, speed and population growth. This leads to the main idea of the section, the idea of limit. Speed ‘A moving body's average speed over any petcular ie interval i the amount of distance covered during the ineval divided by the length of the interval. EXAMPLE 1 A rock falls from the top of a 150-ft cliff, What is its average speed (a) during the first 2 sec offal? (b) during the 1-see interval between second, Land second 2? Solution Physical experiments show that a solid object dropped from rest to fall freely near the surface of the earth will fall yale nh during the first sec. The average speed of the rock during a given time interval is the change in distance, Ay, divided by the length of the time interval, A Ay _ 162)? 160) _,, ft 2-0 ‘see 8) For the frst 2 sec: Ay _ 16(2)? = 16(1)? _ 4g ft ar 2 1b) From second 1 to second 2: 5152. Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity Table 1.1 Average speeds over short time intervals zy 16(Hy + AY — 1640? avengs pnt: SF = Wty Average speed over Average speed over interval of length interval of length starting atv starting a f= 2 48 80 36 656 32.16 6416 32016 64016 32.0016 64.0016 EXAMPLE 2 Find the speed of the rock at ¢ = and ¢ = 2 sec Solution We can calculate the average speed of the rock over a time interval liosto+ hl, having length Ar = h, as Ay __ 16(0o +h)? ~ 1616? ar a ‘We cannot use this formula t0 calculate the “instantaneous” speed at fy by sub- sttuing h = 0, because we cannot divide by zero. But we can use it calculate average speeds over increasingly shor ime intervals stating at) = | and) = 2 When we do so, we see a pattem (Table 1.1). The average speed on intervals starting at & = 1 seems to approach @ lim- iting value of 32 as the length ofthe interval decreases. This suggests thatthe rock is falling at speed of 32 fSce a tp = 1 see. Similry, the rock's speed at 1 = 2 see would appear to be 64 fisec Q ‘Average Rates of Change and Secant Lines Given an arbitrary function y = f(x), we calculate the average rate of change of 1 with respect to + over the interval [sa] by dividing the change in value of 5, Ay = Flas) — f(a) by the length ofthe interval Ax = x2 ~ x; = h over which ihe change occurred. Definition ‘The average rate of change of y = f(x) with respect tox over the interval baealis ay foath)— fox ax - h Notice that the average rate of change of f over {x1,22] is the slope of the line through the points P(x, f(s)) and Otsa, f()) (Fig. 1). In geometry, line joining two points of a curve is called a secant to the curve. Thus, the average rate Of change off from x, to x i idemtial with the slope of secant PQ. Geometrically, an average rate of change Js asecant slope,1.1. Rates of Change and Limits 53 1L1_A secant to the graph y = fl). Its slope is Ayla, the average rate of change of fover the interval be, 2 Experimental biologists often want to know the rates at which populations grow under controlled laboratory conditions. EXAMPLE 3 The average growth rate of a laboratory population Figure 1.2 shows how a population of fruit fies (Drosophila) grew in a SO-day experiment. The number of flies was counted at regular intervals, the counted values plotted with respect to time, and the points joined by @ smooth curve, Find the average growth rate from day 23 to day 45, Solution There were 150 flies on day 23 and 340 flies on day 45. Thus the num- ber of fies increased by 340—150= 190 in 45 —23 = 22 days. The average rate of change of the population from day 23 10 day 45 was Ap _ 340-150 _ 190 10 x 8.6 fliesiday. ‘Average rate of change: 22 = 30150 is ee at 4523 ~ 2D This average isthe slope ofthe secant through the poins P and Q on the graph in Fig. 12 a “The average rate of change from day 23 to day 45 calculated in Example 3 does not tell us how fast the population was changing on day 23 itself. For that we need to examine time intervals closer to the day in question. sal Cee ot os 30) = 250|— ~ lps 190 5 20 $s #423, 150) File #6 tiedsay * 0 wee 0 — -— 12 Growth of a fruit fly population in a controlled 1 1 ‘experiment, (Source: Elements of Mathematical ° CO Biology by A. J. Lotka, 1956, Dover, New York, p. 68.) ‘Time (98)54 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity a eee = Aplat BQ35, 350), Lv o AZ. eo i as = 0g ; ony =H as , Hy oan B=! se , secants through the point P on the fruit fly graph. EXAMPLE 4 How fast was the number of fies in the population of Example 3 growing on day 23 itself? Solution To answer this question, we examine the average rates of change over increasingly short time intervals stating at day 23. In geometric terms, we find these rates by calculating the slopes of secants from P to Q, for a sequence of points Q approaching P along the curve (Fig. 1.3). ‘The values in the table show that the secant slopes rise from 8.6 to 16.4 as the r-coordinate of Q decreases from 45 10 30, and we would expect the slopes 10 rise slightly higher as ¢ continued on toward 23. Geometrically, the secants rotate about P and seem to approach the red line in the figure, a line that goes through P in the same direction that the curve goes through P. We will see that this line is called the tangent to the curve at P. Since the Tine appears to pass through the points (14, 0) and (35, 350), it has slope 350-0 3-14 16.7 fies/day (approximately). (On day 23 the population was increasing at a rate of about 16.7 fliesiday. ‘The rates at which the rock in Example 2 was falling at the instants ¢ = 1 and ¢ = 2 and the rate at which the population in Example 4 was changing on day 1 = 23 are called instantaneous rates of change. As the examples suggest, we find instantaneous rates as limiting values of average rates. In Example 4, we also pictured the tangent line to the population curve on day 23 as a limiting postion of secant lines. Instantaneous rates and tangent lines, intimately connected, appear in many other contexts. To talk about the two constructively, and to understand the connection further, we need to investigate the process by which we determine limiting values, or limits, as we will soon all them. Limits of Function Values Before we give a definition of limit, let us look at another example. BUMPS Hon dt on ft) = 2 tte mria 1.4 The graph of fis identical with the line y = 2+ 1 except at rot defined 1 where Fis 1.1. Rates of Change and Limits 55 Solution The given formula defines f for all real numbers x except x= 1 (we cannot divide by zero). For any x # 1 we can simplify the formula by factoring the numerator and canceling common factors: (x= D@+) so) xel for x41 The graph of fs thus the line y =.x+ 1 with one point removed, namely the point (1 2). Tis removed point is shown asa “hole” in Fig. 1.4 Even though (1) is not defined, itis clear that we can make the value of f(x) as elose as we want to 2 by choosing x clase enough to 1 (Table 1.2) ‘We say that f(x) approaches arbitrarily close to 2 as + approaches 1, of, more simply, FC) approaches the limit 2 asx approaches 1. We write this as Foy or Table 1.2 The closer x gets to 1, the closer f(x) = (w— 1/kx— 1) seems to get to 2 Definition Informal Definition of Limit Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about xy, except possibly at xy itsefé IF f(a) gets arbitrarily close to L for al x sufficiently close t0 x0, we say that / approaches the limit Las x approaches x, and we write Jim fo) = L ‘This definition is “informal” because phrases like arbitrarily close and sufficiently close are imprecise; their meaning depends on the context. To a machinist man- ‘facturing a piston, close may mean within a few thousandths of an inch. To an astronomer studying distant galaxies, close may mean within a few thousand light ‘years. The definition is clear enough, however, to enable us to recognize and evaluate limits of specific functions. We will need the more precise definition of Section 1.3, however, when we set out fo prove theorems about limits56 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity (@) Meni fonton (©) Constant function 1L6 The functions in Example 8 ne wo hayaatt EXAMPLE 6 The existence ofa limit as x —> xq does not depend on how the function may be defined at xy. The function f in Fig 1.5 has limit 2 as x —> 1 even though fis not defined at x = 1. The function g has limit 2 as x — 1 even though 2-4 g(1). The function his the only one whose limit as x — 1 equals its value at x = 1. For h we have lim.) A(x) = hI). This kind of equality of limit and function value is special, and we will return toi in Section 1.5 a Sometimes limang f(x) canbe evaluated by caeulating f(%)- This holds, for example, whenever /() isan algebraic combination of polynomials and trigono- metric functions for which f (x9) is defined. (We will say more about this in Sections 12 and 15) EXAMPLE 7 a) ») ° @) lim ° EXAMPLE 8 a) If fis the identity function f(x) then for any value of xo (Fig. 1.6a), Jim £6) = lim x = IF is the constant function (x) = k (function with the constant value &), then for any value of x» (Fig. 1.66), lim f(x) = lim k= a Some ways that limits can fail to exist are illustrated in Fig. 1.7 and des in the next example.Exercises 1.1 57 (Unit sep fonction U0) 1.7 The functions in Example 9. Exe $1.1 Limits from Graphs 1, For the function g(x) graphed her, find the following limits oF explain why they do not exist 8) tim 80) b) tim gtx) ome woe EXAMPLE9 A function may fal to have a limit at a point in its domain. Discuss the behavior of the following functions as x > 0, a ve={h 159 ee aes oo f= sin r>0 8) Itjumps: The unit step function U(x) has no limit s x — 0 because its valves jump at x =O. For negative values of x arbitrarily close to zero, UG) = 0 For positive values of x arbitrarily close to 2er0, U(x) = 1. There is no single value L approached by U(x) as x —> 0 (Fig. 1.7). 8) Te grows too large: g(x) has no limits as x ~» O because the values of ¢ grow arbitrarily lage in absolute value as x ~» O and do not stay close to any real number (Fig. 1.70) ©) Trosillates too much: f(4) has no limit as x 0 because the function's values oscillate between +1 and —1 in every open interval containing 0. The values do not stay close to any one number as x -» O (Fig. 170) Q ©) tim gtx)58 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity 2 For the function f(0) graphed here find the following limits or Existence of Limits a eo In Exercises 5 and 6, explain why the limits do not exist a) im, fo by lim, fe © tim se x ) tim, Fo) ) im, F00) Yo tim £0 aa 6 tm 7 Suppose that fontion f(x) is defined forall eal values of except x =. Can anything be said about the existence of limo, /(2)? Give reasons for you answer {8 Suppose that a function fx) is defined for ll x in [1,1 (Can anything be said abost the existence of limo #(8)? Give reasons fr your answer, 9 UE timos $C) = 5, st f be defined at r= 17 TF ts, must (1) ~5? Can we conclide anything about the values off at = 1? Explain ‘4. Which of the following statements about the function y= f8) 10, 1 f(1) = 5, must im, fe) exist? I does, then mas sraphed ere are eu, and which ae false? Jim, Fle) = 5? Can we conclude anything about in f(2)? Explain Calculator/Grapher Exercises—Estimating Limits MH, Let fea) = = 9/0043) Wa) CALCULATOR Mate a table ofthe values ofa the points = ~3.1, 301, ~3,00, and so ona far as your calcula torcan go. Then estimate lim,._ f(s). What estimate do you artve at if you evaluate fat x = ~2.9, -2.99, ~2.999, instead? Eb) GRAPHER Support your conclusions in (a) by graphing f 8) im f(a) exists bm £0) car) =—3 and wsing ZOOM and TRACE to estimate values on the graph a8 x —> eae ome Finds fe debra 9 fy sen0 12, Let g(x) = (x? = 2)/(x ~ V2), 1) lim f(x) exists at every point x in (1,0) Ba) CALCULATOR Make a table ofthe values of g atthe points = 14,141, L414, and s0 on through sooessive decimal 4. Which ofthe following statements about the fonction y = f(x) approximations of V2. Estimate lim,.j3 0) ‘graphed here are true, and which are false? Bb) GRAPHER Support your conclusion in (a) by graphing ¢ scar x9 = V2 ad wsing ZOOM and TRACE (0 estimate yale onthe graph a8 x — V2. ©) Find im, g(x) algebra 1B, La Gta) = (+600? +48 — 19, Bay CALCULATOR Make a table of the values of G at x= =59, $99, -5.999.... Then estimate lim... G0 ‘What estimate do you arrive at if you evaluate G at x= =6:1,~6.01, 6.001, instead? Bb) GRAPHER Suppor your conclusions in (a) by graphing G and using ZOOM and TRACE to estimate y-alues on the euph ase 6 2) im 2) does no exist ©) Find tims-c. GCs) algebra by im fo =2 14, Let hx) = (2 2x ~3)/¢02 = 48-43), © iy £4 doesnt exist a) CALCULATOR Make a table of the ves of bat x= 29,2.99,2.999, and so on. Then estimate lim,-s (x) ‘What estimate do you arive at if you evaluate h at x = a 3.1,3.01, 3001, «instead? a ©) i fe) exis at every point x in 8) exists at every point xp in (1.1)BE) GRAPHER Suppor your conlasions in (a) by graphing fr ear x9 =3 an sing ZOOM and TRACE to extimate rales onthe graph at» 3 (©) Find tim,.s_ h(x) algebraically 1S, Let f(x) = (= Dal =D, Ba) CALCULATOR Make tables of the values of f at values of x that approach xy = ~1 from above and below. Then estimate im. f(). 3b) GRAPHER Support your conclusion in (a) by graphing f near 5 =I and using ZOOM and TRACE to estimate yyvales on the graph as x —> —L ©) Find lim, (2) algebraically 16, Let Fix) = (x2 +3x-+2)/2— [ab Ba) CALCULATOR Make tables of values of F at values of x that approach s = ~2 from above and below: Then estimate Tim, 2 FO, GRAPHER Support your conclusion in (a) by graphing F near x) = —2 and using ZOOM and TRACE to estimate sy-values on the graph as x —> —2. ©) Find lim, F(x) algebraically. 17, Let g(0) = (sina CALCULATOR Make tables of values of g at values of & @y that approach = fm sow and bow. Then cst lima 2) 3b) GRAPHER Suppor your consuson in () by arphing ¢ mex 0 8. Let G() = eon Ba) CALCULATOR Make ales of values of at values of 1 that approach =O from above and below, Then esate lima GO Bb) GRAPHER Suppor your concasin in) by gaping @ CALCULATOR Make tables of values of fat values of x that approach x) = I from above and below. Does f appear (0 have a limit as x + 17 so, what is it? If not, why not? GRAPHER Support your conclusions in (a) by graphing f B—D/x CALCULATOR Make tables of values off at values of x that approach x9 = 0 from above and below. Does f appear te have a limit asx —> 07 If so, what isi? Lf no, why not? GRAPHER Suppor your conclusions in (a) by graphing f ear x9 = 0. Limits by Substitution In Exercises 21-28, find the limits by substttion. Support your an- swers with a grapher or calculetor if available, 21, lim 2x 22, lim 2x Exercises 1.1 59 24, lim 2 im, Gr) Sap 28, im, 3x(2x — 1) 26. tim, : ea 27. ip sina 28 tm SE Average Rates of Change In Exercises 29-34, find the average rate of change of the function over the given interval or intervals. B® fa)arth (92,3, @ t-1.11 30. g(x) = G11}, [-2.0) BL. he) =cotr (a) fx /4, 30/8), (0) E46. 21 32 g(t) = 2+ e084: (@ (0.2. ©) (=x) RO) = VBFE (0.2) eB LPOG) = @ 46 +58; (1,2) 35, Figure 1.8 shows the timeo-istance graph for 2 1994 Ford “Mustang Cobra accelerating from a standstill. 48) Estimate the slopes of secants PQs, POs, PQs, and PQs, arranging them inorder in a table. What ae the appropriate units for these slopes? 1) Then estimate the Cobra’s speed at time r = 20 sec. Distance (m) om as Elapsed time seo) 1.8 The time-to-distance graph for Exercise 35,60 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity 3%6, Figure 1.9 shows the plot of distance fallen (mm) vs. time for (©) Use your graph to estimate the rate at which the profits were ‘wrench that fell rom the top platform of a communications mast changing in 1992, Ct B38, CALCULATOR Make a table of values for the function F(x) = 8) Estimate the slopes ofthe secants PQ), PQs, PQs, and (a-+2)/(2~2) atthe points x = 2.x Os, aanging them in 8 able Tike he one in Fig. 13. 2 1001/1000,» = 10001/10000,andx 1) About how fast was the wrench going when iit he oo!” 4g) Find the average rate of change of F(x) over the intervals {Hea foreach + 1 in your able b) Extending th table if necessary, ry wo determine the rate of change of F(x) atx = 1 39, CALCULATOR Let g(1) = VF for x > 0. 8) Find the average rate of change of g(s) with rexpet to over he intervals 1,2] (1, 1.5} and (1,14 b) Makea able of values ofthe average rat of change of g with respetio x over the imeral 1, 1+] for some vals of approaching zr, say = 0.1, 0.01, 001, 0.0001, 0.0001, 0.00001 ©) What does your tbl indicate isthe rate of change of g(s) with respect x at r= 17 4) Catelate the limit as approaches 2x0 ofthe average fate of change of (2) with respect to over the interval Nt 1/10, 101/100, B40, CALCULATOR Let f(t) = 1/1 for 1 #0. 8) Find the average rate of change off with respect to 1 over the intervals () from ¢ = 2t0 ¢ =3, and (i) fom # = 2 0 T. b) Make a table of values ofthe average ate of change of f with respect to rover the interval (2,7), fr some values of Tapprosching 2, say T = 21,201, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.0001, so and 2.000001 i ©) What does your table indicate the rate of change off with, 2 respect to fat? =2? iu : 4) Calculate the limit 8 T approaches 2 ofthe average rte of ° change off with respect over the interval from 2 tT. pred time 0) You will have todo some algebra before you can substiute T=2 1.9 The time-to-distance graph for Exercise 36, if ‘& CAS Explorations and Projects 37. CALCULATOR The profs of a small company foreach ofthe first five year of its operation ae given in the following table: ' Exercises 41-46, use @ CAS to perform the following steps 8) Plot the function near the point xy being approached, Year Profit in $1000 'b) From your plot guess the value of the Fmit. so _e_ee ©) Evaluate the limit symbolically. How close was your guess? 1990 6 1991 27 ao 1992, 6 1993 uw 2 1994 174 8) Plot points representing the profit asa function of year, and 43. join them by as smooth a curve as you ean, 1) Whats the average rate of increase ofthe profits between 1992 and 1994? 44 ty Sh yeyraa 46. ley I= 3e08r1.2. Rules for Finding Limits 61 Rules for 9 Limits This section presents theorems for calculating limits. The first three let us build ‘on the results of Example 8 in the preceding section to find limits of polynomials, rational functions, and powers, The fourth prepares for calculations later in the text. Limits of Powers and Algebraic Combinations Theorem 1 Properties of Limits The following rules hold iflim,... f(x) = L and lim, 4. g(x) = M (Land -M real numbers). 1. Sum Rae lim (7) + e0)1= 2-4 2 Diference Rule: im 7a) ~e@ol= 2-4 3. Product Rate Tim f) +0) = La 4. Constant Multiple Rule: im f(2) =KL (any number 8 aL 5. Quotient Rule: tin =, eo 6 Power Rule Xe m and ae integer, then lim (fort = 2" provided L"/" isa real number. In words, the formulas in Theorem 1 say ‘The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits ‘The limit ofthe difference of two functions is the difference of ther limits ‘The limit of the product of two functions is the product of their limits ‘The limit of a constant times a function is that constant times the limit of the function, 5. The limit of the quotient of two functions isthe quotient oftheir limits, provided the limit of the denominator is not zero. 6. The limit of any rational power of a function is that power of the limit of the function, provided the latter is teal number. We will prove the Sum Rule in Section 1.3, Rules 2-S are proved in Appendix 2. Rule 6 is proved in more advanced texts. EXAMPLE 1 Find lim “> fim res Solution Starting withthe limits lim... x =C and lim. k =k from Section 1.1, Example 8, and combining them using various pats of Theorem 1, we obtain:62 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity 4) tim 2 = (tim x) (lim x) =e Pr or os ») lim (x? +5) jim 2? + lim 5 ‘Sum and (a) ©) lim 4x? = 4lim x? = 4c? Constant Multiple and (a) @ lim (4x73) = tim 4c lim 3 = 4c’ —3 Difference and (} © tim 2 = (tim #4) (1im 3) rc a or os £) lim Ge +43) = tim 2° + lim x? —3) som peel 5 EXAMPLE 2 Find im, J=3, ‘Solution . “v5 VB Qa ‘Two consequences of Theorem I further simplify the task of calculating limits of polynomials and rational functions. To evaluate the limit of a polynomial function asx approaches c, merely substitute c for x in the formula for the function. To evaluate the limit of a rational function as x approaches a point c at which the denominator is not zero, substitute ¢ for x in the formula for the function. Theorem 2 Limits of Polynomials Can Be Found by Substitution If PGR) = gx" ag nt ot a then fim PGR) = PCO) = yc" + ayo"! + +a, Theorem 3 Limits of Rational Functions Can Be Found by Substitution If the Limit of the Denominator Is Not Zero If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(c) # 0, then tin PD PO. ase Ox) Ole)Identifying common factors 1t-can be shown that if Q(x) is 8 polynomial and Q(e) = 0, then (x =e) isa factor of Q(x). Thus, if the numerator and denominator ofa rational function of x are bath ze at factor, then (x =e) isa common rc 110 The graph of f(x) = G2 +x — 2)! (G2 — x) in G@)is the same as the graph of te) = + 20 in (O) except at x = 1, Where fis undefined. The functions have the same limit asx — 1 1.2. Rules for Finding Limits 63 EXAMPLE 3 Pe4e—3 _ Cy +4epr-3 _ 0 AM ESS cyas 6 “This isthe limit in Example I with ¢= ~1, now done in one step. a Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically ‘Theorem 3 applies only when the denominator ofthe rational function isnot zero at the limit point c. Ifthe denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the numerator and denominator will sometimes reduce the fraction to one whose de- nominator is no longer zero atc. When this happens, we can find the limit by substitution inthe simplified fraction. EXAMPLE 4 Canceling a common factor etx-2 Evaluate tim Solution We cannot just substitute x = 1, because it makes the denominator zero, However, we can factor the numerator and denominator and cancel the common factor to obtain Sex-2_ (-D@+2 _ x42 Deer = SAE ite 21. woe xer= 1 x a = lim mae See Fig. 1.10. a EXAMPLE 5 Creating and canceling a common factor v24h- v2 =. Find tim, Solution We cannot find the limit by substituting h = 0, and the numerator and denominator do not have obvious factors. However, we can create a common factor in the numerator by multiplying it and the denominator) by the so-called conjugate expression /2+h + V2, obtained by changing the sign between the square roots VEER V3 _ VORR- V3 VOR VI t Vw _ 24h “athe h AVIFR+ VD — factor of 164 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity oath Try 111 The limit of the slope of secant PQ 2 QP along the curve is W2v2) (Example 5). «6 3} 1.42 The graph of fis sandwiched between the graphs of g and h. 1.13. Any function ule) whose graph lies inthe region between y = 1+ (22) and ~ (e8) as limit 1 as x 0. Therefore, tim VEER=VE gp Mo oe VE 1 Spa ee to i ne Notice thatthe fraction (qT — V/3)/h is the slope of the secant through the point P(2, V2) and the point Q(2+h,/2+h) nearby on the curve y = J. value of this slope as Q > P along the curve from either side is 1/(2V2). The Sandwich Theorem ‘The following theorem will enable us to calculate @ variety of limits in subsequent chapters. Its called the Sandwich Theorem because it refers to a function f whose values are sandwiched between the values of two other functions g and h that have the same limit L at @ point c. Being trapped between the values of two functions that approach L, the values of f must also approach L (Fig. 1.12). You will find a proof in Appendix 2 Theorem 4 ‘The Sandwich Theorem ‘Suppose that ¢(x) < f(a) < f(x) forall x in some open interval contain «6, except possibly at x =< itself. Suppose also that fim g(@) = fim h(x) = Then tim f(a) = L. EXAMPLE 6 Given that 1-9 sues) 5145 forall x £0, find tiny w(x. Solution Since Timo (= (2/4) = 1 and tim,.g (1+ 7/2) 1 Fig. 1.13). a the Sandwich Theorem implies that lim, .9 w(x EXAMPLE 7 — Show that if lim, .< [f(2)| =0, then lime f(x) = 0. Solution Since —| f(x)| < f(x) < |f(2)|, and =| f(x)] and | f(x)| both have limit as x approaches ¢, lim, +. f(x) = 0 by the Sandwich Theorem. aExercises 1.2. 65 Exercises 1.2 Limit Calculations Find the limits in Exercises 1-16 2 im (10—3x) 4 lim, (09 20? +4 +8) 6 Jip, 3626-1) y42 Oi ys r6 AL, tim, 32 — 12, im, (2 +3) 13, im, 6»? 14. fim 22-8)” 15. lim 16, fin 8 SS Fara Find the limits in Exercises 17-30, te tim 43 ST eared Boe +10 tm yar Using Limit Rules 31. Suppose lim,p f(x) = 1 and limeo g(x) =—5. Name the rules in Theorem I that are used to accomplish steps (2, (, and () ofthe following calculation. 2yftay—ata) _ iy OF)— 80 3 Gary” ~ Tig Ga fim 2F00) = @ 5) wo) (im ons) 5. Suppose that lim, .-» p(x) 2lim fx) — lim gtx) Let fim +p AG) = 5. timy-ay pO) = Ay and Tim ay 160) = 2. [Name the rues in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps (2), (b), and (c) ofthe following calculation. SIH, tence 13 FHE=Pa ~ iy OPE ire ey iy 0) (B=) Ceo Be) VOR _ 5 am @) ) Suppose lime fx) =$ and lime g(x) = ~2. Find 2) lin foox ») im 2780 tim (fF (x) im —L0)_ ) im Feo +340) in LO Suppose lime fe) =O and ines gt) = —3. Find 2) in @u) +3) by im x70) #0 © dim (gen? ® Feo Suppose lim,» fe) =7 and lim, g(x) = ~3. Find 8) im (f(s) + 860) by tim F08) 868) © im 4900) ® tim sooyeeo and lim, r(8) lim, s(x) =—3. Find ®) p(x) + r(x) +50) POs) + rox) +560)66 Chapter 1; Limits and Continuity imits of Average Rates of Change Because of theit connection with secant lines, tangents, and instanta- neous rates, limits of the form hin SEEM =F) ay A ‘occur frequently in calculus. In Exercises 37-42, evalute this limit oe the given value of x and function f ar-4, Us x 4. fo) =VNFT, + Using the Sandwich Theorem 48. SHEE = fl) = VIA for 1 sx 1, find Him,a fo) M4, 12 = s(x) = 2e0s4 for alls ind lim, 9g. 48. a) It canbe shown thatthe inequalities T= 2eoss ‘old forall values of x close to zero. Wha, if anything, oes this tll you about 13 3 2eose Give reasons for you Bb) GRAPHER Graph y= 1 (27/6). = (esins)/(2 ~ 2e08-),and together for -2 I, at what points ¢ do you automatically know Jame fy? Wha can you say about the vale ofthe Limit at these points? 48, Suppose that 2) = f(x) = 1.8, ys = 2.2. Then keep y between 1.8 and 2.2. toy the target intervals (1.98, 2.02) and (1.9998, 2.0002).68 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity Swipes 79 stout Tom wide @ som a a 5 volun ‘mh t — o 1.15 A 1 measuring cup (a), modeled as 2a right circular cylinder (b) of radius «em (Example 2). a8 my Ht8 1.16 & preliminary stage in the development of the definition of limit. EXAMPLE 2 Why the stripes on a T-liter kitchen measuring cup are about a millimeter wide ‘The interior of a typical 1-L measuring cup is a right circular cylinder of radius 6 ‘em (Fig. 1.15). The volume of water we put in the cup is therefore a function of the level fi to which the cup is filled, the formula being V = 26% = 36h. How closely must we measure to measure out L of water (1000 em") with an cor of no more than 1% (10 em")? Solution We want to know in what interval to hold values off to make V satisfy the inequality IV 1000) [36:rh ~ 1000) < 10. ‘To find out, we solve the inequality [36:rh — 1000] < 10 10 < 36h — 1000 < 10 990 < 36h < 1010 990 _ , _ 1010 36x ~" ~ 36r 88 hy OF 55? 99 Bn Reign Reson eli Eel Sas y= he a Fs * New clege: Response be = Binenson - How do we stop this seemingly endless series of challenges and responses? By proving that for every error tolerance ¢ thatthe challenger can produce, we can find, calculate, or conjure a matching distance 6 that keeps x “close enough” 0x» to keep f(x) within that tolerance of Z (Fig. 1.17 on the following page).70. Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity 1L17 The relation of & and ¢ in the definition of limit The Weierstrass definition ‘The concepts of limit and continuity (and, indeed, real number and function) did not enter matheraties overnight with the great discoveries of Si Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), Mathematicians had an Imperfect understanding of these fundamental ‘ideas even as late asthe last century Definitions ofthe limit given by French ‘mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789-1857) and others referred to variables ‘approaching indefinitely” a fxed value and frequently made use of “infinitesimal.” {quantities that become infinitely small but not ero, The now accepted 5 definition of limit was formulated by German ‘mathematician Karl Weierstrass (1815-1897) inthe middle of te nineteenth century as part of his attempt to put mathematical alysis on a sound logical foundation, m8 he Here, at last, is a mathematic closer y = f(2) gets to L, I way t0 say that the closer x gets to xo, the Definition ‘A Formal Definition of Limit Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about xo, except possibly at x itself. We say that f(x) approaches the limit L as x approaches -o, and write Jim fe) if, for every number € > 0, there exists a corresponding number 5 > 0 such that for all x O [f—Lice. ‘To return to the idea of target values, suppose you are machining a generator shaft to a close tolerance. You may try for diameter L, but since nothing is perfect, ‘you must be satisfied with a diameter f(x) somewhere between L~ € and L +6 ‘The 8 is the measure of how accurate your control setting for x must be to guarantee this degree of accuracy in the diameter of the shaft. Notice that as the tolerance for crtor becomes stricter, you may have to adjust 5. That is, the value of 5, how tight your control setting must be, depends on the value of e, the error tolerance. Examples: Testing the Definition ‘The formal definition of limit doesnot tell how to find the limit ofa function, but it enables us to verify that a suspected limit is correct, The following examples show how the definition can be used to verify limit statements for specific function. (The first two examples correspond to parts of Examples 7 and 8 in Section 1.1.) However, the real purpose of the definition is not to do calculations like this, but rather to prove general theorems so thatthe calculation of specific limits ean be simplified.1.18 If fl) = 5x ~3, then O< |x ~ 1) Owe have to find a suitable 6 > 0 so that if x # I and xis within distance 5 of xp = 1, that 2 O<|x-1] <5, then f(x) is within distance € of L If) -2| 0 be given, We must find 8 > 0 such that forall x O<[x— aol <5 implies [x — 0) <€ ‘The implication will hold if 5 equals € or any smaller positive number (Fig. 119). This proves that lim,...,. = b) Let ¢ > O be given, We must find 5 > 0 such that forall x O<[r—ml <5 implies kk) 0 that works for € = 1. That i, find a 5 > 0 such that forall x O Wen 1-2)<1.72 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity 2 0 1.21 An open interval of radius 3 about X= 5 will ie inside the open interval @ 10), 1.22 The function and intervals in Example 5, Solution We organize the search into two steps. First we solve the inequality [VT —2| < 1 to find an interval (a, b) about x5 = 5 on which the inequality holds forall x # x9. Then we find a value of 5 > 0 that places the interval 5 ~ 8 = x < 545 (centered at xp = 5) inside the interval (a,b). Stop 1: Solve the inequality |VF—T—2| < 110 find an interval about x9 = S on which the inequality holds for all x # xo. \vx-1-2)<1 -l 0 that places the centered interval 5 ~5 0 Algebi ‘The process of finding a 5 > 0 such that forall x Oc-nl<5 => [fe)-Li 0 that places the open interval (x» ~ 8, x0 +8) centered at xg inside the interval (a,b). The inequality |f(x) ~ L < € will hold for all x # xo in this 6-interva. EXAMPLE 6 — Prove that lim... f(x) san [P83 4if Solution Our task is to show that given ¢ > 0 there exists @ 6 > 0 such that for all x O<-7<5 => |fay-si 0 that places the centered interval (2 the interval (J4=€, VEE). Take 5 to be the distance from xy =2 to the nearer endpoint of (F=e, JE). In other words, take 5 = min_{2— V4—€, VF+€ ~2}, the mintmum (the smaller) of the two numbers 2— J—€ and /4+ € — 2. IF has this or any smaller positive value, the inequality 0 < jx ~2| <5 will automatically place x between v= and VF-Fe to make |f(x) —4| < e. For all x O 0 be given. We want to find a positive number & such that for all x O Lf) +e) -L+ MI O such that forall x O O such that forall x O IgG) M| <2 Let 5 = min(6,, 43}, the smaller of and 8. If < |x — el <8 then |x — el < 51, s0 |x) ~ L| < €/2, and |x ~ ¢] <8, 80 |g(x) ~ M| < ¢/2. Therefore [F@) +8) LM < S45 ‘This shows that lim... (f(x) + a(x) = L+M. a Exercises 1.3 Centering Intervals About a Point In Exercises 1-6, setch the interval (@,) on the axis with the Pointy inside. Then find a value of 8 > 0 such that for all x, 0 < lem) <3 a ceed, La=l, b=7 x Rank, b=7 m=? aa 3 4a y= 32 5.a=4)9, b=4/7, = 1/2 6 a=27591, b=32391, 9 =3 Finding Deltas Graphically In Exercises 7 use the graphs to find a 8 > O such that for all x Oe-micd = Ifa)-Li 0. In each case, find an open interval about xy on which the inequality [f(x) ~ L| < ¢ holds. Then give a value for > Osuch that, forall x saistying 0 < |x — | <8 the inequality |x) — L| <« holds. I fi=rtl, L=S. wad € 16, fs) =28~2, 11, fos) = VET, 18 fuy=ve Lb 19. fo) = VII=H, w= 10, €=1 2. fo) = VAT, L=4, w= 2, =I 21 fix)= yx, L mad 2 fis, 2B fay=s, 2 fay= tim L 2 fayev—5, L 26, fx) = 20)x, L=5, x= 2 fx) =ms, m>0, b= 2m 28. fx) =ms, m>0, L=3m, 2. f(x) =mx+b, m>0, e=e>0 3. fx) =mx+b, m>0, = (m/2)+b, y= 1/2, mtb, a More on Formal Limits Each of Exercises 31-36 gives a function f(x), point xo, and a positive number ¢. Find L = lim f(x). Then find a number 6 > 0 Exercises 13°75 such that for all x O [fay-Li 0 such that no posible 5 > Osis the condition Forally, O<[r-mi<8 =9 [f)-Li xp. e+, vale of fo which 0 |—4) < Sand [fl — L = ss, Grinding engine onder. Before conrcing oink engine hide toa csscectin ae fi, You teed to kaow how rch vin om he el lider amet sy 388 in ys ca allow and sl ave We me come win 001i of the required 9 in®. To find out, you let A = x(x/2)? and look for the incl n ich you mas hl to ma A 91 SOD tral yo Bt $6. Monutocuring eect resistors. Ohm’ aw for eles Ghai te he oe shown i i128 sats hat Y= In thisequion, Vis cont ons she cure a amperes tnd F's te ressanee inchs Tout fm has bee hed ‘tpl therefor cc in wich Ville 120 as andExercises 1.3.77 8) Let €= 1/2. Show that no possible § > 0 satisfies the fol- 60. a) Forthe function graphed hee, show that lim, .-,_ g(x) # 2 lowing condition: 1) Does lim-.-1 g(x) appear to exist? Iso, whats the value Forallx, Ocie—Med => fla) -2)<1/2. ofthe Timi? IF not why not? “Thats foreach 5 > 0 show that there is 8 value of such that O 1/2. ‘This will show that Fimyas f(0) #2. 1) Show that Hime f() # ©) Show that ims yf) # 1 Bore Let ha) , @ CAS Explorations and Projects In Exercises 61-66, you wll Further expore nding deltas graphically. Use @ CAS to perform the following steps: 8) Plot the function y = f(x) near the point x» being approached. 1) Guess the valve ofthe limit L and then evaluate the lit sym bolcally to see if you guessed correctly. ©) Using the value e = 02, graph the banding lines yy =~ € and yi = L-+6 together with the fanction J near xy 4) From your graph in part (estimate a3 > 0 such tat forall x Show that O [fQ)-Li O*. tis You an get high nevertheless convenient to describe the behavior off by saying that f(x) approaches asyouantby 00 as x > OF. We write {aking elas enough {00 Nomater how 1 high Bic te graph sim, f(s) = Jim, = In writing this, we are nor saying that the limit exists, Nor are we saying that there is a real number 00, for there is no such number. Rather, we are saying that lim, .o- (1/x) does not exist because 1/x becomes arbitrarily large and positive asx 0% a [As x > 07 the values of (x) = I/x become arbitrarily large and negative. Tow =B the Given any negative real number ~B, the values of f eventually lie below ~B. (See ‘raph gor lowe. Me 125) ve wee You can getas low as| L ran ki Mooeeemagnes Hy £0) = Ty 129 Onesided infinite limits: Again, we are not saying thatthe limit exists and equals the number ~o0. There is no real number ~o0. We are describing the behavior of a function whose limit as 1 1 Mm =e and fin om x + 0° does not exist because its values become arbitrarily large and negative.1.30. Near x =1, the function = WG~ 1) behaves the way the function y = tx behaves near x =0. Its graph isthe graph of y= tx shifted 1 Unit to the right. ‘No mater how igh he pap oe: higher ° 131 The graphs of the functions in Example 5. 1.4. Extensions of the Limit Concept 81 EXAMPLE 4 One-sided infinite limits 1 1 Find lim, ‘and. im wah ga MD FT Geometric Solution The graph of 1 unit tothe right (Fig. 1.30). Therefore, way y= 1/x behaves near 0: 1 tim = 00 and tim = ~00. /(& — 1) is the graph of y = 1/x shifted /(x — 1) behaves near 1 exactly the Analytic Solution Think about the number x ~ 1 and its reciprocal. As x > 1*, wwe have (x — 1) > OF and I/(x — 1) > 00, Asx > 1°, we have (x — 1) + 0 and 1/( = 1) > ~00. Q EXAMPLE 5 Two-sided infinite limits Discuss the behavior of ee 1 bgt = LG near x > = Be Solution 8) As x approaches zero ftom either side, the values of 1/x* are positive and ‘become arbitrarily large (Fg. 1.318): 1 jim F(x) = lim, Fae 1) The graph of g(x) = 1/( +3)? isthe graph of f(x) = 1/2? shifted 3 units the left Fig. 1.316). Therefore, ¢ behaves near ~3 exactly the way f behaves near 0. 1 im, (8) = Jim, hs = 00. a The function y= /x shows no consistent behavior as x —+ 0. We have Lx > coifx + OF butl/x + —ooifx — 0°. All wecan say about lim,-.o (1/x) is that it does not exist. The function y = 1/x*is different. Its values approach in- finity asx approaches zero from either side, so we can say that limp (I/x2) = 0°. EXAMPLE 6 — Rational functions can behave in various ways near zeros of their denominators. (@-2P @-2y? 2 ig Fain Saas ° a, » in aa I Gard a 2-3 x=3 negative: ° Inna 7 Gopaed fory = 2a near?82 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity ie) ——_+—-: SURFS 1.32 Diagram for the definition of righthand limit a 9 rar} % 1.33 Diagram for the definition of leftchand limit. 2-3 The values are positive ® jn MD (= 2x +2) for x < 2, x ear 2 7 A= ees notenist Seana © ty 53 ty ARF er mca sea Qo iy 2) _ yt © im gaa Gao ES Go In pars (a) and (b) the effect of the zero in the denominator ax = 2 is canceled because the numerator is zero there also. Thus a finite limit exists. This is not true in part (f), where cancellation still leaves a zero in the denominator. a Precise Definitions of One-sided Limits ‘The formal definition of two-sided limit in Section 1.3 is readily modified for ‘one-sided limits. Definitions Right-hand Limit We say that f(x) has righthand limit Z at xo, and write lim, f(x) =L (See Fig. 1.32) oe if for every number ¢ > 0 there exists a corresponding number 8 > 0 such that forall x wexrcuts 3 [fe)-L 0 there exists a corresponding number 6 > O such that forall x wd If-Li If)-Li 0 such that forall x Os. 2, We say that (x) approaches minus infinity as x approaches xo, and write Jim f(x) = = if for every negative real number ~B there exists a corresponding 5 > 0 such that forall x O fy <-B, ‘The precise definitions of one-sided infinite limits at xp are similar and are stated in the exercises. 135 fim f= —=, Exercises 1.4 Finding Limits Graphically 1. Which of the following statements about the function y= f(x) a) ‘raped here are true, and which ae false? lim foy=t im f00) = tim 00) © lim fx) exists 1) lim fey =o e) lim fasy=1 hy tim feay=a fy =0 Dim fay =2 fy =0 Fs) does not exis. — 1)84 Chapter mits and Continuity 2. Which ofthe following statements about the function y= f(x) Bb) Des ima fs) exist? Iso, what? IF not, why nt? raphe here ae true, and which are false? ©) Find fim f(3) and lime" f. 4) Doeslim f(s) exit? Iso, whats M nt, why no? 0 rs0 SUO=Vegh eno, » 2 dm fea? © lim foy=t 1) lim 7) dows notes. 8) “im fo) = tim fo) 1) ig sedetatvery cite open era 1, i very cinthe open intra (3). Dim s0=0 10M Pe drsmtesit eesti 0) ex va si a why Bon xe? 1) Does time a) exis so, what isi ft, why noe? aia say={y ©) Does imag fx) exis? If 0, wha isi? If ot Why m0? [pe see vsin(1/), a) Find lim, f(x) and lim. f(x). 1b) Does tim. f(x) exist? Iso, what is it? If not, why noe? pinnae yal fiom mey eat eee ee (Gores Maen) 8) Does Him.» g(x) exist? If 0, what isi? I not, why not? 1) Does lim, -y- g(x) exist? If so, what isi? If not, why not? ©) Does limyrg (8) exis? If 50, what i ie? Lf not, why not? 20) Gap say=[hr 241 bb) Find tim, y- f(a) and tim, +f. 8) Find tim, .ys f(0)lim- Sand (2). ©) Does ims: f(x) exist? IFs0, what isi? If no, why not?1b) Find im, y+ f(a) and tim, - f(. ©) Does Tim, J(x) exist? 1F50, what i ie? IF not, why not? Graph the functions in Exercises 9 and 10. Then answer these ques- 8) What are the domain and range of? Dy Ac what points cif any, does lime f(x) exist? ‘©) At what points does only the feft-hand limit exis? 4) At what points does only te right-hand Timit exist? VF if osx 9. fos if Vsx<2 if v=? x if -1<2<0, o Oex sin & 2.) lim ou) > fig oud Infinite Limits Fin he ints in eres 21-32 1 s 7 ae oe 1 Me Soa Mrs 3 tim AO Exercises 1.4 85 28, im ——" lin 520 & lp Zs 32. : Find the limits in Exercises 33-6. 33. lim tans M 38. lim (1 +se8) 36. 2 cota) Additional Calculations Find the limits in Exercises 37-42. 37. lim a by roe ° @ ror 38, tim a by sor ° a sor 39, lim a by x0 ° a) root 40, tim a by x2 ° a x50 4, tim a b) roo ° @ x52 ©) What, if anything, can be said about the limit as x ~» 0? 3Br42 tim St a) x2 by x2 Oro @ ror ©) What, if anything, can be said about the limit as x —> 0? Find the limits in Exercises 43-46. 4 tim (2-35) a) sot » 10"86 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity sin (de 09) e ee Shs: 4m (35+ ps) * tao 9 x20 bao oroh aioe sin (2 a) x0" by x0 9 oxrr @ rr ‘Theory and Examples 47. Once you know Him, y+ (2) and fim,..-_ (2) a an intesor point ofthe domain off do you then know li fs)? Give reasons for your answer. 48, IF you know dha im. f(2) exists, cam you find its value by calculating lim, 4)? Give reasons for your answer. 49. Suppose that fis an odd function of x Does knowing that Time (2) = 3 el you anything about lim, 2)? Give reasons for your answer. 50, Suppose that f is an even function of x Does knowing that Tim,_- (2) =7 well you anything about either lim, .-»- (8) or lim,» /(4)? Give resoas for your answer Formal Definitions of One-sided Limits S51, Given ¢ > 0, find an interval 1 = (5.5-+).8 > 0, such that i sc lies in 1, then z= < e. What limit i being verified and what sits valve? ‘52, Given ¢ > 0, find an inerval 1 = (4~ 8,4), 8 > 0, such that if “lies in J then J4=2x <<. What limit is being verified and hati its value? Use the definitions of righthand and left-hand limits to prove the limit statements in Exercises $3 and 54, 83. lim 2 = 54. im an Boa 55. Find (a) fim, 9° Lx) and () lim,-g- [2]; then use limit def initions to verify your findings. (€) Based on your conclusions in (and @b), can anything be said about lim, .4o Lx)? Give reasons for your answers. Psin(l/, x <0 vi x20. Find (a) lime f(2) and (b)limso- f(2); then use limit definition to verify your findings. (e) Based on your conclusions in (@) and (b), can anything be said about limo (1)? Give reasons for your answer. 56. Let fo The Formal Definition of Infinite Limit Use formal definitions to prove the limit statements in Exercises 57-60 57. lim 1 = st 2! 39. lim — 8 aaa 1 ma Formal Definitions of Infinite One-sided Limits G1, Here is the definition of infinite right-hand limit. ‘We say tat f(x) approaches infinity asx approaches from the right, and write lim, f(2) =0, if, for every postive real number B, there exists a comrespond ing number 8 > 0 such that forall x wweremts > fO)>B. “Modify the definition to cover the following cases. 8) im foo) b) lim fox) © tim f(x) = ~c0 Use the formal definitions fom Exercise 61 0 prove the limit state rents in Exercises 62-67. in baw 64. im 66. tim,15 Continuity 87 Continuity ‘When we plot function values generated in the laboratory or collected in the field, we often connect the plotted points with an unbroken curve to show what the function’s values are likely to have been at the times we did not measure. In doing So, we are assuming that we are working with a continuous function, a function whose outputs vary continuously with the inputs and do not jump from one value to another without taking on the values in between. ‘So many physical processes proceed continuously that throughout the eigh- teenth and nineteenth centuries it rarely occurted to anyone to look for any other kind of behavior. It came as quite a surprise when the physicists of the 1920s discovered that the vibrating atoms in a hydrogen molecule can oscillate only at discrete energy levels, that light comes in particles, and that, when heated, atoms emit light at discrete frequencies and notin continuous spectra. As a result ofthese and other discoveries, and because of the heavy use of discrete functions in com- puter science and statistics, the issue of continuity has become one of practical as Well as theoretical importance. In this section, we define continuity, show how (0 tell whether a function js continuous at a given point, and examine the intermediate value property of ‘continuous functions Continuity at a Point In practice, most functions of a real variable have domains that are intervals or unions of separate intervals, and itis natural to restrict our study of continuity to functions with these domains. This leaves us with only three kinds of points to consider: interior points (points that lie in an open interval in the domain), Heft ‘endpoints, and right endpoints. Definition ‘A function f is continuous at an interior point lim fa) = fo) of its domain if In Fig. 1.36 on the following page, the first function is continuous at x = 0 ‘The function in (b) would be continuous if it had f(0) = 1. The function in (c) would be continuous if f(0) were 1 instead of 2. The discontinuities in (b) and (©) are removable. Each function has a limit as x 0, and we can remove the discontinuity by setting f(0) equal to this limit. ‘The discontinuities in parts ()-(P) of Fig. 1.36 are more serious: limo (®) does not exist and there is no Way to improve the situation by changing fat 0. The step function in (d) has a jump discontinuity: the one-sided limits exist but have different values. The function f(x) = 1/x? in (e) has an infinite discontinuity. Jumps and infinite discontinuities ae the ones most frequently encountered, but there are others. The function in (f) is discontinuous at the origin because it oscillates too much to have a limit as x — 0.88 Chapter 1 @ 1.36 The function in (a) is continuous at ‘= 0; the functions in (b)-f) are not. ayn int x incorrectly graphed in connected mode, Limits and Continuity on KK Lon y 3 © @ Technology Deceptive Pictures A graphing utility (calculator or Computer ‘Algebra System—CAS") plots a graph much as you do when plotting by hand: by plotting points, or pixels, and then connecting them in succession. The resulting picture may be misleading when points on opposite sides of a point Cf discontinuity in the graph are incorrectly connected. To avoid incorrect connections some systems allow you to use a “dot mode,” which plots only the points. Dot mode, however, may not reveal enough information to portray the true behavior of the graph. Try the following four functions on your graphing device. If you can, plot them in both “connected” and “dot” modes, xtintx atx =2 jump discontinuity ym 1 yrasin= — atx=0 oscillating discontinuity atx=2 infinite discontinuity atx=2 removable discontinuity b) yy =xTint x correctly graphed in dot mode.