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‫ ﺳﻼم ﺣﺳﯾن اﻟﮭﻼﻟﻲ‬.‫ﻣﻊ ﺗﺣﯾﺎت د‬
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*(! " G + !} G J + 6. 6
296 .................................................. 9F9A AS: J " G 7. 6
296 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?z8S C
297 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
x * ($ . R y T .
*( ( +"* . ... +(
? | }w y 9t y " h<9Ty {Zqy
zz |Q@ . .
301 , h vvvvv H L G ,f O H C G W G : G G
( "+ L d h ,Z Q= z | z< Q<

" + (+ O J hQ
301 ......................................................... ?|Ot| 1. 7
301 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~wzy ? w 9w }y ? qzMy + +! + G + G 2. 7
303 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9g< ? C;C ? | }wy ?at y

O } G + + ( | }wy RGJy G " G vvvvv , ( G G 3. 7
306 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . QL ;f9q@ i C J 4. 7
308 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? Qjy ? 9 y z=y }

* h G *(! " G JGQ ( G ( ! 5. 7
313 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . z tAy } y , + G ( " G 6. 7
316 .................... ,!(*} Ry ?aS < ? | }wy 9t y { wW@

G YQ G G ( + ( G W " G + 7. 7
15
321 ................................................. ? p9\ ?gy9a| + E 8. 7
322 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?z8S C
322 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
323 9@ Q|9v .
G
v
S J Q< hQ ........................ ? *(!9"y G J 9=vQ C #|9Dy G : G {Zqy G
323 ......................................................... ?|Ot| 1. 8
326 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? t=ay ? 9 y 9=vQ}y

+ G *(! " G J G 2. 8
332 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 9 y ;S
*(! " G c } My 9=vQ|
Gh W (+ G J 3. 8
334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?=vQ}y ? 9 y 9} TGy G *(! " G J + G 4. 8
339 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?Y;My G 5. 8
339 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
343 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+8*R@ G J 9 +! h QAwy Gh j (!9"y G S 9t + C III

G .
J 9S9t C G JGQ(ASR! Q@ #| ?* Qw+C 9+!

G h G J h QAwy ,p OtAy hS9Ay
G e G : G {Zqy G
345 {j =V + QO
p
f 9p 9F . . . . . . ?*(!9"y 9S9tC
f G J G JGQ (ASR! Q@ ] ?* Qw+C G E h G
345 ......................................................... ?|Ot| 1. 9
347 . . . . . ? Qw }y 9 QAwy ? 9t@

*
h + G J +!
h G ! h JGQ ASR Q@ y ? M 9@ Qd
( ! G ) E + * Q I ! 2. 9
352 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;Y }y 9Z US
J ( G a ! C C 3. 9
362 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MOS ASR QAy {}f ? < (

Q ! G G h +" 4. 9
373 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASR QAy 9g< ~ GJ@

Q ( ! G G O C + 5. 9
376 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q jZy 9g< { f9q|

I + G O } G + 6. 9
: ? 9 y MOSFET y
*(! " G ASR Q@
vvv G JGQ ( ! G 7. 9
380 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?g 9Wy CMOS

F G JG Q ASR Q@ ? 9t@ h S @
( ! G ! + (
395 ....................................... g}y CMOS y Og< 9|

(%
O G vv G 8. 9
400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?Y;My G 9. 9
402 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T| F
405 ......................................................... uJz}y )C( G
406 ....................................................... uJz}y )H( G
406 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
16
409 c : p { 9w | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+8*R@ 9+! QAwy QV9gy {Zqy
( R + F + G J h G : G G
G QA p
"
p
jO 9 z} S9|
(! + + h
410 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 8 R Gy R F + * G9 s 9 < u Q_
I % } G S + h A " FG h JGhOC 1.10
417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? zY }y 9S9 s + ( G J + 2.10
428 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Ay f ?}F9 y { f9q}y ? JWy {t 9 y

Q + G # " G + Gh " G ! J + B 3.10
433 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?z|9w}y 9 G @ QAS G J + + G G 4.10
435 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9F9A AS J " G 5.10
435 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? p9\ ?gy9a| + E 6.10
436 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T| F
437 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
439 ( y U Qi 9 F * G + ....... IO Qq "C G J !

9 QAwy h G J 9 +! h QAwy E : QWf jO 9 A G {Zqy G
................................... 9 tq Qq }y QAwy =f
k
439 + ! O " G fh G Q ( 1.11
454 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? zY }y u 9p Qq }y QAwy+ ( G F ASR Q@

O " G fh G Q ( ! G 2.11
461 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qq }y QAwy O " GASR Q@ P q @

fh G JGQ ( !
G + " 3.11
462 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qq }y QAwy O " G fhASR Q@ 9t =a@ G JGQ ( ! G J + 4.11
467 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?Y;My G 5.11
467 ............................................................. { 9T| F
468 ......................................................... uJz}y )C( G
470 ....................................................... uJz}y )H( G
473 ....................................................... uJz}y )L( G
476 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
481 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+T+a"jC G J 9| d ( "C ,p ?*(!9"y ?!9tAy IV

G G G .
! *(!9! )"< QWf P9Dy {Zqy

?zY | rZ ? ( : G G
483 , @;p { 9w | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+|(}wy ?=S(Jzy

+ F + G
483 ................................... ? | }wy ?=S Jzy ? 9 < + ( G ( *(! ! )" 1.12
484 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? | }wy ?=S Jy 9 | L + ( G ( G J + RQG ( 2.12
17
485 .................................... | }wy
, ( Ay >v QAy G jRG ( Gh G G 3.12
487 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? | }wy > S Jy u tJ@ 9=zaA|

+ ( G + (
G G + J 4.12
489 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B< wy 9 < p ~ OAy 9}gAS

(+ G A " , *
h G d G 5.12
491 . . . . . . . . . ? | }v ?at p 9 QAwy 9} OA< ? | }wy ?=S Jy

+ ( ! , J ! h E J *
h + ( G ( G 6.12
493 ....................... f ( +w zS p qS p < ? | }v ?=S I

, Q ( ( IG (" + ( ( 7.12
496 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?Y;My G 8.12
496 ............................................................. { 9T| F
497 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
x
9 y ....... + + " C +% (C
k
499 #!("* $ & hC 9 T a j| ?| 9t h G JG R GAy Gh OG G : QWf Ey9Dy {Zqy G G
499 ........................................................ ?|Ot| 1.13
500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? T a j}y ?| 9t}y QY9 f

+ + " G h G " 2.13
517 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? T a j}y Qv Py
+ + " G I Qty G Gh I AG G ShDQ 3.13
537 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?Y;My G 4.13
537 ............................................................. { 9T| F
539 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
#+ @9v . ( F . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,T+a"jC RB QY9"f QWf h< Qy {Zqy r
F 9 9A p . Q<
541 , C fGOQ G f G : G G G
Q (+!( ! !( C J hQ h
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T a j}y RMy y {LO|

r
541 , + " G f G ) E 1.14
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9 =y RL p 9 @9t =a@ ? T a j}y US

r
545 J ! + G f , % + h + + " G C 2.14
551 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ GJAy h ZAy 9 9t@ + Gh +" G J ! 3.14
562 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?Y;My G 4.14
562 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { 9T| F
563 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
565 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?+z|9wAy G J 9| d ( "C ,p ?*(!9"y ?!9tAy V

G G G .
567 f 9A i {w 9| . . . . . . . . . . . ?+z|9wAy
+ * G J 9| d( "C ] G E {LO| : QWf U|9 B G {Zqy G
567 ........................................................ ?|Ot| 1.15
18
570 ..................... MST y MEMS y h Z@ 9 9t@ ?gF Q|
vvv Gh vvv G +" J ! G 2.15
577 ..... jh Qw }y QAwy h ZAy h| Qw }y { jWAy ?z|9w|

+ G ,! h G +" G jh + G + G 3.15
583 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . {=tAT}y QWAS G aG G 4.15
586 ............................................................. { 9T| F
586 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
589 ,j ( *q 9q AS . . . . . ?*(!9"y ?+w+!9w+| Q%wy ?}d!} QWf

E f + G h G G : SO 9Ty {Zqy
G G
Q 9 9F 9V _ k z|
$ hQ Q ( , " (* O @ 9|
#+ Q
589 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NEMS y | MEMS y | vvv G # h vvv G # 1.16
591 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NEMS y r Y @ JaTy { jWAy vvv G + ( h , G + G 2.16
592 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NEMS y x |9 vvv G + "* O 3.16
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NEMS y p O=}y 9 z}gy

x
608 vvv G , IO G J + G 4.16
616 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? | }wy ? QAwy R F h| NEMS y {|9w@

+ ( G +! h G I % } G vvvv G 5.16
zf 9ty NEMS :y ) C vvvv Y Gz 6.16
619 .......................... <Qwy 9 y = x 9w | 9

,! ( G j (! " G H ( !} G +! + (! !
621 .............................................................. ?z8S C
621 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
wT@ .
( . ......... + +! +
? w 9 w | Qw +C 9TJ C QWf h<9Ty {Zqy
9 =S. . x Qp: . .
625 ,S GO L H h G J G : G G
c +" + L e h , * a f
625 ........................................................ ?|Ot| 1.17
627 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? w 9w }y 9} y + +! + G LP " G 2.17
635 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? F QMAS: Qty h ZAy + G G IAG Gh +" G 3.17
641 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? w 9w | Qw }y 9TJ}y
+ +! + h + G J G AGOC 4.17
646 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . @9 y 9TJ| 9t =a@ r " G J J + 5.17
652 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [Mz| 6.17
653 .............................................................. ?z8S C
654 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
19
659 ................................ S 9t + C ?*(!9"y ?+! G G h QAwy G J *
9 QZ=y G .VI
? +! h QAwy !} G *
? QZ=y ?}d G G : QWf #|9Dy G {Zqy G
9p9p } 9S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9+|(}v ( ZJC

k
661 OQ f ( * vvvvv IQ v G
661 ........................................................ ?|Ot| 1.18
664 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zwV ? | }wy 9t y 9 s ?SO

& h + ( G W " G S + "$ 2.18
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 @ ?g}G| ? | }v 9t y ? QZ=y [ 9ZMy

k
668 + GP + ( W " * G F G 3.18
675 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? | }wy 9t y p ?s9ay

+ ( G W " G , AT| ?SO G i ( "$ 4.18
681 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qq | ? | }v ?at ? p9 a|
IO " + ( ! + + 5.18
683 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? | }wy ?at y R F + ( G " G I % C 6.18
706 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? | }v ?at y ? 9 y =zy hs }y ?SO

+ ( " *(! " G )" ( G "$ 7.18
707 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [Mz| 8.18
708 .............................................................. ?z8S C
710 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
+!
9 5 *(!9"y )"=y QWf hS9Ay
QAwy y ? {Zqy
..
J h G G : G G
719 #+ zq +$ Q L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?*(]gy ?*QZ=y G G
719 ........................................................ ?|Ot| 1.19
721 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? Q} y =y ? ]gy ]zy ?Df9=y

* + ( Gh *( G A ( Oy G JGO (* G 2.19
727 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? ]Ay qy Q} y =y + (
F ( G JG + ( G 3.19
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 @ ?g}G| ? aL Q i ? ]f ? QZ< |
k
735 + GP + + *( * OG ( 4.19
743 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [Mz| 5.19
744 .............................................................. ?z8S C
745 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
9 Tv 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? +!(@(qy ( z=y
q
749 , + f ! (* v G JGQ v G :fh QWgy {ZqyG G
y
( (* 9@9|9v
h , 9vjQhh
749 ........................................................ ?|Ot| 1.20
751 .................... IQ ( dJ}y G J 9s9a y ? @ qy " Gh +!( ( G J 9s9a y < " G )" 2.20
20
.......................... Qw }y h ZAy9< ? @ qy z=y
q
754 jh + G +" +!( ( G JGQ ( G 3.20
759 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . @ Py h }GAy ?aS < ? @ p

, G G + z< G G ( +!( ( JGQ ( 4.20
772 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r y Azy ?z<9ty + ( My ? @ qy G UG ( z=y G JGP +!( ( G JGQ ( G 5.20
775 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [Mz| 6.20
777 .............................................................. ?z8S C
778 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?*(+A ?*(!9"y ?!9 tAy G G v G . VII

787 QW * O .U
E
q
+! O ...... ? *(+A )"=y ,v9; ?*(!9! )"<

G G :fh QWgy Gh OI y {Zqy G ( G G
787 ..... ?v 9W}y

Q G JG Q} y =y
+ ( ? zMy 9J
Gh , *( 9}y ?|Ot|
G JGA * Gh ,A G : 1.21
;Z Jy ? Oy ; P}y J *( Gh *Oh G J * G 2.21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? zAv ?vQAW| Q} y < | 9s;a

k
790 + JG + ( # ! G
794 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?f }y ?s9ay ~zf ~GJy > P}y(+ Gh G , G , * G 3.21
797 ........ , 9| zJ| p ?vQAW}y Q} y =y | 9| Q} y =y

F (
d , G JG + ( G # J hR + ( G 4.21
801 . . . . . . . . . . . . ? Wi + }O Oy ?y9I p QtAS: 9TGy r y @

Gh fG * G , QG Gh IA G + ( 5.21
803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?f 9 Z y p ; Z J y " G , J *( G 6.21
803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . QL ?p G| hs s ? p9\ ?y 9=A| ? Q} y < { f9q|

i C ( (
G h + E O * + ( + 7.21
805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? Jy r 9c y *(+ G =y h| ? =y aTy

F ( Gh )" G +"+ G M ( G 8.21
807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RF | ( 9.21
808 .............................................................. ?z8S C
809 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
813 J O }V v9F . . . . . . ?*(+A ?+8*R@

+ H ( G G J 9 vQ J
vvvvvvvv C G :fh QWgy Gh P9Dy G {Zqy G
(" i9} A | y 9v
+ !( ( Q h
813 ........................................................ ?|Ot| 1.22
MEMS ? Qw }y ? w 9w | Q wy ?}d *
h + I G + ! + h % G !} G d ( 2.22
815 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? Jy ? 8 RGy 9vQJ}y *(+ G + * G J Gh
818 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Aq c ?vQJ}y 9 @ Q=y {}f % + hh G J "+ h G 3.22
21
826 .......................... ? @ Q=y 9vQJ}zy ? Jy 9 9tAy
+"+ h G J *(+ G J ! G 4.22
831 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 8 RGy 9vQJ}y ?SO

+ * G J zfG "$ h e ( 5.22
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+! G J + G , + * G J G E 6.22
846 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?Y;My G 7.22
847 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? p9\ Qs + E JG AG
848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?z8S C
848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
853 f 9 $ f j F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? *(!9"y ? +g 9C
(+ ! ( vvv G vv F G :fh QWgy Gh Ey9Dy {Zqy
G G
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856 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . QA| 9 y
j (! " Gh jh Qw }y 9 t}y p h }y
+ G S + G , (
FG G 2.23
868 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? g 9}y ? 9 9T}y ? 9 R F h Z@

+ F G *(! ! h e G *(! ! I % C +" 3.23
873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 9 y 9 g 9}y 9t =a@

*(! " G J + F G J + 4.23
880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RF | ( 5.23
881 .............................................................. ?z8S C
882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hF Q}y G G
887 ........................................ )j R zG+ ! NQf E vvvv ( J 9JzaZ C

G B=C
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G B=C
975 ..................................................................... S Q
vvvv %p
22
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w (dK 9 u @ C QP 9 t P9 b? 4 pP Q9 X? : G i G G IQO
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v D v v v! G i v , v v G v v v v v G g v% v e v C fC , v +
v v *
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k k
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vvv vvv vvv C vvv vvv vvv vvv vvv vvv vvv G &+ vvv vvv vvv vvv vvv C vvv vvv , vvv , vvv vvv vvv G Q vvv vvv vvv vvv *( vvv hC
x z } y ? O | < 9 g A y9 < ? z T z T y P Q W @
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vv vv Gh dh vv vv vv Gh ,g +
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vv vv vv vv vv Gh ,J vv + vvF +
vv vv vv + vv h vv vv vv Gh
Q ay 9]qy 9 ]y : 9 Z @: 9 QAwy
+ 9| zg}y + ( +! (
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+ Gh , G OG ( Gh , Gh
p 9 F 9 | 9 ] { g q @ A y <Q g y A J } z y z y O = f x z } y 9 = | 9 D y9 C
k
x k
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QC y O @ E I B QA p ? <Q g y ? j z y ] I f : O = y
k
AG vvvv E ) vvvv E a vvvv % vvvv vvvv + vvvv , vvvv ! vvvv vvvv ! G , vvvv +
vvvv vvvv vvvv vvvv G vvvv vvvv vvvv G Q ( vvvv vvvv # vvvv hC vvvv " vvvv vvvv G
R R g y O = f x z } y ? O | 9 P q @ A y h 9 W } y | O f Q = f <Q g y A J } y
* "* $ " , * # , (
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g $ #
vv zgzy vv h vv % vv Q vv h vv vv vv vv vv G vv GO vv vv vv vv vv J %
vv vv vv fh vv vv vv vv vv +" vv vv vv vv Gh e ( vv vv vv vv
&A I9 @ vv s { w V z f ~ 9 t y < Q g y A J } y ? } sQ A w y ? } FQ A < u z g A 9 | 9 | B Q A ? w = V z f

m
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23
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vv vv vv G vv E i vv G J vv vv vv G vv vv vv vv vv vv vv vv vv vv G i vv vv vv vv G AG vv E vv vv vv vv vv vv vv
+ ! , G Q G * h a % + G
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v v v v Gz v v O v v v G J v v v v v G v v v v v v v v v v v v v v G v v v v
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f C ; C ? C; C f } G | 9 | z f ? | O t A } y ? G @ Q A S: 9 t A y > A v ? z T z S
( vv vv h vv vv & vv ( vv vv vv vv ) vv vv vv vv vv vv vv Gh +
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IQO vv vv vv vv vv vv f vv vv vv vv vv vv G vv vv vv vv vv Gh e vv vv vv vv vv vv vv G vv vv vv vv vv G vv vv vv vv vvF vv R
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24
I

Nanoscale Fabrication
and Characterization
25
26

Nanolithography
(*)
. .

(**)
.
.
Introduction 1.1

"

)% * # +% (
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L. R. Hariott, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, VA.
(**)
R. Hul, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, VA.
27
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;
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; /1& / ((State-Of-Art Instruments) 9
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accuracy)

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3
3
FEI FIB 200 k 1B3 F .FIB k #

L 4 ' , ; / 2& R= ,$ d k ,# %
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63
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0.5 3 00 F J ' 00 K@ I '
+ 4 5I? B # 6 ?& .& nA – sec µm
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,
? K@

>
4 K $
+
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L×L (µm)2 K@ (nm)
(2I%) (nm) (pA)
5 30×30 10 000 300 70 100(1)
120 150×150 250 000
5 100x100 10 000 1000
120 500×500 250 000
7 300×300 10 000 3000 6000 1000(2)
100
70 1000×1000
000(3)
7 1000×4000 10 000 10 000
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500 nm

(2)
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(1)
:

.

64

$5
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A +
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A 1% %

R$& ,$ +% Q $ 2' (Dwell time)
% , $# :
89 ,
$
.=$ L Q ,$ 9&
+
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; = ; (9$!
18
.; % %
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1%
= $ : (4 ; M
3 % ,
$ Q $
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2A P
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, 1% :
4 '&
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:
E= 2&
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H3G % B
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.2.1
3

>> (Yield) % ,# (+ % H>$ ( 3

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(100 – 1000)
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100 nm
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(Microcontact Printing) <
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65

(Atomic Force Microscope) .7.1
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1 /1 pA ,-
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)
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.
A (Paremeters)
67
Other factors ># ? ..5.1
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# 100 µm , <] )' * 2' 100 nm
, (

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2' ' # : 89 Q
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% ] )'A ,
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3 % ,7 ( 100 nm ,
# 2' =%
.$
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Q
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3
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68
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69
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A &

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28
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F % 1
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Emerging nanolithographies A; .6.1

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2&
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Microcontact printing techniquies
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9 9& 31 9 ) ' @ = ?

4" J 9.1
,(Elsevier
71
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23

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72
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$ B =

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(= 2' Pentadydrate for Hexadecanethiol)
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* ,$
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100 k ,
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$ , ' D& $& (3
.applications)

:0
2' ( A 2 : ,$ (4
.Nano- and 34Micro-fluidic Applications
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%
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Nanoimprinting techniques 1 C ..6.1

(<3
F A 2' (

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0

S / (!
.(Nanoimprinting) <
S !
(Transition
% 4% 3 )
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2' (Topographic master)
Q 2& E ,# 0 ; Q (D31 temperature)
73
/ B
( = : ,$ ,&
) !
3
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# % & H B

, ,$
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$
36
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4
" 2 )

F
G

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<
S A

# (

# (
$5 1%
(Master) 0 ; '
$> L ; 9! / 89 .*#
<#
# (
A 1%
) ,' & (3 ' / (S .,K <
4 T>
((<% 8 , 4 2& ) D31
% 4% 3 ,
2&
((3= )
>A 3 4 2& ) 3= )
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#
S ,%A $#
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L 4 15 ((Reactive Ion Etching-RIE) '=
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35
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38
40
S

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B 3 S Gb #
: (
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pG ,%
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)
+
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.<
:

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.(American Vacuum Society) 3
1 F
74
D' !2 .0.6.1
Scanning probe based techniques
49 : 2' 4 H ! K % Q E3

"
$ 2" ' Eigler L& '
3 0G A
! $ (49
!3
' 41
.E% , C
2' % 9 (Quantum Corrals)
K : % E3 E# '= 4 !> # 2' (3 = :3) Q E3
0B % 9f 0 89

. #
# 1 nm
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B% /
49 ! 2 : 2' 4 $ ((Ultimate spatial resolution) 0=
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H>$
C& ,$ +% (Atomically engineered structures)
<# (

Q E3 *# ) , C& / .4 3
$
.,
$ $] Q
# (
# 3
4 2' ' '
42,43
>
#
) 3 ' ,
$ ,# # 9$! Q G ,$
E3 "$ " k 4 K % (= 3

# B3 ,$
((

,$ .100 µm/s 2& 1 , C
' E# ' : (Q ' 8% '
/ /
(35 11 (Cantilever tips) M9@ E
] , H0= /
44
.,
$ J
: 1 cm2 2% % E# == 50
(Dip-Pen Nanolithography- EL /

/
E3
4 3 ,' 4' !
(,$ '
3 , DPN)
T (Meniscus) B Q Q (EL /

45
.Q
L <9 0 , 013 K
E# , $> $> <9
<
Q :
'= ("%"
#)
0 ,$ 97 .H B Q 2& E#
11 ,$ +% (41$ 2& E# , 013 4

89 ,7 (R
k @ 1 ,7 .4 (Nanostructures)
2 2& < ] ,# 0$
46
9
((B%
/ 10 nm 2
%
J') ' 9 B# ! DPN
1% %
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$ E3 / ,$ RA) ' 3 4
4 9
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(] =

(41$
A
)
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A > 2'

F
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A
75
$ B 0 '
! P9B 0 ;
47
.(Oligonuclotides
2' 4 89 (35 ,% 4 H0= #
. %
E#
46
%
E# R3

Summary 72 7.1

100 k ,
: C

, '
3
•
9 B3 E
]
(
A
(
$5
(

= / (nm
.$$ E
# (Q E3
# (,

=) kk 5 ' 100 nm k ,

/ •
E
]
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.
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% 2&

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76
4 J
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•
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B $>A ,

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.%
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<
$
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x % <1

%
4 T> $ T : $ ' $ 9& .2
4 2' T
4 > : (L ') B
4 $ Q ,# L (Q (Resolve) % 3A
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4 = /
.Q , ,$ (=
/
3 4 !> !
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.( $ G ,)
/
(DUV) () 3= )
>A

B : .3
$ 2000 $ 2
% 2&
P9! H$ = (
0$
2 cm3 /

/ (H$ J= $
.,

T> $ $ 97 .200 mm % 41$ 4 ,

2 4
0 ! (0.6 µm 4
x(41$) 2'
T13
1 ;
# ,
$ 4 :
; C> .4
x
E=
E= 2' 3 41 4$9
3
: 3 4L B
1%
/ MOS
1 ;
# ' ' H .5
x;3

# ; : 9 4 / A , ! .
$5
x,
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GaAs , 41$ 4 ,
$ ,# /B !
77
/3% : (41$
# 1% /

$& 1%
/
s '# .6
2A % H ' $ J$ 4 % 30 nm (<#) 1%
x9
(LA Q R \ B <# .(% E
2%
) G ,1
,%= ,
B$ % H%G % ,# ,K .7
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4 %
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A , M
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$N
References 2
1. Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA), “International roadmap for

Semiconductors 2002 update edition”, International SEMATECH,
Austin, TX, 2003.
2. M. D. Levinson, in: Japanese Journal of Applied Physics: vol. 33 (1994),
p. 6765.
3. M. D. Levinson, N. S. Viswanathan, and R. A. Simpson, IEEE Trans.
Electron Devices, vol. ED-29, 1828 (1982).
4. I. C. Kizilyalli, G. P. Watson, R. A. Kohler, O. Nalamasu, and L. R.
Harriott, Electron Devices Meeting, 2000. IEDM Technical Digest.
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Y. C. Pati, Proceedings of SPIE, 3334, p. 2 (1998); M. E. King, N. Cave,
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Sturtevant, R. Tian, D. Russel!, L. Karklin, and Y.-T. Wang, Proceedings
of SPIE, 3679, p. 10 (1999).
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Japanese Journal of Applied Physics: vol. 30 (1991), p. 3012.
7. W. T. Silvast and O. R. Wood II, Microelectronic Engineering, vol. 8, no.
3 (1988); A. M. Hawryluk and L. G. Seppala, Journal of Vacuum Science
and Technology, B6, 2162 (1988); C. W. Gwyn, R. Stulen, D. Sweeney,
and D. Attwood, Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, B16, 3142
(1998).
8. J. P. Silverman, Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, B16, 3137
(1998).
9. R. Feynman, “There's Pleanty of Room at the Bottom: An Invitation to
Enter a New Field of physics,” Talk at the annual meeting of the
American Physical Society, 29 December 1959. Reprinted in Engineering
and Science: vol. 23, no. 22 (1960).
78
10. A. N. Broers and M. Hatzakis, Scientific American, 227, 33 (1972); D.
R. Herriott [et al.], IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, ED-29, 385 (1975).
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Technology 15, 883 (1978); H. C. Pfeiffer, Journal of Vacuum Science
and Technology 15, 887 (1978); M. G. R. Thomson, R. J. Collier, and D.
R. Herriott, Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology 15, 891 (1978).
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1836 (1990).
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(1975), p. 1135
14. J. M. Gibson and S. D. Berger, Appl. Phys. Left. 57, 153 (1990); L. R.
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Mkrtchyan, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B13, 2404 (1995).
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principles, see J. Orloff, Review of Scientific Instruments: vol. 64 (1993),
pp. 1105-1130.
17. For a review of relevant sputtering mechanisms, see A. Benninghoven,
F. G. Rudenauer, and H. W. Werner, Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
(New York: John Wiley, 1987), chap. 2
18. J. Melngailis, in: SPIE Proceedings Vol. 1465, “Electron-Beam, X-Ray
and Ion-Beam Submicrometer Lithographies for Manufacturing,” ed. M.
C. Peckerar 36-49 (SPIE, Bellington, WA, 1991).
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(1989), pp. 870-874.
20. M. H. F. Overwijk and F. C. van den Heuve1, Journal of Applied
Physics: vol. 74, 1993, pp. 1762-1769.
21. R. L. Kubena, F. P. Stratton, J. W. Ward, G. M. Atkinson, and R. J.
Joyce, Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, B7, (1989), pp. 1798-
1801 .
22. See, for example, A. Moser, C. T. Rettner, M. E. Best, E. E. Fullerton, D.
Weller, M. Parker, and M. F. Doerner, IEEE Trans. Magnetics, vol. 36,
2000, pp. 2137-2139.
23. D. M. Longo, W. E. Benson, T. Chraska, and R. Hull, Applied Physics
Letters: vol.78, (2001), pp. 981-983.
24. Y. Liu, D. M. Longo, and R. Hull, Applied Physics Letters: vol. 82
(2003), pp. 346-348.
25. J. Melngailis, Nuclear Instruments and Methods, B80/81, (1993), pp.
1271-1280.
26. Ch. Wilbertz, Th. Maisch, D. Huttner, K. Bohringer, K. Jousten, and S.
Kalbitzer, Nuclear Instruments and Methods, B63 (1992), pp. 120-124.
27. L. Scipioni, D. Stewart, D. Ferranti, and A. Saxonis, Journal of Vacuum
Science and Technology, B18 (2000), pp. 3194-3197.
79
28. J. Melngailis, A. A. Mondeli, I. L. Berry, and R. Mohondro, Journal of
Vacuum Science and Technology, B16 (1998), pp. 927-957.
29. W. H. Bruenger, R. Kaesmaier, H. Loeschner, and R. Springer, Materials
Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 636, D5.5.1-12 (2001).
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28 (1998), pp. 153-184
31. R. Hull, T. Chraska, Y. Liu, and D. Longo, Materials Science and
Engineering, C19, (2002), pp. 383-392.
32. H. Schmid and B. Michel, Macromolecules, vol. 33 (2000), pp. 3042-
3049.
33. T. W. adorn, v. R. Thalladi, J. C. Love, and G. M. Whitesides, Journal of
the American Chemical Society, vol. 124 (2002), pp. 12112-3.
34. See, for example, J. C. Love, J. R. Anderson, and G. M. Whitesides,
Materials Research Society Bulletin: vol. 26 (2001), pp. 523-529, and
references therein.
35. See, for example, S. Y. Chou, Materials Research Society Bulletin: vol.
26 (2001), p. 512 and references therein.
36. M. Colburn, T. Bailey, B. J. Choi, J. G. Ekerdt, S. V. Sreenivasan, and C.
G. Willson, Solid State Technology: vol. 44 (2001), pp. 67-78.
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Vacuum Science and Technology, B15, 2897, 904 (1997).
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847.
39. Molecular Imprints, Inc. 1807-C West Braker Lane, Suite 100 Austin,
TX 78758; Nanonex Corp., P.O. Box 334, Princeton, NJ, 08543.
40. See, for example, H. Schulz, H.-C. Scheer, T. Hoffman, C. M.
Sotomayor Torres, K. Pfeiffer, G. Bleidiessel, G. Grutzner, Ch.
Cardinaud, F. Gaboriau, M.-C. Peognon, J. Ahopelto, and B. Hediari,
Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, B18, 1861 (2000).
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pp. 218-220.
42. S. W. Park, H. T. Soh, C. F. Quate, and S.-I. Park, Applied Physics
Letters: vol. 67 (1995), pp. 2415-2417.
43. E. S. Snow and P. M. Campbell, Science, vol. 270 (1995), p. 1639.
44. S. C. Minne, J. D. Adams, G. Yaralioglu, S. R. Manalis, A. Atalar, and
C. F. Quate, Applied Physics Letters: vol. 73 (1998), pp. 1742-1744.
45. R. D. Piner, J. Zhu, F. Xu, S. Hong, and C. A. Mirkin, Science: vol. 283
(1999), pp. 661-663.
46. C. A. Mirkin, Materials Research Society Bulletin: vol. 26, (2001), pp.
535-538.
47. L. M. Demers, D. S. Ginger, S.-J. Park, Z. Li, S.-W. Chung, and C. A.
Mirkin, Science 296 (2002), pp. 1836-1838.
80

Self-Assembly and Self-Organization
(*)
. .

The advantages of self-assembly

1.2

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Formation, structure and characterization of SAMs on gold
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Gold SAMs: Tools for studing Molecular-Based Electronics

and Creating Nanostructured Materials and patterned
Surfaces
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91
7# U
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.= 78 "& 78
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.
# +
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& $ " /#
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% +
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,
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% A! +>
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C$ "& ' '
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+
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.'
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U( B
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%
,
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K,3 "& (Diacyl 2,6-diaminopyridine) "# U
(Electroactive ' 5 '*8 #! 6, 3 .14' '
>
'$%) '!#
5 '- 7) '
> ', - functionalization)
(Complementary 7 %8 "5! 7% (Noncovalent)
.(K 6.2 7=) .ferrocene-terminated uracil)
92

() .5.2
STM

(i) .

STM

!"
(SAMs)
(ii) %Vb (tip bias) $
#
' *
*
+, SAMs $&
# (iii) -/0 1$
2, Vp
+ ! 3 +! (ii) 3 4
(Oligomers) 5
!6
!7
5
!6
!7 & (iv) -3
8! 3 3 (Oligomers)

STM 9 1!" (/) .
(SAMs)
(Dodecanthiol) !

!
(Oligomers) 5
!6
!7!
: STM 1!" (i) .3
8! ; 3
5'
(+
8) 5<
$ & 2&

(ii) .& +! 1! (Pit) 1!
:' :
!"
1 3 >$$ = *<8
+ +! ?
(iii) .

(iv) .
<!

1!"
!

! (SAMs)
5
!6
!@ <

$$A :
3
=
(Conjugated Oligomers)
+) .?
B

7 : +
" 13
.(4
$

93
7 () ." & $
B 7
/
# %1
6.2
diacyl 2,6-diaminopyridine (DAP) decanethiol (DAP)> STM
B
(Fc-uracil) > 1 7 (<) .
:&

" ; ;
.
D!1 -, +
C "
# &
electroactive & B
+
# (Electroactive guest) & B 71 1 "= " & (@)
+A 14 +) . (Functionalized Uracil) 1"

> )F9#( :

.(

5
/

1 +
94
(Ferrocene-uracil) 7%I%8 " 6E < "&
6.2 7=) 7%

'%% * 0 E
* 3 D0# A
% 5 -=!
40!! 1, -! '!, ",8! G% '5# +
& %
C$ 5(
, .(R
'!L 4%* 4 '$%) )*8
% U `!
49 / 4+=L
# .'# # * +
",8! G% '5#
- < 6:% %! '- +% "$ 4STM '5# &P3
-! )
'!, '
< '
# % $ < "& 5!F& " 4', - 0
" /#
.' /!
4(6.1 %, (! 4μCP (Microcontact) 0 1) '* -

0< B5! "5& 4(Witesides and Coworkers) A) 1
% 7 < +-
.' +% K$ * ', - 0
', - " /# -!
12,15
'
SAMs -! 7= SAMs -! 7= ' '&P3 % '!,
7 4',- C$ "& .Submicron '
' !#

%%3
+
" -- $ (Elastomeric stamp)
# 7 +
* 4" " W (Polydimethylsiloxane PDMS)
K$ + +
* "$ 4"'<" W '-% A,! (Alkanethiol) 73!
P 6-! "& '8 ', - 0
" /# 7
9
.(7.2 7=)
6-! K$ f! 4"> -! D=!
(Underivatized) ',=
',-
% ', - 0
" /# (Underivatized regions) ',= P
.' f!
0 4(Template) A , )
+
* PDMS W * -!
4' &P3 0) 0 /! ' '&P3 !,
% CX=!
P '% '-% '% "$ '!, C$ .($P 4!L ' &P3
95% < > 4'-! ', - 0
" /# +
%! '8

4(Master) '% '%! D=!L -,& 5
% '8 &P3
2 + 9!$ .-! "& C= 7 7 < +
* PDMS W
%
' < "$ ' &P3 * 5 68 (μCP) 0 1) '* -
95
'* - '!,

42 '! .'!! \-% -! "& >
16
" /# "& 7 /<
* 4U->
!* '! %E U μCP 1)
.(SAMs) +8! '
> , -
Dip-Pen Nanolithography ) 1-: , '!! &P3 73

(Mirkin and A) 7 < +- 4(6.1 +,8 (! 4DPN
0
" /# -! "& "'<" " " '!, 73 B5! 4Coworkers)
(Atomic ' +, 5# 1
% * B5! $ 0-! 17.K$ * ', -
Alkanethiol " " 7,! "<" W (4.3 +,8 (!) Force Microscope AFM)
7=) K$ '%%> + 78% (Capillary) '= +$( 7)
'#5! 7 $ /% -! /! ' < % '!, C$ 4 .(8.2
1-: , ',- 49 / 4(μCP) 0 1) '* - ',-
+ ' +, 5# vHs # ' 6- (DPN)
' &P3 73 '8 3 '* ! % -! !, '3 ! % /
.(~ 10 nm) !L
$" .2.1.3.2
Organosilicon monolayers
" (Organosilicon SAMs) '

> 0 % , -
RSiX3) !)%_ Chemisorption " E $X=!
$ X 7> '%% "$ R T 4R3SiX2 R2SiX24(Alkylsilanes)

U! $ '%
5 % G-% * (7> '%% A – 7%
$
.9(SAM) ', - 0
" /# 5 Y
(Alkanethiolate ', - 0
" /# E3! / 7 $
4 - "& 7 "& /# ' '
', - * 7 4SAMs)
)%) -=! G-% '*# U- 7 6- 7> , "& B! $
96
* ', - 0
" /# ' !, .(Silanol 7!)%) + (Silane
"! 7 +
# "* ', - 0
" /# 6, K 4SAM K$
$% +

* 7* 9
4' Alkylsilane )% 7> +
*
+% 7) +
# D ' 4+ '#
:73 5= * +-% "&
- 7) + ', - '
# - .', - 0
/#
+# # / '- 5! * )
& 4'
& (Silanol linkages) 7!)%
# 49 / .G-% * '% (Polysiloxane) %% ' = 7)

' = '#! ': '< G '
> ' % , - F& 45=
4G-% $% '
> ', - - Si-O-Si , -
.5%8!
% * K$ +

, -! '!, - 49
0 73 '
, - * '! '! )*8
%
18
0!! 7,!E '* - '& '!,
% .0 %
"DP" W ', - '
' # 4(Nanotransfer Printing (nTP))
.+ '-! > +

7,! , - "" "$%
, - * , - +
* +
', - +
, -!> '*! '*#
' '! * '!! '! % / (SAMs) '# '

.'- ' '
%
) (Nanotransfer Printing -nTP)

3-Mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane) " ! (9.2
* $% +& $ ' !! %& ! (Wafer) ## $% (MPTMS
+& 10 $% % 2 -! /01 %! PDMS - - & * .
, !
!! $ 6,
78 PDMS $ 6 45 % /01 3 .
,
<!
0 ! .6; <! 9!: $%
! ! SAM " $% 6!
*
$% ! 6; $
= SAM " 9!% - 4! 8 μCP
6; !! ! !> (Edge resolution) & .3
.7&, - & ? &!
97

& (μCP)
H* (>

$
G () 7.2
(<) . <- #
'!( (Hexadecanethiol-HDT) (Alkanethiol)
:
&5
(+
! +

) (Lateral Force Microscope-LFM)
& B + 7
F
/

!
%(
B&
& <- #

7 +
I&
.(16-mercaptohexadecanoic Acid-COOH HDT - CH3)
B,
.H H $ +
K9 J ; " %; + (image contrast)
D&) K9 J F
; F
( K
! L B&

D&) K9 J FG& F
; B,

:
B& SAM > )(MG
.(N O9
" WILEY-VCH + +A 12 +) (!,
98
M *- P .(DPN) H2 !
&&
" :
!!

: () 8.2
'!(
: %/
# <- #
AFM > H +
! (Water meniscus)
" :Q - -
& M *- "
.#

(Octadecanethiol
:
&
5 + " 7 LFM 7 (<) .DPN &
H '!( ODT ! AFM S H M4
& R <- $ '!( Dots)
nm)
&: + 0
/
# + LFM 7 (@) .ca. 20 s > $>

5
1 + +A 17 +) ( " 2 μm L1 " 100
.( !1
99
+ & +

2 (nTP) && &9 ( M?

: () 9.2
+! <- + & +
7 +

+ 7 .(Si) +
! #/ '!( <-
K
* +
; ; (@) )
! + ;; (<) '!( && &9 (
[Organosilsesquioxane ] [(+
!
:9 %9:

) 1 +

!
& 5)
+)
& D
1 '!(
)modified poly(ethylene terephtalate)
.(

5
/

1 + +A 18
100
(Brust and

() 10.2
,-!
*+ (") .'%% "&
! #$% "
! Schiffrin)
.%% SAM '!0 3% 1%% 1 /0!
&%!' #$% ! "

.SAMs , #$% + !

! ! (
! *! "( )!

! ' 2
3 1
! (nTP) 0!

)
/ %/( -'
/ )!% &/( #$% SAM , 5 6' 4/
.&3! 73
! (Dielectrics)

.2.3.2
Organothiol monolayers on faceted metal clusters
(Functionalization) 7>! 6 ;<= :( ! # 89/
"
!( 6 ! SAM - &/ @+ "( ?(=
(Monolayer Protected Clusters- A! " /(/
)
A!
!

&' )B ." !

&'" ,,/ B @MPCs)
! D 33 (/8 @! /
7B <!
.'" !
! 9!
F + $ 6 %!B " A! "= &/(" E "

:(/ / Alkanethiolate-stabilized gold cluster &!E

101
19
K$ G " (Reduction) 7E & 4D#L $ "& .7 -
5# 73 '%: (Ligands)
!:
#

5 $ 7 7* '-%
', - .( 10.2 7=) ' - ' '
> '< ', - "& '!! %#
K$ K " '!! %# 7= 7) '# '
>
'*! # R! 7*8 -= "& 6<
.(Agglomeration) 7
.(1.5 nm – 8 nm) K '8
SAMs W * '8 78 "$ MPCs W 6& '# SAMs
'!! %# G-% > 4 .K$ '-% G-%> 6& '#
& "& 7 /<

* 0 " 4(Highly faceted) +

G-%> * '
> , - &) G-% K
K %
.(Vertices) ,
Vg 4 .K R /= SAMs W %# F& 4K$ '-%
* ,% & ") ' A = '
6-! 7 '
> ', - '!
* / 4(7 "& D5 "& 7 0 7
7- 2

'!! %# % C$ #
, .(K 10.2 7=) "# U- -
U % 4' '! \-% ' $( %
' < '%
"%-!: !" 73 7 I-h ' !,
% 2>
'#%8! 6& '=_ "8- 7 4(IR) D '=> 4(NMR) "0!
.(UV-Vis) ' I
7) 5-% 7
* 5
< '!! %# '5
73
!: 7,! T 4(Place exchange reactions) 7
)*8
" '> MPC W * '
> E3 ', - +
+

# (Thiol ligands)
3
, 49 '&L 20. (MPCs) '< '
', - '- *# &
"8 '! 0< '
> ', - *
(Alkanethiolate) E3!>
', - "! G-% 8i ! '$% )
'*! )*8 \%
4K
%# G-% (" ) "*! 7
,- & 9 4'
>
* +)* .'!! %# - " U( N!

'
< & 45 - "& '!
'!! SAM W # F& 49
G 4': C5 .G-% * (Alkanethiolates) E3!>
'#! )*8 (Radial control) '*= +-%
CX) (Rotello)
21
Templation ' , * )
& 4SAM W 7
(Intramolecular) "
102
'
'# )*8 7) +: # '# U %
22
."! G-%
!*
Electrostalic self assembly &$ 0 +3$

4.2
'
, - 7= "& 5<
& )*8 A& 3 0 < "&
23،24
N! $ F& 4' # 73 2 VP> '#
)*8 ',, 9 / ! .'# ! D=!L *! +

+-%
, 7*8
2% "& 5 7 E 4 %! '8 ',, "& "$
&
."#
4#
5 '- )*8 9 "& 5! 4'!% D 5 )*8 &
'!= *# / * +
, 4' (! '5# & .$ )

"& '
% D!
'-!
'!! %# 0 7$ *
(Nanoscopic) ' %!! D!
& ./# +%
- 4'!= *# 73 '# ! 7,! ' -
'%
T ' % ! "& 5# " 4 "!#
5
9 '!! +

#
D!
< 49 * +)* .5):% 5
.+
8 ' , D!
* U " '*# +
8
'3)3 ! /# '8 , ' '*8 %<> "-: U%
'!, N! -% 7,!E 4'!% ' 5 )*8
%
>
7=
> '3)3 D=! ' K% 4', - ', - K%
.+

Layer-by-layer (LBL) deposition " + .1.4.2
"# +#8 7 += ',-

"$ 4K 2% T A%8! < "& (Macroscopic) " %
(Solid substrates) ' / 7 .\-% * +
K%
103
4' % +
'!

-=
4',< '=P> *

45! 4'5%
G-%) ' % '3
' %! "# 2% * K T 3
& '8 2 4*
5& K!# .(+
* '&8=
% 473 7 % * .'8(
Dj =P 7 * 7 4'*
+
'& I '
., - $: 41% ' 5
F 5
% , %
', -" K% '!, % - 4" , !% 7 !
D)- /! + '% (Level-by-level deposition LBL) "', -
25
* LBL W 6 - '
"& .G-%_ '8 ' (Coatings)
N!>

/ 4'!! %# / 6E < "&
% 5! 4
"%5 K# ',-
% 26
.(Multivalent species) D& +

'&
+, '8 '!! %# / * '% != *#
7
'!L 4E
.5-% "& A! D# "& 4LBL W +< .G-% 6)
6- * 9 6, +
* .'!= *# 7 " '*
' +
G-%
7 # 6- * " 7*8 6- * '= G-%> 7

!>
7 "& '!= G-%> b

1-: .'!= *#
" 5 7 6<
\) +< +& 7) '% != 0 (Polyion)
7( "& .(K$ '!! # ' "& *% (Polyelectrolytes)

X&
* 3 * + ' 0 4' %! U(

G-% '!= 1! 9 '#! e+ * != (Stoichiometric Number)

U# " 4'8
&! ( ) : 5 #! > 5 .V
( ) 4(K% '* 6, " ) ' ', - K% 7 < U-= K 7 <
"=: D)- '! '* 9 .> ', - * * '!3 ', - K%
3 "& 4(11.2 7=) ' ! != ' ' %

6& '=> '&- 4 (Ellipsometry) D ' -,% 1, 5 < >
.(UV-Vis Spectrometry) ' – '#%8!
5 4': '(! LBL W $ " '=P_

',, V8 $ .' ( "& ',
# 0 ,%
104
' !,) (Steric demand) - 7< "&% '!% ' 5 7*8
' K '%% P
LBL 7# "& 5
& (2> )*8 /#
'*# * 5, - '! "$ LBL W 2 + 9!$ .'
, - "&
' - ' '%% / 4'!! %# '!= '%
.(Counterions) '!= '% !_ +

$ 4* 7= C
# * )
& LBL W K%> /% 6 - \8
!_ 6-! /% * #! (Entropy) !L K% "& 4
*
' , 26
.G-% = 6
!* D=P '!= '%
*# '%5 )*8 ', * E 7 '
4= + G-% / '3 )*8 '!= '% 5! =
4+% " "$ !L F& A* 4" !L "& -% : " 0
X
." !L 1
5 % K% '* "& KQ! !L '!5 '5 '#!
/, 5! E 4C)* $ '% C$ / .(Kinetically)
+ '(! 73 '! ! & :'% ',-
,

! D=: '% 7 P * .(Kinetically trapped) '%
49 7 P "$ 4'8 '
'! E 4'!3 ', - 7 K% / - +
*
4M (Interdigitating) V 5 / 7
K % 4' P

# '%% ',- F& 49 '&L .M V 5 E# 5<
K 4
A
* U8# ' - 73 7 U( ' %!
. , - " %! K%
4LBL W K% ' ' +-% '#!

"& 49 /
# LBL W ',-
& F& " 4'5% $ E B! F&
7 <
D=! ., - 3 "& '% $

%# (- 473 7 % *) '* P
R
42 '8(

.+
& ' 5 '! D)- /! "& 'k - '!, 7# '!!
4' =% +5# 7 5! LBL W
% 'Q! '=P>
105
'3> U % . 4) U!/7* , - 47& '=P
.' ,8 "& , - $ * +
$ %
H
2 () : LBL > & * + '& M 11.2
(Polycation) +
1 (Polyanion) +
&5 1
" +
< & <
K + I&
(4 2)
2 B!!
( '!( 3 1 + )
%&
5 1 + +
&:9
/

& (@) .(<) ! (Polyions) %&
1
+) .(PAH) (+
*
V
!
-) 1 (SPS) &! +

:
&
.( !1

5
1 + +A 25
106
(LEDs) 0" # ,& LBL %6 7 ..1.4.2
Conducting LBL films and light -emitting diodes (LEDs)
- 4/# '! , - K K% G%
! 7
l 7:%
< . D=: "& 5 (Fine tuning) 6<

' "& '! '!= (Rubner and Coworkers) A)
, - +
'=P '*! (p-type-doped) ' = P – N! 5

27
(Derivatizing) 6,= * , LBL B5! K!#
< .'
.'8 ' ,%E '8! ' +
* 0
X " 4'!= /#
Polypyrrole W 473 7 % *) '& '
%
<

% e/# ' , '8
D# ( = Polyaniline !Y "
(Assembly /# (! (Sulfonated Polysterene - SP) 8% %
7
'#!) (Fuzzy) ' P ', - '! 3
, . counterpart)
"& +
8 5! 4'% + $ +
* " 4('
+ 7- * , -
P ' , - ' 5 % % % 5!> 4' C$
+
'!, C5 '#! '=P> .D=: ' " 4+#
E E V "& 440 S/cm 7 ' 4'&8= (Uniform)
6 - .' ' 6, '!3 ', - K%
/ 2% K-
'!% D 5 +
9%) D)- 7# "& $ '=P> C$ 73
.(Anti-static)
6- 28
LBL ',- ',& /# "& #!
5Q
,
!
< .29،30 (LEDs) D '3* !3 '8( 0
X " '=P> /!
, - +
'=P * 4! '*# 7 < # " 4> %

(Poly(p-phenylene Vinylene - PPV)) !& p- !&) "

,
%
!
! * !>
5(! / Conjugated 6&

D=: * * ! / 4(U8= 7 4ITO) (Indium Tin Oxide)
31
(Cationic '!
/#
, .(12.2 7=)
3 7
+
',< '=P "& K%! "!!> / PPV W precursor)

D T* PPV 7= 46& A# 7> (in situ) /< "& 5 , -
.(LBL W N! * Y 7
$)
107
PPV/PMA % 1 7
() :M G! W( #B LBL &- .12.2
% 1 #
1 &B $ (<) .N PPV > P
+
(Holes) % ! G" & PPV/SPS + % 1 '!( '!( PPV/PMA
/B QY #
#1 '4 QX
)ITO &5 PPV/PMA >
.(M
#
!
5 B1 + +A 32 +) .(Electroluminescence)
7= D T 4'8 P '!, C$ 5#! " PPV '=P
4$
PPV '=P 53 " 9 73 +! 2% / '% 6-!
4A%!# D=: '% "# 2% * +-% "& 73 '& + 5
31
'!, "& ( 3
# 473 7 % & .5# 7= D
> 9
/# "& C(! $ (PMA) (93 V) " SPS W
%
'=P 5(
, .(Anionic polyelectrolyte) +
'!!> ' 5 7

6 %
, "& 43 * &3 PPV/SPS * '%%X 2
p N! ' =L V 9 2 . PPV/PMA +5#> ' !, 3 7< (+>>)
k 4' %! ' 0 SPS W '-% PPV W (p-Type Dopping)
4/< C$ . Bipolarons K-,%E '!3 Polarons ' -,% !
7Q 8 X_ G /< % U 5! E 4' k !
5# D
% + C$ % .(Luminescence quenching sites)
/= 0 PPV/PMA D=P
!> (Hole) +#8 7,! 75% 6- *
108
'!3 , - V / 7) ! " +5#> F& 478 32
.D
0 (K 12.2 7=) PPV/PMA W D=P ITO W PPV/SPS W
+
* $ 4C
PPV N! 5# +! 2% * +! % V
.+D8 3 /
/
* & && LBL . 1.4.2
LBL with metallic nanoparticles for sensing applications
' %
'=P '-% ' \-% 7
0
X
! - "& + '$ > 5 4, % $ .'8(

< .'5 1% , - 6 & +

* 6&Y 6, "& 4'!L
(Citrate-stabilized gold) % +,% K$ '!! %#
%
W ',-
E * '! '!= ' # # /# ' % '!=
33،34
# ",! D=P !$ '% +8
.(13.2 7=) LBL
' = 7= "& (Electroactive analyte) ('5 '
*) ' '-=! ' 5
D=: $ = .(Host molecules) '8 # '- '!! %#
E G-% * $ 7 * -,& ' %! Analytes 7) K#
'!
'!! %# 7 .') P # # U &
:5! ' V LBL W /# '* "&
'*#
> '3)3 (Stratified Array) ' '88 4
0
X 4'8 # /# '% '! & '!! %#
.1% +D8 * 7 '*
'%
'-=! 7) 1% '!

'!! %# 7 G% 4
.'5 7% U +
, (Electroactive analytes ) 5
, -
* +
T 45# '%% - LBL W ',- G%

* U= G% '5 1% += U(/'!! %#
. (10-5 - 10-6 M)
# '8!
!* 7)
109

13.2
() %!$ !! "# () !
:(functionalized)
& ' #" 0
/ 0 - ., !$ & ' *+
5 #4 33
) (& ' 23+) !
1 & $
.(8
7$
6/
WILLEY-VCH

! " ! ) Bipyridinium cyclophanes
( -! + *, #!* & '" (# %" %
LBL # !#$
!
5
6 !&
34 $&
12
/" 0!
.(Neurotransmitters adrenaline and dopamine)
12
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8 $
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8 1*

##"
12
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< ! 4 .:
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&!< '" Analyte
110
/# " U( +
+5#> D! `#

,& 49 '&L
, - K% G (! 6 - .8 8 " , -
8( +5# ` (33R 7* A! 3 0) '8 '8
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Hollow LBL spheres 0* LBL +$ .2 1.4.2
G-%> N! U * 5, - G% LBL W ',- '*

(Non-planar '% P # - G-%> 9 "& 4'!=
LBL W * '! '!, - 473 7 % *
< .topology)
%# K< ( D&# ' '<<) E%
)
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# +3 6- * 9
< .[(PAH) ()M

$) "
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(Strongly acidic conditions) '< ' U( polyelectrolyte
(*)
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X 0
% 7
'<< 7) (Permeate) &! 5 G% W4K '#! oligomeric
.(
I 14.2 7=) ' D&# E% $D ' 4
!, / 7 $ .+

# G) 7 '!, C5 D&# R!
6-! "& A- 75% '<,
# '% F& 42> LBL

% .K% U( + , -
* : 6- * !!

70 nm ) #> 7=> ! '% '*# %# K<
(*)
( )
oligomere
.(%!
) "
#$ !!

111
9 (Biocolloids ' : 10 μm Latex (1E)
, - /% 7< '= /<, .'#! E%

6,=
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# '% 20 nm )
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(Drug 4'
> *# % 7,! 7# "& ' ,% , - = 4(-,
.+ +: # "& ' )*8 ' )*8 7:= 4Delivery)
E% R 7
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,
# '! 9 4',! '!= (Nucleation) '! D=!L 5
%
E% R 7
! 7 " 55# " 4',& '

# * , E% 7
+ !
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37
.(\14.2 7=) # * '5! "& 8% 4
8 && $+ .2.4.2
Three-dimentional nanocomposites
7= '!= *# T 4LBL W ',- / 7 $
'3)3 + # * '!! %# G-% * ' 3 1
"%5 7*8
% 46 % /-, "& A = .38
>
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U 6, 42.2 %, "& $ 49

'*# 7 "& +
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% 7)
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.
> '3)3 (Nanocomposites) '!! D=!L '
>
112
polyelectrolyte 1 %
Z ##9 :

%9 14.2
(< )) F & %
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M" %
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<

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# " %
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5
6-> 7 ! TEM 7 (=) .% !
&
(Nucleation)
& discocyte M# '!(
& %& & carboxyfluorescein
(N O9
" WILLEY-VCH +4 37 35 +
1 +) .

&& <;DNA & 9 . 2.4.2

DNA-induced nanoparticles assembly
7 Alivisatos 1%8 4A*# Mirkin
,
'*E '!! %# " /# "& #
5 '- '#% "
%
DNA 0! V " - 7 ' 3 DE$ 7:% .40 39
(Hybridize , #5 (Complementary DNA sequences) '

.(Double stranded helices) -= R
"& spontaneously)
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46- 2
7)
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DNA -= ) (Oligonucleotides)(*)
!:
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113
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!:
+ (? DNA & L P

() 15.2
(Oligonucleotides- +

27

!
& ( + +
& +
&& +

(<) :> TEM + 7 .+
! +
% Functionalized Nanoparticles)

& (@) )31-nm 8-nm H
; <- +
&& %
* + +

+ (120-fold)
8120 '!(
#
" P
!( 7 "(Satellite) "
Inorganic Chemistry: vol. 39, no. 11, (2000), pp. 2258- :+) .8-nm %

/

1 + +A 41 .

5
/

1 ; + +4 .2272
.(

5
114
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/ " '! $ $E N!
'! 7= -,& $ (+: '!! %# 6% V8) '! U( 7(
7%)% 5 '& * +: '!! %# .( " '#
#! '! C5 40
/ '! R
'!#5 P
!
.! +

/! ') '! !

# N!

#

!* A!>) T% 0! V /# 'Y 1
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,! *# %, (7! R
0! V '* +
$> .G $

#
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: 6- * +
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5% 0!
'-,! 8- T

# '* '%% B5! $ 3 .('3 V>
3 # $ 4(R - 1% 6 -
*) (Single-Point Mutations) +

(Florescent '8 %# * '! '
, 0! V 1% 6- D

42
.Probes)
&& = – +$ + .2.4.2
Spherical polymer – complex nanoparticle

'8( *# ' '!! %# 4C)* $
F& 49 / .' %
! "& 5# (Functional groups)
/# "& +
, 4+

#
K!#
-,& $ A
/#
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115
5 " 4 5! 7= # * +-% -
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%
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16.2 7=) # 7
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43
'#
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< .(R 16.2 7=) '&: + '#

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%
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Functionalized '8( ' 7- ! T 4copolymers)
.44"7" % '
# /
3- + $

*
=>& 5.2
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/ ! .'!! #! , - ')

5
K
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(!
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116
" +
8 '8 ' F& 40!! 1, '!, '#!

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. $
() .

() 16.2
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117
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$- 78! (Incompatible) ' R 0

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T 4'8 (-) E# " % 1, * (Phase separate)
118
45
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<- %/
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separation) 0 - 7& 3% * (! U
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+=L
# [R 20.2 7= 4P(PMDSS) W 1 R
k
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123
&P3 !,
% 5* 7 E +
,
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B4

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%
(Minority component) !;5 + W
)\ <
%
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. & B %*7 + 15
:*:
+
+) K

+ " 7 (<) :'4 PI-b-P(PMDSS)-b-PI > I &
+
! % (@) )(%
PI > W
)24/100/26 kg mol-1

PI >
W
)kg/mole-1 112/168/44 +
<
) (

B, 1 D& )10 nm '7; C) AFM C 7 .(" 7
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PB PS-b- PB

21.2
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2

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/ @ 2 D" @%

.(!'7 !24

&
7 +F$ 56 ) .5
9
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Nanolithographic masks && *+6" &? .2.2.5.2

+(! P ' E# ' %! A&%
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/ "&P3 N!< ' 3 7 A! "5%
' &P3 '!,) R!L "& (A &P3 '!,) '! %E
(*)

:Ozonolysis

.(" ) !, Hydrolysis
125
D) K*% " ',< "5%L ' D=: .('%% L
'&P3 '!< 7 ( !-%) G) +
', - "& -,&
7,! 'H ;(Reactive Ion Etching - RIE) 7*8 > f!
%
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G
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% )
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7 % * G
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(1000-fold) + 1000 3 $ 4+ :# 750 U%
.' #!
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() .

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&& K*
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! +
! #
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( 7 1 %& 5 +
7
126
(<) .D /B qlk & P# D " B4
G&

/&:
PS-b-PMMA > + )800 nm M2 TEM 7 G1
:

:
%& + )25 V/μm + /B " P&
! 1 <- '!(
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(Field Emission W1&9 & ? $
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cM
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&& K*
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&& F* &
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+ +A 58 +) . B?
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5
1 + +A 59 N O9
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> 7- (! F&
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0
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!-% D=! 7 .(! "%-!: "& 473 7 % *) G)
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(Direct % " 5 K% + '* ' %! K,3 D7 G%
59
0!! 9% '88 D=! 7 .(W$ 22.2 7=) '8
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Summary ( .6.2

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[
128
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.78 $ "&

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134

Scanning Probe Microscopes

(*)
.
Introduction 1.3

SPM (Scanning Probe Microscopes)

&'% # $ "# !

3 0 4 ) .1 /0 + &(
) *+ & ,- .
(Scanning Tunneling Microscope )$ &

0 (G. Binnig and H. Rohrer) .7 89# .5 #6 – STM)
<# <# - =6 ; < &,0 .: ) '
(STM) )$ 4 0 & @- - .1+ > ?# ;
=: &STM 7 ) 4 .> D BC ; ,## = A> *+
H+ 4' &1 > G #6 *+ (
)

# K 4# J#> ;C < -I # 4 .>
$
# )$ # > #
) .
=6 1
& * :M# .# # A#> L (- &1 STM

- .1+ 6 M /C0 *+ G: )$ #
(*)
K. W. Ng, Department of physics and Astronomy, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, KY.
135
&%+ 6 M '
6 G: STM 4 0 &"#
N &1+ 6

H 0 * :M# .(Work Function) K<
.1 > *+ $ - = + G: 40 STM
O> C % => % H STM 7 #+ ;D
3 0 # > 6 P 4 .
) # &+C
>
Q
+ - H ,.QD (Binnig) 8# O6 * &STM
B 4 0 M# 2.H+< H< *+

: N &;<#
,-# .C# " > # 0R STM A> 6 ;C
3 - * &@- .1 >
# $ ;6
6 4 &
;6 (Atomic Force Microscope – AFM) - ;)
= A> *+ AFM 40 .(Scanning Force Microscope – SFM)
STM *+ *+: ;D H .K+ ;6 (- S# #0
D > C H6 S (SEM) M *+
. * &K ;<# +C BC
.(SPM)

1.3
&* +,- /0%, $ ( ) % # $ % & ' !"
. 51 1, % ) 23 4 .1"
136
/C0
&>+ /C0 + AFM 4)
3 G) &
+ T0 A> > 4 6 .STM 7 $ M
") )+ : &' # *+ .
)+ #+> 1 /C0
(- (SNOM Near Field Scanning Optical Microscope-NSOM)
/C0 + 4) HN# 3. J#> C+ ?: 40
+$ (Transmittance) -$ &' # *+) 1+ C#
0 D 4(Hall's device) D 4 0# .((Fluorescence)
(Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) 5(SQUID) C A
- .HQ0 1+ >K /C0 >>0

#
6 &1+ (Dielectric) # D /C0#
R % ,-
+ $+0 ) 4 0 4J *+ .1
4C " * KC D 40U &;KC )> + .$
,- BC .+ +$ W (Piezoelectric Tube) ">K:
Scanning Probe )
*+ 3
D% ? D >>0 < STM BW] .(Microscopes-SPMs
:(1.3 < ) $+0 H$X
$+0 3 40 .(Sensor) $# ( % &' % $#

" ! .1
"+> 6 . > C0

"
* ) C0 -N .
) ; :
P J ( STM * # -K &
.# #6
*+
D GD .(Scanner) ) .2

D @ + &% 4X .1 > >
.>K: # ?# 4 .(x, y, z) 'Q' %
4X .+ A#> 4 5% /+)
+ &; . A 50 ( STM
G?D T % # = &K% B%R ;
@
./0 @ 40 " > M .4%
137
N &G<0 1 > - .(Feedback Control) *
& , *&+ .3
* @ & ,- .>#
4>C G %
G @
"6 ; @ .1
# *+ X$+ ; -K# ;>
4X - .G)# ; 6 #6 ) ) ?)# :
.; -K+ )+ PK - ( STM
>K: + .(Coarse Approach) '2 0&1 .4

") 4X SPMs 7 = .>) K% B%R :#
G G#6

=: "W#" S# # T - <0
' &<0 ") X $+0 4C @ .1
J # &+:$ P# = %Z G<
4 0% < &G: & >K: .Q &#+
.' SPMs
4J *+ . + G ; SPM 7 1 U

+ # 4 % &G ; (AFM STM 7) ,- P#
Z - GCC0 C - .; L *+ C+ (:
.S#+ C0 %
B .SPMs P# $ O<# 4) B &C$ -

. 4) C$ D# P# [6
Bascis of SPM

2.3
Piezoelectric scanner . 2.3

. >K: SPMs 40
O> *+ # < L S >K: 'W ' 9XU
$ &
# .(Stress) * ,- =:0
Q0 '
6 .# ,- 3:0 4 - (Strain)
*+ S3 S1 P$ .(2.3 < ) >K: Q
A#> 4 (z) z (x) > *+ > *+ $%
138
%> z x S &(S3 = δz/z S1 = δx/x) z > *+ E3 #
, .(# A#> 4 ) K Q' δz δx ;+ %
:G< ' >K: +
S1 S3
d 31 = ‫و‬ d 33 = (1.3)
E3 E3
.7 % 1 '6 ' 2.3
5' + &(

4 d33 d31 1.3 3

PZT-8 PZT-7D PZT-5H PZT-4D
d31 (10-10
-0.97 -1.00 -2.74 -1.35
m/V)
d33 (10-10
-1.35 -1.35 5.93 3.15
m/V)
?Q> 4 .1.3 - >K: P# 46 ?> 4
# 5 S# ( &' # *+) # D >
4X 40 - .# M ,- # A#> "+>
139
"# ,- 0 +0 > .>K: (C) "# SPM
/+) "# = B .0 +0 < # +>
:7# > K ) &M # A#> 4
2d 31VL
ΔL = (2.3)
b−a
."#\ +0 0 >) *+ (b) (a) S
:7# M # (Capacitance) *>
2ε r ε 0 πL
C= (3.3)
n ( b / a )
(C/L) > ; &1000 * (εr) # D #' =
$ > W+ Q )>
6 N &10 nF/cm *
.C <# M# >#
@ @+ G 0 ' >K: ;

,- .PZT 4# &(PbZrO3 PbTiO3 >+0) /C D
">6 ' @+ (Ferroelectric) # ">) - ;+# Q
G ;
@ % * (Permanent Electric Dipole) G #
' (Poling Process) ">)% ; S .A#> 0 #
+ &"# - .>K: ?< 4 G ">6
*+ G /+) C # &(Polarity) #>6 >K:
$ #>6
6 Q0 #>) @- .)#> $ (Sign) Q
">) D " *+ / " .?>## ; = ;
$ ; (%
G ) - ">)% D B &>K: "#
^ $+ S 6 - ) (Curie temperature) ( ; D & G
D A#> (G') &( ; K / SPM A$
"# ">) D # .M *+ G =$ (Reverse bias)

. 0_# H # H#>6 ; # % &>K:
140
(6 < ; SPM (Tripod 1 ) "7" % 8 3.3
.0=
"# = = 0 C @

(#:6 ) >K: "# 'Q' S ># # .>K:
&D
G:# :## )C+ x, y, z *+ $>C
@ N &/+) 'Q' #:) ,- > .3.3 < #
# ) % * *)# . 'Q' % *
D
B> # &>K: "# ,- *+ ;> A#> B >
#% 4 .@ 'Q' "#
5 &4 <# .# * ## SPM 4C
?::+ P$0 : D & *+ #
% & ; *+ # 4C (> .>
1 * # 4X 4C N .K+ G$ H
4C - . G G>K: G## G ' 40 .kHz
& 46 # * G?D >K: "#\ 0 M
141
)#> -N ."# >
S#
#' .4.3 < :
B >K: "# ?D - N &46 *+
L # &@- G) &H+# "# B ./+)
:+ y x , B % .y x %
2d 31VL2
Δx (Δy ‫= ) أو‬ (3.3)
πDh
; *+ )#> $ V .H h &,>6 D &"# > L S
M *+ )#> # $ J -N .(Quadrants) #
.z , H+# /+) "# N &+0
.(A # 0, = ? ?@1 6 ; ? ) . >1< 4.3
< * :# # &4 - =

HN & >0 .# 4C# G )
# (M Q# & )# A#>
.4.3 H+ +C (- B: B % .+#)
A> ' 6# # *+ )#> $ B & G) '
.+ 0 ; > # &#
Coarse approach mechanism

. 2.3
@ >K: + &4K% #
'# KC - A> .(K% B%R ;) G A> : >)
142
5 .: > # * <
:# # O ): * (AFM STM 7)
;D
* @ .1

# C$ < *
T : =: (Coarse Approach Mechanism) <0 ") R
* <0 ") # 5 % T0 .1 1
T C6 : @ H > G . G
<0 ") 4X K# &@- = .Q \ ) [ = &+
T *+ G & >0 ;# +> *+ @ *+ G6
,- 4 0# .; # > ")#
=: H (- ")
% = K< : *+ >
") .Z
+ $# >
D = B &; -K )+ =
B6 &G)# ; ) +' ;< B< 4 -N .(Ramping)
* ;< ( B< 4 4 - . ") ; 1 ` "
(Scan T # > - & H> * , #
R = &+C H> * >K: "# /+) . range)
4 )# 4 * (
D ) ?< <0 ")
B< 4 * ; ,- .R #6 #0
.;<M
B - .<0 ") 4X $+0 4C @
#+C ;KC " ; <0 ") R .SPM ? B>
' ;D G#J ) SPMs 40 . *+ ,
4C # = .Q &+:$ P# &+:$ J #
6 ' =>6 G .#+> C * ?>M
.(Step motor) (>0 @ G: & P$0 &
#+ &(C#
% &@- = .;# ;D 6' 4) ;D ,-
1+ G>0 G: "#1 B @- &SPM 7+ ;D (6 ")
;D ,- " .=6 J S C - +
.0 L: : SPM )+ ) 0:
G GK$ J$ J 0 SPM 7 =: - &@- *+ ;Q
143
.: 50 ) * #C &:$0 ;
.H# A' J H+ +> ) &@-
"G>K: G" ' SPMs 40 J &"# ,-
;<# ;KC 5 3 - @ .<0 ")
.;<# # H# . 0R P$0 * #
<0 ") R 0 (Binnig and Rohrer) 8# 4 Q '
$ ,- * +) .# C0 SPM "Louse" "+) "
P# . 5M >K: QaK< 40 Q
G
.SPM 7 GQ Q 40: ' &G ; >K:
" - C) @" 4# B <0 ")+ G G #+ [6 B
.G+ # SPMs 4 0% =< &(Inertia motor)
.SPM B, ? > 2 82 $% +,- " 5.3
&G C G## G #J &G >K: Q

G Ka < - C) @ 40
4 &(Set-up) # Z ,- *+ ' 7. 5 5M
< # &>K: "# D ' #:6 AC
# AD S# *+ 1# @ (M + ) =: 4 .5.3
@ + &μ # @% -N .6
= >K: "# - . μg 3 8+# * @% > #
AD B N &d Q0 μg # af 3 = 4 *
: d' Q0 @
d' = (μg/af)d
144
N &μg '# 6 3 = ?>## Z >K: "# /+) -
N &#< ; ; Q0 .d * ? * ) =#
: >K: "# G#) )
d - d' = (1 - μg/af)d
@#< ># = & .G % ># Z ,- :

.6< ,% @ b &# #<# #
B & - .<0 "# 0 D ;C# " H X%
.# * SPM 7 4 P$0
>K: 40 ; T0 4C @

- G 4 0% =< ,Q [6 (- - C) @ &<0
$ C0 L SPM 7 P# .
= ; ?# 4 ;$ N &=C + SPM 7
- .@+
. - C) @ " < 6.3 < # .G:
!1" -1 % ;C 1 . 82 $% ? 6.3
G3 % $% F .E3#31 >1, 1 D1 >% "
. 0 1) - E ?-
145
20 +,- /0%, ,I'C & ' ; !1" 6 : +* .7.3
? ?@1 8 ; ? ) .& ' F2 * !1" D03 6 :? +* .1"
.(A # 0, =
Feedback loop

. 2.3
Q
G ' (Tunneling) A$ )
) &<0 O>
:# :) > G #6 *+
"+> S
# R *+ X+ ; -K )+ * D# &(K
> :(7.3 < ) ># K< &STM .1
.(; -K )+ =) #' ># (; -K )+ #) #' 3$%
#' 6 *+ X$+ 3$ ; -K )+ K &#' >
-K = .STM 50 K 3$% K - . )
) G +) N &1

# 4C = : ;
W # &;KC )> C 6 # *+ C+ .#%
G HN &; -K )+ # C# > > 6
.; -K )+ D = T0 ; C
146
6 <% ' STM 40
#< ; ,- &40 X .; -K )+
PK .8.3 < ; -K )+ ' G>>0 4 6 .(Analog) +'
.R = 6 * "6 0 ) "+ ; -K )+
B 1" 6 & ' 2,% 8.3

.STM
A$ & R 7 0 G+9 P & &>#
(W>0 ) E %% B .E = R c 0 R 0 #
# *+ (> G#J (- ) - ;<M W>0 40: 4 . KC
Ac " P$ .+ z M *+ H)#> (Q 40:+
.
+ z =6 >#: @- &< # (/4K#)
*> .
:+ G) K B h > 3$ N &1 > > *+

#6 ,-
) B .d = z - h :7# 1
# d
:N &" (/4K#) As - . . M $# 40:
&; Q0 #' )# R ;<M : - .(δ0 = As δd =As (δz - δh)
&T0 .δE=-δ0 = - As (δz - δh) :*+ C δR = 0 S#
δz = AcAs δh/( :# &δz = AcAs (δz - δh) :*+ C &H+ .δz = Ac δ0
* >
:
=# - .)+ " AcAs * &AcAs - 1)
S# (AcAs >> 1) # )+ " *+ C @- "+> & "6
.δz = δh
147
&=6 . P$ H &># 8# ,Q
- &T0 ;## .;<M K *+ #Q )+ + G6 "+>
&@- %
G # .$ *+ : δz >#: N &δh > *+ ;>0

- "# .δh 6 # P τ 6 P# AK B
# ;<M# A+ .#-#-# )+ )% 4 D 0W
* B: D 0W# (1/f) ; ; Q0 )+ "# &f , ) #
@- C .;< @ 4 * H6 *+ "-#- X - .;<M
#+ Q N @- &δE=-δ0 X% .)++ #> f0
. = )+ (> OD 180o) ; BC G 0
& ;C# .G#' Ac (P) " -K B

&"-#- " .)> ,-# BC As D = )+ " /6
* . GKC f0 )++ AcAs " *+ "
.(Cross over frequency) fc "C (1 ) # 0 )+ "
(- Ac 7+ *C6 .Ac 7 >#: A> K fc +
B .120o * fc > OD ; @- "+> H>#:
< ># &<\ ## 180o 7 > OD% - # A$
& G GKC < > -N .(60o ) (Phase margin)
)++ #% D N & G G# A$ - & ."-#-+ ;# C @
. G GKC ;:# Ac &G>#
; :N# &Ac " ;D : ; )> @
,- .(Proportional amplifier) " 40: = (D # (Integrator)
: &
1
T∫
δz = A δ0 + δ0 dt (5.3)
% D #' T &(Proportional gain) " " A S

Proportional-) " # - B .(Sampling Time Constant)
.>#: (T A) ; > &; -K )+ (Integration - PI
148
(Proportional " 4 ' G " " B
" ;D *+ (Integrator) ; .Controller)
(Cutoff =>6 . ;D = ; " /6 .:$0
#C S# GKC " &1/(2πAT) * f &fI frequency)
(T >#: A> ) fI 5 # . G# 4
- .< > P$0 4 &fc G G #6 fI - .fc g 10 *
.)+ (Settling time) )% 4DQ D ;D 4 & G GKC fI
(Differentiate G+:$ G # ; -K# 4 "+> &G#J

'W .PID 4# B1 & " # * :M# Gain)
(-) )+ " ;D (Differentiator) :$ ;
SPMs 7 4X .(:$0 ; H+$
7 4 P# 40 . G G#
:$ ' &G# :$0
.># ; >) PI ; -K )+ SPM
(STM)

3.3
Scanning Tunaelling Microscope
?+ ,# H "- SPM 3 )$
&(
Q #) P# :# #6 G +C =: 4 .
)$# ; X ,- * .# ;$ # # G *)# HN
(Quantum 'W (Tunneling) ()$ # )
# (%
G ) : + *+ )$ .Mechanical Effect)
[6 B .+C h M /C0 (' ) &M
. C$ D = # -
λ > - i M # &4

"4 " - & . v 7 + m S 1/mv = "
.4 @- # # HN &G) (Plane wave) BC (% )
T * 6 *+ &4 =6 >#:# B % &' # *+ N
149
40 + - #Q G =: - .λ ) (Uncertainty) )Q
M (Traveling wave) +) M
40 S &(C# G: C +' @ .(SEM)
.C ?: >
*+ #% &C#
K = mv2/2 ) 6> 4 % &Q

@- &4 & .K # H6> GD # 0
A$ ; X# )> ,- ; A 0 *+ A+> .G
6> X$ 6 =# ": " #C & )> .)$
$ . M # : % 4 - STM 40 .6#
4# B1` & < *+ 6> X$ 6 # &4
: <
2 d2
− Ψ ( x ) + V( x )Ψ ( x ) = EΨ ( x ) (6.3)
2m dx 2
' & 6> # ' .Ψ(x) # M ' S
.6> 3 # " & 6> ' #
L .Ψ*(x) Ψ(x)dx 7# *> x + dx x 6 # *+ '
:(Normalization condition) >< @-
+∞
∫ Ψ * (x ) Ψ (x ) dx =1
−∞
.H# O D M *+ ' @- :
(Potential D = E 6> (- h ,-

,% ) M # P$ .9.3 < : barrier)
S &Ψ(x)= Aeikx + Be-ikx I (x < 0) )> .+x
⎛ 2π 2mE ⎞
&Be-ikx 7 &>6 Aeikx & ⎜⎜ k = = ⎟ k
⎟
⎝ λ ⎠
T < % (x > d) III )> .D
150

&(0 ≤ x ≤ d) D )> .Ψ(x) = Eeikx ( &+x , +)
+:$ C0 "+> .Ψ(x) = Cekx + De-kx
k H &
x x = 0 @- # &x 46 = dΨ(x)/dx Ψ(x) 7
. >< : P# = E A, B, C, D, Q = " .= d
)% R2 % *+ ⏐E⏐2/⏐A⏐2 ⏐B⏐2/⏐A⏐2 # B
:# A6 " & *+ T2
2 2m
T ≈ exp(−2κd) κ = (V − E) (7.3)
2
:V(x) 4 < (- ,-
⎧ 2m ⎫
T ≈ exp⎨(−2 ∫
2
(V − E)dx ⎬ (8.3)
⎩ 2
⎭
:+ M ' "
⎡ dΨ ( x ) dΨ * ( x ) ⎤
j( x ) = ⎢ Ψ * (x) − Ψ(x) (9.3)
2mi ⎣ dx dx ⎥⎦
⏐T⏐2 # .⏐T⏐2 = # x > d )$ '
- .d D = G /6 B )$ N &d = G /6
.> *+ ( &z ,% STM # 3$ "# $
.1/κ ≈ λ )# d " &
)+ Q
G #6 $ # G# )$
.

9.3
151
6 "+J M 6> &STM
$ ( .4K * ;< > = A .(1 eV)
&> # ; M 40 % &- #
.SEM * ##
## .^ $ *+ H *+ ,Q + A#>

* &( +# @ @ & M *
* # D N &<# <# 0Z P# :# = $ % :
(Pauli # # # =:0 (Fermions) )) #
.Exclusion Principle)
- #+ ;C N % #

*+ " &#+ 0 C 4 .Lz Ly, Lx #
(n =1،2،3&... S) λ = L/n :< *+ 1 , >
# @- & M . k = 2π/λ = 2nπ/ L #
*+ >) C) k = (kx, ky, kz) = (2nxπ/ Lx, 2nyπ/ Ly, 2nzπ/ Lz) :
&nx, ny, nz # .($\ DK 0Z *+\ DK )
#++ )) 4 V .k D (8π)3/V "4" k - &C
k :< - > # ;C % .(1 4 ()
N &DK : = .4πk2dk[(8π)3/V] = Vk2dk/2π2 : k+dk
\ B &H+ . Vk2dk/π2( ;<) ,- : ? @ M
- ; * C * k = 0 = * 6> % N

:# #C &kF 3< * >6 BC
kF 1/ 3
Vk 2dk ⎡ 3Nπ2 ⎤
∫0 π2 = N ⇒ k F = ⎢⎣ V ⎥⎦ (10.3)
:EF 6> 6> *
2 k 2F
EF = (11.3)
2m
152
% ' 4 6> A> % *+ A+>
.n(E)&(Density of States)
:# k + dk k # ; % *> -
Vk 2dk
dn = (12.3)
2π 2
,- # = .dE =(2k/m ) dk E =(2k2)/2m

: *+ C &,Q #
1 dn mk m E
n (E) = = 2 2 = (13.3)
V dE 2π 2 π
2 4
E1/2 = # 6> *+ n(E) % ' :

. G$C ( #+ 0 Z 1 * <6 : ) . ,-
6 .#+ 0 ; D % % ,- &T0 ;## (
% .M J T "## : M @
&% 4X .,Q - 5- ># )) + n(E)
- .#0
) &6 ' 5- ' ,- "
)> & + M /C0 H # 4 ?D
: S#% > % '
) 0 <
(Tunneling )$ > &(Photoemission Spectroscopy)
.C$ - ;0 )> [6 B .Spectroscopy)
(Quantum States) % \ M B

T # 6> A$ . T * 6>+ T * ?l #
> DM DQ 6> 1 50 >) ^ $
+C =: 4 .1+ (Work Function) K< ( &1
+C # $ =D B M N &P# :# G #6
Q C :+ H#< - .# Q 6> T *
D 3$ *+ >) )$ % .P# :# = +C+ <#
153
% &; ,- % *+ G: H &H:
)$ &T0 ;## .0Z M .+ J$
.+C % ' *+ G:
.

10.3
" )$ N &+C # $ A @ %
+C B &
,% )$ 0Z " *
(Net C0 )$ +C *+ C+ . G$C ( )$
.+C *+ (Bias voltage) ;D A#> " &tunneling current)
## eV 7# 1 " *+ T = 4 &10.3 < #
B . < e S &2 " *+ T *
0Z " *+ ' J =6 1 " *+ M
C B &# .2 " *+ M ' G)$ 1 D
*+ G )$ ' .1 " * 2 " BC )$
:
154
∞
I ∝ ∫ n1 (E )n 2 (E + eV)[f (E ) − f (E + eV)]dE (14.3)
−∞
& c =D ,Q f(E)

#' kB .T ; E 6> - H# >
.D#
–
:11.3
XQ .@ c =D < G>>0 11.3 < #

.3.5 kBT * P = &(Gaussian form) J < H)<
G #C &; ' )< #C B &; P$0
B &δ(E) # [f(E+eV) – f(E)]/Δ(eV) # = .(Delta function)
(Convolution) ? ,Q ;- (dI/dV) )$ )< >
.# Q *+ +C ' G)
)> .)># (+C# G: ) dI/dV
6
dI/dV " 4' $+0 V D I )$ =#
6 >##
&?:: C C ( @- &L:+ G : ' )> ,- .G
40: '# 4X 40 . % ;< )< "# & GKC
δV sinωt KC "-#- P 4 .)<
) (Lock-in amplifier) 4
155
!!
"# V I .
ω V

δI = (dI/dV) δV .ω
)*+ + I !!
&'( $
%$
= >#: = >n#U: - .G#' δV - dI/dV = G# "-#- 3
.)$ "-#- B< 4 40: 4 0 &ω *+
" # *+ -0. B $ ,- &δI = G# $ L
H+ & G A: A> (- < 4M 40: 40 - . dI/dV =
STM 7+ -K# ;> # .# <# H:$0 L: T
AQJ 4 @-# &"
c " K K $ B
.D K + -K
)< > B - &G#) #' " *+ % ' -
'
) STM )> ,- .0Z " ' )$
& " #' K ' >) H X% . +
,- .)$ )#
c ' '# A+ (-
) &STM 7 6 &% 4X G
C 4 + N &@- = . "C % ' )+>
;<# ' )> )$ N &@- *+ ;Q .P J 4X +
W J W + '
6 G: .% '
)
,- "## )#> STM 7 @- .D #>6
# ># #
.(Superconductivity) )$ +C G< ' +' .;)
6 & ' ' o?i *+ (> )$ )< W# 9 -
' - G 1
) B .#' G$+ :
.)$ +C =6 ,- .: D P# 0Z "
:# )$ +C ' ' &+) X+ G)
⎧ ξ
⎪n n (0) 2 if ξ ≥ Δ
n s ( ξ) = ⎨ ξ − Δ2 (15.3)
⎪
⎩0 if ξ ≤ Δ
156
Ef T = 6>
6 ξ %+ ' nn(0) S
(Electron M 6 6> ; 2Δ .$C =
(dI/dV) - )$ +C 12.3 < # .A C pairing)
G#J 40 &"# - .E = Δ (Singularity) 1 $ X% .A C
'
) H 0 G: .A C 6> ;
) STM
10
.;$ A> Q0 &QC BC
( " #! & % ."# $% &

' ! 12.3
%0 / ,1 9 )/ ) .Δ ! + , )* .

.( '
STM # A$ &+

STM 7 W# X%
' STM 40 .G+ '
H )$ +C
## .;) ,- "## +C ) (Vortices) C
>K &(II 3 )$ QC *) )$ QC 4X *
G 0 >>0 = &@- C .GD ; A 0 0
)
) =6 >0 ,- #C .A C 0 >0
A> ,- X .(13.3 < ) A0 >K "## (C
157
. # $ " 4' &> *+ DU W ( *) =)# #>
) )>+ (Low biased conductivity) :$0 ;D +C #C
> - .2Δ 6> ; "## @- & )> '# 6 C
;C = &Δ 6 D = + +C
6 (Scan)
.(14.3 < ) ,-
G M /C0 B+0 T0 ;' % @

C *# * &" " < N .1 O> *+ (Spatially)
# @- .; )> X+ <# M /C0 1K B
; < &G +' . G 6 ; STM
,- =C .(15.3 < ) *# ")# M /C0
12
.STM
= "J > - " ) Q0 *#
4"# % 0 3 S (

."# $% &
13.3
.( 9) 8 !# (N) / 6 7 5! (

158
1 < / 7 / ) 41.8 K
,7 NbSe2 ; STM + # 14.3
. ( ' %0 / ,1 11 )/ ) T
,
& .(111) @!
&
>(? =" (Co) , 15.3
B C!3 .STM @ )* )
$ ( 9"( (
=A
dI/dV # ="? # .! (? 0 & "7
/
.(+! D D/ ,1 12 )/ ) ="' "
159
Q0 ># >#% $$0 - >)
##1 *# ,- = > M $ .
= -
KC BQ0 STM ;C @- X .+C+ GKC G GK
C0 #6 =6 & > P )$
.h
C &+ +C+ >0 STM C $
.G G> +$ > " &' # *+ (Vortex imaging)
;C D - HN &%
A> @- + .>
: 4 'W
&H> W - &K# G > > 4 -N .> >
DN# @- 6 .$+0 D = $ )> ;C -0
&' # *+ &: % (De-convolute)?
' S .V>>Δ D = @- C C
& C ) # G#) $ 6>
;C ,- 0 - .( J#>) : ;C W# P %
&V<Δ P$0 D > # + +C ;C (4) ) ;
.)) ;C# H#<
.+ K<
) STM 4 0 G: & ' " *
:7# ;> κ S &e-2κe = " )$ N &G)# $# @- <6
2m(V − E ) 2mΦ
κ= ≅ (16.3)

6> H T : 6 &A# # *+ C T
V # 4 .(;KC D - ) ;KC E &$C
+ C &)$ 4J -0 = .h Φ K< > #
:+
I = Ke-2κ s ⇒ nI = nK - 2κ s (17.3)
160
>) # &Φ K< *+ C+ ." #' K S
log I G# -N .(s = #) $+0 >K:cz = I
6 *
4 - (slope) X 5 A> &Φ K< &Vz #)
.#
Other scanned probe microscopes

4.3
> # ; )> )$ )>
<# 40 0R 3 J#> C+ @ .6 O>
- .(SFM) ;6 &(AFM) - ;) * =<
% S .# + <. 1
# $ ;6
) &
++ ;D ,- .? *+ +C D > C HN & *
&STM 7# G ) $ - H# N &@- = .STM ;D *>0
M # G ) . BX X - #% ?)# =
&> ? 1 N# &># ;D H 0 &
.; #0 G< ' ' D &"# ,- & '# /0

,/ .6
?"
E @
*( 16.3

+
>#
4(@D &) G 6F

.(@D ) G 6F
161
H # 1 >
&(AFM) (- ;)
?*# ' AFM
*+ A+> .# $ ;)
0R G$ G+>C @- 40 B &/0 HC * GX (*)
(Cantilever)
> # 1
# $ ;6
) .(Probe) "
" '
. - # $ BC &(Lennard-Jones Potential) D
## > ;KC ; &G#+C G>) G ;- N B
G#6 - =: 4 . # +< K #
< K# ' #>6 P# :# ' B N &P# :#
;6 ' ">6 # ;) *+ A+> .T0 -+ M #
(-A/r6) <# - "- ;6 (Vander Waals force) D
G #) - .G# P# :# ;# -
- % .-$ D # # # ;6 'W 0 &P# :#
;# ;6 .H$
$ Q M #
;6 .(P# :# #6 - ) G A: A> :
Pp) = : ,- ;6 .(+B/r12) <# ,-
G>>0 16.3 < # .">) ' # "- ;6 -
D >) @ &(") ) (# ) "- )> # .- # D
,- . G$C ( - # $ ;6 * ,
.- ) -# >)
- &1 > #) *+

=: 4 +' W< -
,D # & ;) 4' &(# >) ?l # ) "- ;) %
G
=:0
X$ .AFM
1 > ; X ,- 4 0 .D >)
# ;) #C

Q 4 ># AFM &1 G#
#
< ; # O *+
&=: - ."- ;6 1
> .10-12 N ;) &> K% ; *
-I AFM > = <#
Q HW
# &
(*)
.(%& ‫" !" !ً ً أ و ّ ًة ا ف ا
)ا‬#‫ د‬:(Cantilever) ‫اء‬
162
* "## ;KC : # <# ;) K .
Q :
&10-7 N 10-6 N# - K< A> & )> %
.10-9 N * ;KC
13 )/ ) %F I" (? )

# AFM ; SiO2 H=
17.3
.( ' J ??K ,1
() :# D (Contilever) q 4 0 4 & *+
P# #' - ;) " 4' &q B
) .$ ;6
)
#' "
6 *C6 : .G (Spring constant)
. G# G S ;KC ;) S# M 6 GKC P#
:+ #+C + k P# #' 6 )
E wt 3
k= (18.3)
4 3
8 (E) &+ > & &P *+ 4 w, t S
G#J & G) ' < )) (Cantilever) q+ 6 .q ;
163
P# #' 5 .(17.3 < ) : J'+ )># G C
;KC q + *+ G: " &
6 : GKC
KC 8 # > * # &@- .:$0
&+ 0 < ; .q ; ;KC '
13
# *+ + 8 8+# .(Si3N4) + &+
P &200 μm ># + .250 GPa * &'
kg/m3 ' = .1.25 N/m * P# #' &2 μm &20 μm
H ) .2.5 ×10-11 kg * q + &3190
r - .220 kHz * # ω0 = (k/m)1/2
' H ) H &
.' # *+ >K: "# & T0 ? D
6 = .q B Q0 $ ;6
6 &P# #' # -
&4 , ) B 5 1010 N ;) &N/m ) P# #'
.,Q <6 A># H6 B
%
: <# *+
Q 4 : ;D
N &@- = .> >\ # ;D # &;<# ;C# >
Q
*+ G' K % ;) & G' $
Q 4 : #
q D
6 G#J 4 &*+ *+ C+ .+>
;# ; &H q "-#- .;<# B %
6 %
G #
Bs U P# #' S . 6# #
6 - .kHz 7
F'= (Force Gradient) ;) 5# (Offset) H 4 &k = ΔF/Δz 7
k S keff = k – F'&T0 ;## .z =6 $ ;) - &dF/dz
&> G G# q &q+ (Nominal) % @#D #'
' q ") 4 .ω0 = (keff/m)1/2 #> F' = 0
ω = = [(k – F')m]1/2 ∼ ω0[1 – 2F'/k] :#C #> N &>
5 OD%
) .2F'/k 7 GD GD C (keff/m)1/2
OD%
6 .
1 # *+ ,# &F' ;)
G .D D % 3 K A> &;<# q =# A>
G G 0 3% K &q+ (Q-factor) Q ; *+
164

1 # >#: ; -K )+ : .
:# - ;) & ,- .#' )# D D % *+ X$+
B &; -K .#' ;6 ># ">##" &#' ;6 5
#' : : H#< .#' 3$ : AFM
)> #' ;) : 0 .STM #' 3$%
.;# -
> = <# C q &

Q > AFM
; ) K &'# T6 ; ;) .; ;) A>
> (Profile) ? =# q B .;C6 :
.;<#
) $ # G# B % &
Q : .Q#
*)# & P# * ## .B % ;)+ # 5 "## #%
' A .
Q : AFM K< 4 - #%
[0 "# 6 .
> # 1 > [0
Q ) G>0
> +C% &@- .1
# (# ) (Shear force) /) ;6
> ) .# 4X < & > >
Q
' ) &+< + C0 ) AFM C
.#%
) : ;# * 4 0 T0 < ) @

> # > : ; ,- .(Tapping mode operation)
#+> ;) .16.3 < * 36 ")#
Q 4
Q
>#: 4 .1010 N * &
Q : * +)# ) ) ,-
3 N &1 >
.10 nm * 3 D

f H *+ D D % 3 -0. .>
: G) K D D %
": HW
# &: ,- .>
D =6 # +
= .(Tapping mode) ") :" 4% A< - &f # >
G<0 "#1 &# ;) P$0 - K< > % f # > )
.# > C G $ ,# - &G
165
&7 ?3 % ( <, A .L
B !
@ &7 ? %F 0 &C
18.3
.(H0" ' 6 > # 14 )/ ) AFMs
<# <#
=6
6 "J 6 &K< : *+ G
&
Q 4 :
6 &
Q :
4 &% ,- = .) :
D D 3
6
B B<+ $+0 A> @ .
B
) *+ C
R 40 &AFM 3 0% * 4 &' # *+ .

; .H6 #' 0R
C AFM q # )$
) STM
@- # .> > *+ q B = # ;$ > K
A+ .G ;) # #C ,- B< )> N +C "+>
STM
# $ N &@- * : .AFM
> BX# )$
; - )> ,- # 4 ) - .q B = 0 AFM q
:14+ <6 C# )> & :W#
! .

23
) 0 - * + ,-
* + / &'

() #$% "
'" 03 '
, 6$+ 03
5
&'
+ "
3$
.(18.3
$,3 / 6 ,) PSD 9
, .(Position Sensitive Detector-PSD) 78,
+
166
/ :$ +,!, (Photodiodes) #,! ,
+ + ,), .: ,
= ( , , / ,

<3 (Photocurrent) #,!

2," 3 .;$
(> .(Differential amplifier) ! 5! '

, ,
*
5! 5
#,!

2 =$) ,3 ,

?,' "
5' 5
' @$
=$) 3
(/ / .
: ,3 0,' $
,
, (Photocurrent)
0,' ,!

: ?(
#,!
,

> A$
0
"$
;' "

!
5!
$
,
5' - 3 ;'

(6 .

,
.A$
0
"$B 3
# d S dδθ 7# *> δx D )# +$ OD%

B "# .D+ D ( D B % δθ q : $<
) N# .(δθ/2 &' 6# ) D
$# D+ D B # - q
+ 6< )% δz S &δz = L δθ 7 &") * B %

@ &T0 ;## ( .δx = (d/L) δz *+ C &@- .q > L
& =:# G# 40: - .d/L 7 40:
.AFM 7+ +$ 4 *+ G

</ &6?' .PSD )* @?! B 06/ ((7 19.3
quad-PSD ;" (9) .*
3 ( @ PSD ;" () . 0"
.'
3 *
3 H? ! =" @
167
=: &G (Quad-PSDs) =6+ $< 3# G: @
(Four # 3#
u (Photodiodes) : #
)# *+ #> ;) X ,- .(19.3 < ) quadrants)
&(Photodetector) : B< *+ "G># GC" D) D+
." " % D+ )# ) 4' &q
1 v *+ # ;)
;)
) .# ;) ;)
6 # Quad-PSD 7+
(Photocurrents) : = C * >) 5 &#
: = C# H) III S' II ' # :
# ;) . IV =# I # :
@% ' &)#> ,- P# G (Lateral Force Microscope)
.# # P# / 0
4 0% < A> ,Q ;- : )> 1 -
Q 4DQ * +K< * @- . AFMs 7
.q B B<+ T0 ) @ &@- = . q # #
(Capacity) (Interferometry) 0 A> 4 0 &' # *+
=C AFM < P# .q+ ( )% B<+ 0
6 S# &(Piezoresistive) ) >K: ; (Cantilevers) ?*
4 0% -U# &;0 Z .# q )# ># B %
PK - 0 <+ .;<#
@ <
+# #-#- # , (- .32.768 kHz , )
,- .- ;)+ G) < O D &>+
Q0 .6
*+
Q 4 : ) ) % ' AFM Q )>
G: )> ,- .
) B< 40 (' #
. L:+ : 6 &G ' AFM
= . SPM + ?: ' AFM STM
*+ 6 J :# 6 .>
) K# G: &@-
*+ .G+ )1< > /C0 P#
) + &- # A)
168
@- .1 &(M )
# C
) 0 &' #
&(Dielectric) # D #' = " C
> # D 6 + (Capacitance microscopy)
1 # +C$ = G ;<M " &STM
*+ .1
:M# - .STM # ; ,- #Q % &

T0 >K C# /C0 # D M /C0 *
'W
4 0 . 6 D% 1 T0 3 @

) (K+ $: %+) SQUID 7 (Hall-effect Sensor)
*+ &SQUID 7#
# + A+> &6 >K
.
(Ferromagnetic >K -$M @+ X ; -

.1 >K q # >K ;)
) AFM 4 0 &behaviour)
>K 4 :N# &>K ;# HQ> A> q >K
G .(MFM) >K ;) # - B .

&>K
> # >K ; >K % C STM 4 0
- .(Spin-Polarized STM) (SPSTM) GDJ ">) STM
C SPSTM 7 MFM 7 -# 4X
## . STM AFM > # G+
) ( &>K
.
.: ;D : # % &T0
) P# *
. 4) H<6 (- &(NSOM) ") + :
(NSOM)

5.3
Near-field scanning optical microscope (NSOM)
># C# ;D = #% ;6 4+

4 4 * & CC0# .0 >K +
.(Abbé Limit) #R # @- B .0.61 λ * > # H#
(# ) C# # ; )>
169
(SEM) M 40 &@- .C+ > P$0#
(~keV) h 6> "## &' # *+ &*+ 40:
. ?: '# C6
λ > (- (Monochromatic) + ( ?: < # T

< >) λ > - < N &1 > *+
,- < .< * (# ) +> ?:$ #
.(λ<) > >
) T *+ > > # ;< <
"# $ - .λ # > >
) +
@ S . <+ > *+ #% C6
.G: S C6 > *+ G N &λ > : -
(Evanescent Waves) "<Q " *1 C) T + *$0`
=> % & H & J
= # ;< /6 .)) ?:$ # <%
M # - &STM .(' 10-4 #)
* - .<Q D # &
Near Field Scanning Optical ) ") + : &
H#< X (") '% ) STMs (Microscope-NSOMs
NSO G+9 .(# ) M + : +
.>
DQ + = Q:% + 40 STM
.M 40 STM $ 40 NSOM * BQ0%
> G G #6 B< =: " HW# + &STM # Q0

D - 6 6 #R # >h % ,- .<Q # @h
15
"# .>) STM 3 0 # 6 )) #C &(1928 4) >
A6
=C# C0 > * HX# > 0W - ?
-K )+ 0 T0 ) - .K+ ;KC =
7 3 0 4 * G> 4 X .# "J G: ;)+ ;
.AFM 7 STM
170
>(? / * @ 6
F .HF # &7 ? %F B @ 20.3
(J. Hwang L. Goldner $? ,A ) M?
? 16 )/ ) .
E
% > # ") B< 4 T0

C ) transmissivity )% > # &(H$ " *+ B< C )
B< 4 H # .()6 1 +#) # *+ B<
G: G $: G ## ; NSOM 40 B< N &>K
Charge-Coupled ) < 6 D (Photomultiplier Tube PMT)
B< 6 4 4' .+ * ?: ;< (- &(Device CCD
=6 (C#
.(C#
+ > B> = GC# :
*+
<# 0Z B> - .(C# B D B
*+> .<Q >)% > * "6

.NSOM 7 # G $ 4 .($ )
?'# &#
nm * * %
G D =:# # - $ 4 O
171
*+ .AFM * STM # $ NSOM 7 # .50
.> > *+ (C#
>K: "# &STM J
= NSOM 7 ;C ># .;C+ # : B< 50 -0
G$+0 - .(W# , (- > () >+ C# /C0
.+C D O> B< NSOM &AFM STM
.4C "+ 40 NSOMs D D @

G G#6 C =: 4 .(20.3 < ) ?:+ C B+
40
4 @- # .> = G6 $ B <Q N &>

) ((C# ') ( (C# 4X #6 ;<M ?)
.;C < CCD > # PMT > # B>
= .B> #% (- $ 4

$ Q0 ?: ;< & % * $ 4 /+) % &@-
# &@- .# <# P$0 (Throughput) (+C )

+) (" < " ') T0 DM ; (-
A> [ A>
< .: +C
D 4 0 4 &(Mechanical pulling) " . "
S * G# H> " 4 4' B+ > ?D + D
,- &?< P# > (Cleaved end) 6)< .C$%
,- GCC0 C " - . G ; $ &)>
[ ; '#
" > #
x .G ;
= G D B [ M# .(Mechanical etching)
>J - .*+ (Toluene Layer) )#> = (HF) +
D *+ G ./HF # >
< &+ B+
. * )6 30 * AK ; N &+
.> # B+ +> " &
< #
,- $ # 10-7 Torr * 10-6 Torr # O ^ ( 0#
172
4 .A X $ S# D#
?Q> " " .;
G< # . > > *+ * " 4 S# <# B+ 4#
' ?Q> " .
?Q> 4 " - 4 0
?* ' G<
H = . =:# * &A 0% A
.G NSOM 7
. % &AFM
nm # O *+ NSOM

*)# " T0
6 *+ &1 ($ 4 BC &;) 50 nm * 10
C# /C0 BQ0 =6 &@- *+ ;Q .#% $ 4
# #' 4 4 -N .NSOM G# $> : 6
C# /C0
;< : "C &C <#
1

# D H )
6 * NSOMs 5 &"# ,- .>+
#C NSOM > : T0 ;# #C ,- < .1
)> ,- C) & # 1
# )$ 4 0 .;$ ;
)+ 4 0 : 6 G< ' "+ .+C *+ >)
G+ 17
.#' )# 1
# *+ ;> /6 ;) ; -K
.(Cantilever) "q" 7 NSOM
4 0# @- &AFM -
& < 4 0 Z G< ' &PSD D D 4 0
"# 40 . < *+ :
" 4 .AFM 46 <6
"-#- S# (Tuning fork) < ;'M "5" >K:
*+ ,> "-#- 3 .< 1 > G D
3
) .1
# *+ # &1
# /) ;6
z-4 >#: A> T H+ X ,> "-#-
.1
# #' # X$% 4 &)> ,-# .; -K )+
173
Summary
.6.3
&

i U : ? D 'Q' (X#)

i y •
.<0 ") R &
A#> 4 /+) ; &>K: ; =C •
&4K% # # = .+ #
.+> *+

* ## ( #6) 1 G#6

D <0 ") R =: •
.D - ? 8# G C *)# .$< ;<
.H# B> &, ) '.
- .+ > /C0

$+0
) 4 0 •
STM .G < ' ) 'Q' # 6 ) &C$
7 &($ ;6) SFM 7 AFM 7 &(M /C0 )
.(C# /C0 ) NSOM
*+ *# ;D ?# > G: 4 0 •
.(-
)
NSOM 7+ AFM .>) +C O> C STM 7 •
# A) #C ' &+C D O>
u C
.-
Questions
0.25 in H> 8+# (- PZT-8 >K: "# = STM ?# 4 .1
) .0.020 in , 8+# 0.25 in "#\ 0 >) 8+#
+0 M # 100 V A A#> 4 - "#% /+)
174
&0.2 4 5 -+ &STM 7 - ;C z0
*+ X$+ >K: "# *+ )#> $ A#> K
z#' 3$
# - 6 . M 5- 4 0# 6> " .2

. T *+ M > " A>
1
References

1. Gerd Binnig and Heinrich, in: Reviews of Modern Physics: vol. 59 (1987),
p. 615.
2. D. P. E. Smith, G. Binnig, and C. F. Quate, in: Applied Physics Letters:

vol. 49 (1986), p. 1166.
3. D. w. Pohl, W. Denk, and M. Lanz, in: Applied Physics Letters: vol. 44

(1984), p. 651.
4. A. M. Chang, H. D. Hallen, L. Harriott, H. F. Hess, H. L. Kao, J. Kwo, R.

E. Miller, R. Wolfe, J. van der Ziel, and T. Y. Chang, Applied Physics
Letters: vol. 61, (1992), p.1974.
5. John Kirtley, IEEE Spectrum, vol. 33 (1996), p. 40.
6. G. Binnig and D. P. E. Smith, in: Review of Scientific Instruments: vol. 57

(1986), p. 1688.
7. J. W. Lyding, S. Skala, J. S. Hubacek, R. Brockenbrough, and G.

Gammie, in: Review of Scientific Instruments: vol. 59 (1988), p. 1897.
8. P. K. Hansma and J. Tersoff, in: Journal of Applied Physics: vol. 61, Rl

(1987).
9. Ivar Giaever, in: Physical Review Letters: vol. 5 (1960), pp. 147-148.
10. R. M. Feenstra, Joseph A. Stroscio, J. Tersoff, and A. P. Fein, in:

Physical Review Letters: vol. 58 (1987), p. 1192.
11. H. F. Hess, R. B. Robinson, R. C. Dynes, J. M. Valles, Jr., and J. V.

Waszczak, in: Physical Review Letters: vol. 62 (1989), p. 214.
175
12. H. C. Manoharan, C. P. Lutz, and D. M. Eigler, in: Nature: vol. 403
(2000), p. 512.
13. T. R. Albrecht, S. Akamine, T. E. Carver, and C. F. Quate, in: Journal of

Vacuum Science and Technology: vol. AS (1990), p. 3386.
14. Gerhard Meyer and Nabil M. Amer, in: Applied Physics Letters: vol. 53
(1988), p. 1045.
15. E. H. Synge, in: Philosophical Magazine: vol. 6 (1928), p. 928.
16. The picture is obtained from

<http://physics.nisLgov/Divisions/Div844/facilities/nsom/nsom.htm>.
17. E. Betzig, P. L. Finn, and J. S. Weiner, in: Applied Physics Letters: vol.
60 (1992), p. 2484.
176
II

Nanomaterials and
Nanostructures
177
178

The Geometry of Nanoscale Carbon
(*)

.

) * !"+ , $
" % !
& ' ( " !" #
!/ 5-6 ($-1 3--) 01 " ' -' / .)-'
9 8 1 7 -+ +1
.)"- :"
Bonding 1.4

1s > = ,; 3(
0 .5-+ < + -;
+ - ' .(ls22s22p2) ?7 2p 0 / 2s
A $-1 3 3( 0 5- -1 0 @
D () $+ 0 60 :/ B 8C 5( (Coulomb potential)
:D E6 0 :( 81 -+ .(1/r 8 A
,1 :- / F 2p 2s ( :- !"+ 31 :( 0
(*)
Vincent Crespi, Department of Physics and Material Research Institute,
Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA.
179
(Antibonding) " 3-C ! (Nonbonding) #
$ (Bonding)
-+ I- . 2p 2s " (H 81 5) G- G
- I J (Wavefunction) 1 -" 7 0E
=K 3-+ .31 :(" (Attractive atomic potentials) 5( A(1 :
37 8 5( , 0 7 31 :( :-
L(' ! .3-7 E@ , (' 0 "- ( :(1 = :(
:E I- C - !/ 0 M( 8 .(σ states) σ :#
1 ( ( 7 M :E " E) @
8 : J0 J 0 7 = 3 $C
"$1" B / I .(1.4 7) π :# ! :(
31 :( 5( !"+ $-+ B1 p :# =- $C
.-;@ E : 3P !
& $-1
O + (Anisotropy) H# 7 B 5(
.π (Dimer) (*)

1.4
; :01 -; C 3 -+ * :

(Graphene) 01 3- -0 : :01 . D QQ )0
) #/ =R )C; 8 $"- - :" ) Q
.-;@ EE 3- 0 (Loosely) = < 7 -
& – &) Ť-T ‫ ه"رو‬$‫ آ

ّن ذر ا‬:‫)*( د‬
.('*‫دا( )ا‬
180
y x 5 C )1 (2.4 7) 3- 01 C
S
C 31 :( IE 8 =R )0 :( 3(
=)
.T; )C; 8 $
;C $ (P -; : L(' 5
3- 01 + #
$ A1 C0 7 (In-plane) 5 0 sp2
: EE 7 '- -; )0 2py 2px 2s :- .:01
: L(' 7 .(sp2 :>1 ' ) 3--1 (Superpositions)
3( U !/ - 7 (Lobes) 0 EE 3--1 EE
L(' 7 .y x V C );1 T; )C; 8 120o , 0
2pz - - .31 :( IE 8 σ (P -;

7 31 :( 0 2pz :- 8 sp2 V !"+ $-+ )1

"
"; H 3- (Sheet)
)7
)1 : (/ E ;
31 :(" 2pz :- (Overlap) - .01
.$
W -+ - )D
" M( B
L1# 0
:(
!"+ VD@ ' ( : -
M" D D σ :# 7 (Electronic Bands) :D" 0
.π :# + 1
..2.4
181
:-C )* !/ 0C π :# 8D 0
:
' π* :-C :#) .'-- !"+ 0 D π* (Antibonding)
.( 01
0 'Q < 2pz :- S
+ D :(
, - 0 :+
G, 7 ' $-1
;C : :+

ẑ L1# 0 -
-;@ . ẑ L1# 0 : , =-+
.' 7 :01" JD- " @
J 310 -1/ !/ 3-+ ' ( : 5-6
$-1
( D : !/ 5-6 : 8 3 (Bandgap)
;1 V 3 X ; #/ : :D 0 !/
:E-/ : IE sp2 :( C
:$ $7 01 0
0 ( 8 - J 0 ; 7 81 I (Three-Fold Coordination)
*
π π ,# L(' + Q7 5( " . " 3-
D (' D 1 0 3 =-D !"+ ! ! 0 V -+
# =* .Efermi -+ T; )C;
$ ;0 2pz :- "7
#
$ - C0@ >7 ;
BR0 J 310 >7/ BD T
B

Z !"+@ D :( 'Q : :D (Necks down)
-+ ,; -0/ +1 :# --; (π :#)
- 3-, $; A :( R0 M( !/ 0C .0 D
!"+ π* [ π [ :D U 7 - (' .(Interatomic overlap) :(
EQ . D !- !/ 'Q π :# 80- D 8 V-
01
. $+ 3 0 D -+ : + \ 0 1
8 -; )0 : M" -; M" 5-- !"+
J 310 8 (Vanishing Fermi surface) 7 0 \
.
-, 8 L(' S-
. 7
@ 0 ' ) !/ 3( 31 :(" $C

0 . D π (1 ) 5- -1
; C B," 60 :/ ;@ B A ( ,
182
E - A ' R0 M( ] " ;1 (Bonds)
V A" # S+ !"+ 1 .3- ' ) -;@
+ 1- !"+ N2 >5,1 (Triplebonded) EE 7 EE
^ -
S; !"+ .3-
$ M( #
8 3-; ! 7 )/ # π_ 3 sp2
;1 8
., --;
Dimensionality
2.4
>7 5 E ' `-;@ E 01
Q C B; 5(
E / .z y x :'1# 0 5
_ # -a 8 -;@ EE =1 -1 %
!/ .:D = Q 0 ' 01" ;
-;
:# 7 ( ] " :0 - sp2 V C :'1#
(Finely-Grained D- < 0 )
" 1 8 :^
0 C ) .T; )C; + (Spaced) -+ 0 .Wavelengths)
. , (' 0 -+ wavefunction 1 - 0 0C/ 3- (Node) 3-+
C 0.3 nm ! $-1 D ' 01
V !"+ $-+
3E/ $ ; ') L1# (' 0 1 - !/ V 3-+
-" $-1 O + (Curvature) S 8C A" (3p 5( V" (Excitation)
:D E -; $-1 3 D !"+ M( 5 1
.
; 1- :( -;@ E ! 7 !"+ 3-D /
. ="+ 0 3 3-+ ) ' ;
#
-;@ E 01
B7 ( -;@ EE =+ 0 b; @ `(
L(' (
D
" / .! $-1 < "+ IE -; 0 L('
0 - ) ( ( ' :01 : $ 3 :'7
0 L1 !"+ 5-+ "W L1 . 7 V 0
#
$ - B7 - 8 ' "W B7 >7 , D R0 V
. ()B
(‫)أ‬

! (acoustic phonon)

. $ "! # ẑ
183
E 01
B7
a = IE -;
" - # 3 #
$ `=' 3E ! !"+ " -;@
M' . '7
('
W !"+ (Dangling Bonds) - 5
:( E :+1 - (Cap off) ,R / : M( ="
0 . - "
7 I )
"c 1-)
- . " E 0
!"+ = !@
-) -+ @ (Fullerenes) :
= 0; " ! 7D
.
! M( 7 ) '-- L(' =
Topology
3.4
EE 3( ' 01 )7 " 0 S@ A" /
5 - )
!"+ V -; )"Q Q 31 :( 8
7 " " ; 1 E 7 L(' / . -
:( -+ ) A1 - 1 8C . "- @
1 " -+ . " 0 ) $; sp2_
*" . L(' $a = ) 7 '7 7
1 S1' R0 ] :0 , + ;d -D "+
.:( -1 =-+ -1 + 0 8
B1@ --; sp2 _ " 5 0

/
Edge 0 ' Vertex D ' 3( I (Polyhedron)
B1@ --; 7 (' -; 7 T
.B1 7 :( " "
--+ --+ B1@ --+ (Universal) + C D+ B
!"+

L-1/ J" B1 --; 8 - D; L(' !"+ E;" .=
.3--1 :( 0CR $+ -- (Tetrahedron) B1@ + :'

$ 7 7 # :( :' :D 0 0 1 ) (
' B1@ + R0 M( 8 .$-1 3 , :'7 @ B1@ +
#
$ D E B1 :--; C >" ; J#
E= ) : (V = 4) =D 8 (F = 4) B1 ; B1@ + .$
184
E B1 :--; 7 B1@ + -- R .F + V = E + 2 *# .(6
.L- 3- IE J 5 0 $-;
. (Euler's Rule) 3.4
D (3.4 7 @ A1) 0 D 0CR
M 0C/ V- M( #
$ - .--1 0 --1 B1 3--1
F → F + 1 - 0C/ B1 V → V + 2 0C/ D () 0
.E → E + 3 0C/ IE
m [ n [ )" B1 0 3--1 D 0CR $

2n + m 3--1 B1 n + m - 1 3--1 =D n + 1 (@ A1) =D
$>- B1 --; 5 :"; L() AD; >1/ .3--1
L() B1 --; 5 ; BQ
8 .B1@ +
B/ - 5( B1@ --; 7 -/ : S; 0 C `
L(' -+ =D 8 V ! @ ) 0 = , $+
.()B1@ + A1
: :"; "+ : =' $-1 3E *#
!

V→V+1 V→V+2 V→V+n+2
F→F+1 F→F+1 F → F + n + m -1
E→E+2 E→E+3 E → E + 2n + m
.B1@ + - 0 ' F + V = E+ 2 D; !"+ *0K
, ! - / +sp2 *! &%( ) (Vortex) & ' &! ! % (‫)ب‬
9 7 3 ! 8 ) 4 ! +" $3 62# 6 & !!5 4 + , .'! 01 !123
.3 &# "
185
--; L7 ) : V D- "+ $C -0 8D 0
)- (" E (/ $; )1 G- B
!"+ BF f $ B1@
L(' . 0 AE 8 (Donut-like) :- 7 ; s --; A1 --+ S

>^ .V → V - s =D s E → E - s s F → F - 2 )1 " ";
--+ 3 0 @ A1 2 H "+ A1 F + V = E + 2 D; !"+
(Genus) S1 G ! .F + V = E + 2 – 2G: "; L(' )0 (
G :
.)C ":-" 7 AE --+ B1@ --;
' . > T; +- .3-1 1 !
' !/ $
:( (Dangling Bonds) - - $" B1 --; ;
: 3--1 3-+D !/ U sp2 _ :( ` sp2 _
7 L(' 0 / )+ E IE D B '
-1 # :$1-, V
!"+ 3-+ L(' A" .3V = 2E :D
:" 01 + = g .:( 5-0 --+ 8 " :0
A1 :( " : ' % 7 T0 +- M( -
B1 6 - B1Q B1@ --; . : )
E = 3/2V, F = ) " (' "- (R0 .2E = 6F : )1 M7 0 /
/ .G = 1 !"+ F + V = E + 2 – 2G :-+D 0 (1/3 E = 1/2 V
!:- B7 AE B B1@ - A 01 )7 8 "
.(4.4 7) A@ E * 3 V : ' L('
. 4.4
186
)
" $ A@ Q "' @ j*d

A -1 # ; 0
E L(' . ) -+
( )
!"+ " -; \1 S B ) ) # :(
/ `(Dangling Bonds) - - A@ L(' ) $(/
1-' :( -; :1 :) ,1 J L(' V-/
; - g .
! bD -+ M( !/ J
-1 - : EE ps2 _ 8 B1@ 5--; " J"
.`(G = 0) AE
B1
k
W D --+ !"+ 7 7 5 L() - #
--+ T
. B1@ - A "E D 0 '
E !"+) z < 6 I (z-gons) B;"C 8"C =- B1
A1 (z.gones) --+ ' 0 .(Squares :; (Pentagons) B1@ :
" " / `G = 0 8 J" B1@ --; 7 !"+ " )0C/
6 N + zM
0 B1 N + M ) (Z.gones) M L1 - N
2
6 N + zM
!"+ F + V = E + 2 – 2G :0 T; .(Vertices)
3
5( < B1@ :- N --; .(6 – z)M = 12(1 - G) : $-1 A1
A1 : B1@ :- - AC" G = 0 [ "
.:; 6 8 ' (z = 5 M = 12)
B1 7+ E / .12
.J" \ !/ ) sp2
L(' (Z.gones) [ S
:;"C[ L(' A = ; L 5( (z-gons) --+ g
7 0 G- 8 , 0 :'7 / `9C@ :-
5Q .9C@ :'7 $ -
.(Quadratic in the Distortion) B7 ; $ D
" , +
!"+ : 8
" (P -+ 8 T
9C@ E $
G1 -- .9C@ ; ( .$ :( --+ --
( / .:- - J +
- : : (/ "E
, 0 ;D L7 ;C $ ) 3- : U, 7
187
( !"+ 3- : 5 . "
: 0 :( $
(" ;C ;
" 80- )"+ "
:( U, D
-@ " :'7 C
. "
: ; C
M( .7
.() 7+ E $1 $ ;,
B1@ 3--; !/ 5 A@ BR0 M(
.A ) -+ 3"D 7 0 : G-
" :- !"+ 0 5 B@ A@ 1 9, $C
.J# :D 0 B/ -; 5( C60 >5,1 5 $ J"
D 0 )
Curvature 4.4

$" a = 1 L+ ' A@ \C
0 1, : ) "D !/ 0C 8"C@ :-
(" S" $C , + \C 7 - 0

!"+ AZ @ 1 V .01
!"+ )C0
- D
!"+ T
5( ' S 9 (' .S
S 0 B7 - ; :
l .J7 -+1
5( B7 9 5 3 S E ) 1 S =)
.1

" C
S + / .
J, -;1 BQ7
.()31 :(" pz :- (Overlap) A ;C )@ D
Energetics

5.4
+- " sp2_ 3-1 -) :" < -; g
S- .:"7 ( 0 " M(
" !" :D ;
(‫)ج‬
!2 >
% 0 = &! 6( & , (61) !: 4 ! 4# 4
.@ &? / =
2 +>
%" & & !" !

/ != 6 %" @ !? A( = (‫)د‬
@ 3 = + @ !? ( %
=
4 & 4 " @

!? A( 3 . 4 @ !? ( %

4 (Gausian)

+9!( &
/
@ 2 +!= ) 6 %" B) 4 &
3 @
.B 4 @
3 =
188
7D -+ J# :D 0 . " sp2 ! :"7 ( B1 !"+
@ ! C60 [ E 3 B7 ! , 0 *
. A@ E D "
(Fullerene)
A
$
E $
=- # 0 0
1- :( 0E C
0 GK :+1 ; -# '
(Dimers) :- -0/ :( $+ - 0 . + 3
8 !"+ -+ +
< (Buffer) - ,< $< --
E \ @ E 0 A@ .5 ,
0 $ @ 7 :
0 -; =1
.5,
E ) 5 !"+ >C "

" ! :D =- - (
, $D =* )0 :;C !"+ 0 A
$ C

! J 7# 0 :D =*" 0 ' .5
.=* - -+ !-@ D :( > (P -; = ])/
5 ( "+ - 0 $- '

) 5 , \
B0 ; =* 0 :1- 1-
; " :>C0 3 ;
,1 J + 3-+)
B0 :Q
, -1 !"+ " :7 81 !/ =* 8 (7
M( . " (Transient) 3+ 0 3 + 3-+ :
. 1
:1- 81 * @ >/ - (/
:( 0 3 :+1 0 * 0 -- 0 (Thermalized)
.B07# $ "7 >C0 D )-
+ M") :( (Clusters) -; :+1 /

7 )R0 M( #
$ - .J !"+ sp2 7 # (N= 20 3( 7+
) I ' =1 L(' E 0 .
) "" 7 ) ! 5- -; 0 - _ !/ – 0 0 D R0 $-1
8 .01 B7 -;@ E ! J0 (C; ) 0 :( 0 0 )
) 0 5-@ -; :( \ -+ +1 0 :( --+ --,
189
R0 ># J
0 ( ,/
"
=- 5-@ -; :( ! ;1 M( 8 .:" 0

. ( : ;C
$ - " @ ;0 < " 5 5
eV ! "- 3(" D U-, :( "" 0

k 7.5 eV ! ' sp2 -;@ E
0 D .6
0 "- 3( :D - -+ +1 0 :( --+ --, 8 .3(
-; :( =* ' D S 0 ( \ )
.() sp2 8 -;@ E \
!/ sp 8 5-@
-+ `3 E " >+ E

sp2 :( \
L(' '
3( D A $ -' + $-; sp2 :(
!K
.()S D ' R I 1/R2 8 $-
-- ) :( N 01 ;D -; A

># D A (' N 8 $- ( " 0 S D -
--, .:( --+ + " ># D +1 ! 1/N 8 $- 3(
01
-- !"+ 0 ( (Energy penalty) D C >,1
$ " 0 > D
" : (/ 0 . N 3-,

0 N 3-, --,
0 - " D
" R0 E
.D D " " 3 -; :+1
sp2 :( " R0 1 J"; >,1 0 C
E#
M" ' > E@ ! (Pentagons) $ 7+ E
&?2 / & B1 &%8 >B( =3 &%8 %= 6) C 3 65/ (‫)هـ‬
!? A( D F# @ &? E %" =
& & %D !
.( N ~ R = N ~ R ) @
+R '!#H @
= &2 !2H &? 0= @ ! 8 2 G1/R @ 1/R2 (‫)و‬
π A!= 6D π )= σ A!= @ 6D .(1/R2 , @ ) 1/R ,

!5) 3 .1/R ,
95 3 4 +R '!#H 95 3 @
= 4 .σ )=
&!5 & !2 & & JE3 & B &( !(" $ + !I !3 &2 &?
.1/R2 , 9
&? !M 8 1/R L 1) K .&!5 ! I
190
5@ 5 -1 -D A1 5 $ 7+
.(5.4 7) T; )C; 8
.C60 5.4

3+ 0 5 , M( !/ 0C
!"+ 3- 0 ' C0 R0 3 ! 0 B"+
0 )/ $ E@ ># -
0 .C60 ' L(' .T; )C; + ,; : !"+ *0
$+7 E@ E
,; : $C B 5( @ ,@
(Hexagons) :- 0C/ 8 C60 "D C70 .C70 '
A@ E 8 J !"+ B1 :--; R0 B"+ .)
-; = " 7 :( D; :
(Nanocones)
1 ! 9 R0 :7 0 7# =, :D =*"
.(Kinetics) : (Energetics) :D " '-- =
Kinetics
6.4
sp2_ 3 ! 5 0 0 :( / S :( \
.(Planar) 5 :01 ! $ ! 81 :D A ' D D
191
:7 0 7# :D
3 ! L() -1 #
B7 - -- --; G L1# D ' # $
>,1 0 , =-+ 7 ; : \ .\ D 0 3
- !"+ :" ) L(' \ . ' E ! 0
. S :( ! < + +1
! (Nucleate) V ) "
)1 :g ,#
:(
+ 51 "+ @ - !/ C<
$-D T
" sp2_ -' R0 M( 8 .', A; + D
>7/ !@ 3 / .:## !"+ -+ ; 1
=E ](Small seed structure) 3 ( ' 0 ' 8 S :( 0
3--1 :( !"+ 7 5( >,1 5 3( L(' --
L(' .) 7 !"+ $D $EQ -) / .
:-' @ - :" 0C/ A 0 8 S !"+ !
:"" (Well-thermalized) -1 7 7 0 "
.sp2_ :" D D -
!"+ $-+ M( 3( , -' :# + '
!/ ; !/ - 9C :) :" --+
.$ 7+ E
7+ -
. 6.4
S D !/ - 3( : :( 3("

$- $
$ 7 M( )0 J" 0
=, 1
:1- 81 8 (sp2_ :() L(' :a; - .(6.4 7)
C0 .: !/ - 9C (Acuteness) 3-
192
-
0 R0 0 !/ :
C 9C :-
--# + D # 0 . 0 :( --; ; (1
* !"+ *
0 $; ) 0 @ \ 8D (
.B"Q (' + C
0 ' 9C@ " C L ()

1 S \ E : ; =* = -+ . - A
J- !/ U !/ - 3( -;1
B0 $D
b :- 0CR -a -K -+ .(7.4 7) - !/ (Tapering)
7+ E B+1 = -+ )
!"+ ) 0 J"
0
: 8D 0 C
- , JD- +
/ .$
0 . 0 3 0 $1- 0 J- -+ :- !"+
9 (' (n (' .(Lumpy)
$ $ " $ 0 $ 7
. " >7/ 0 $C+ \ * 0
`$ 7+ E# $
:( ( ! -- (
< !"+ *0 0 !"+ 3- )- : ! L('
) I 0 - -; 0 -- 0 ` 3
7 !"+ 0
" 01
' :
:( 3( .:E 7 (*
#

' :
g ) 0 0
0 8 =,
- ( () .( 01 (Flake) 37D 7

0 !"+ *
8 0 !"+ - :" 0CR ' -- !"+
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193
. & $% "# 8.4
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7) D " 7 - 0 ;1 3( L()
0
U-/ " A; \ 7 0 @ -- (' >- -1 .(8.4
- 3" 8 BQ7 M( @ 3" 0 3--1 :-
!/ :- L(' 5 ) @ -- D 3" D S1
C " !/ !/ S1 -; @ -- L1 31)
$
3$ - $ 0 :
:( ( L() / .(!-@ - !/
) -; :1 J +
K L()
0
J " 0 ."
M / (-; -
. J L(' +
3--7
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) B7 7 (' Q7 .(9.4 7) $; ;1
L(' : / $1 \C -; S .: 3( " 3
= ! # $ 7+ E
:( ( A@
)7 - -; :( ! ( -) @ :g R0 M( 8 .M(
-;@ 5- 7 !"+ - ( L() .IE :# L(' 0
0 .:( --+ --, E 7 =1 !"+ *0 I
7 (' E ! : )"7 *

.$-1
. 5 A D !"+ -1" 1/R2 S D )
D@ :( A@ ; : D@ 0 $- :D A;"
.# 0 $ C
0.7 nm !
194
Other rings
7.4
. -
;0 " 7 0
.)
D/ - \
5( (Heptagons) 9C@ + 7 S+ !"+
0 $+7 D + 7@ R0 3-+ C
<
0 --
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J" *
. $% "# 9.4
.' 10.4
7 8 + 7 (Pairing) 1,

0 -- A1
!/ - 7@ 7+ --+ 0C/ -+ ' .
o --+ 0C/ M( F + V = E + 2 – 2G :3-+ # - " sp2
.L+ 3-+ - .( ): :+
0 -+ : + 7 :1, L(' E :* -D

A -- !"+ - 7 =D/ + 7@
7 -+) $1- B+ ( 7 -+) A@ JD- -+ 5
(‫)ز‬
.ً ,6*‫ وا‬45*‫ل ا‬23* ,‫و‬0*‫ت ا‬,-*‫ ا‬/0
195
# T; )C; 7 + 7 A -+ .(+
.(10.4 7) p1
7 -D B $E A@ D
Surfaces 8.4

3- C π σ D !"+ g , -
0 V@ J0 3- S- C
-D L(' 01 : .01
$-; 0 T; )C; 01 \
A(1 -D : - :01
3 L(' \ D / . 1 D
" ) C;d T; )C; +
.3 \Z ) \ ) $-1
0 3--1 : \

B0 ) $ \ D
(' .V sp2_ \ !"+ 3--1 :( B0 J " 5( :D
,# 01 A(1 +
1/R2 S D T;
.3 "-
8 S );C " < 1 sp2_ ;D
/ .(11.4 7) C 1
B0 R [ 7 M(
C

! =*; R0 M( $-1 (Crossover) ,1 D
:( - 1 :C; (/ 0C/ 1 : J "
01 \ !"+ 7 01 B7 8o Dd \ A * 0 -+ 3--1
.7 " :0 -1 3--; A M( G .T;
. + "# 11.4
196
.,! "# 12.4
) ) - -; :1 A@ Catalyze ,

7 -D B =< !"+) 1 : 7 ); = =E .
()
A 0 ' ' ; A@ (M( #
$ - " < 1
$C; )C; A(1 )0 :$) $- A;" \ D ! M( 8 . -
7; 7 A (Constituent tubes) A 8 =, 0
. , !/ (Transverse) C; 7 E"E (Lattice)
A@0 . -0 A@ C; 8 $C \ D
" "- B1@ A(1 3-
7 0 \ 3 D@ :(
"- B1@ A(1 G D 0 A A .(12.4 7)
: 7 S D 0
" -- .A@ D 8 $- "
\ M( .A@ D + $ (' ]7 0 -- !"+
0
" / .$ 7
B0 8 5( A@ D -
D 0 A 0) 0 5- C; 8" B7 5@ S D
.(Collapse) )# -C ,1 M)0 (V- 3 D \
5- -; C J "- D :( A \
=+ 7 .A@ !"+ T; 7 (Uniaxial compression)
-+ B"+ \ -+ $ E ( ~ 1 nm ) -1 3- A@
.)
Holes (G ≠0) (G ≠ 0) 9.4

A1 G > 1 [ F + V = E + 2 + 2G 1 T

.(13.4 7) !/ + 7@ T0 )
197
:D ) I 0E T
* 0 "C
< + 7@
0E + J" * 0 (Holey) ! C
-
7 .(Nanoporous) = 5( M( !"+ E C0 .0
;
3 :1- -+ :(Pyrolysis) 5 # = (
:"
)"+
" ,< 9 !/ 0C !/ - "
.7 , # " sp2 _
.(") - "

13.4
A' :D (Disordered) " 7 7 :, L(' I

>E B0E E !"+ $ " + 0 0E .) 0
.d ) + 7@ 7 0
" 5, A
: 8 : S
+C :" " 8 3-; G
!"+ C0 .AE $-1 --+ sp3- ; < " '
:" T
0 sp3 _ :( :( -1 # B
0 AE --+ ' G / I 12(G – 1) ' :" !/ +
( \ ) 8 A1 : --; $0 AE --+ \ .
T; 8 ) " 3- D+ 0 3 !/ B " D $C sp2_
.( $+ 3 :"
198
Conclusions

10.4
0 -;@ E ! 5( " 9 Q7 #
$ D 8D 0 ' "S" B7 ! -;@ EE _ sp3 @ $C
-;@ E 3 3-; ! / = = .
C -+ :01
T !"+ .- -; :( !" I- -;@ 0 V "
S@ 0 $ V@ ; 81 -+ :+1 R0 "
.\" " > 3-+/ E@ !"+ T
0 :EQ 8 $- -;@ EE
A / S- (" Q . " A1 8 = (' )
B@ -;@ E JD B@ -;@ 5- 5
, I . " A1 +" ="; A1 . sp2 _

- -; ( =1 ' ) $";
' !"+ A1
E ) "; )R0 " .$'( 1 B"+ -; A1
' (' .B M" !"+ > - !"+ M B/ I -;@
." A@ 8
Questions !"
#
/ -- sp2 _ " - ;1 r

q .1
. 0 - + E 81 J + 1
`01 + " 3- L(' 8D
σ V !"+ $-+ :01

> t\C
q ts .2
+ $-; 3( $-; H,# 0 ; -
." @ \ V
+
3- . A $C F d Dicalcogenides # -; .3
J7 .( - :) EE 7 8
' - L() @
\
" H :-' -- 1 -+
. (Dicalcogenides) -;
199
C
- "7 "

7 ) 0; ! g ! -1 # .4
) - \7 0
M ' .(Square lattices) ; 7
J"; 0 7 - 0 ;C 3 bD `! L(' 7
. C
:" D A1
A; : !"+ $D ( + 7@) :+ C

A r
q .5
. - 01
C
.01 7 :E-/ 0 (m n) 5 A@ 5- -- .6

!/ / + 7 U, C -+ (m n) :76
M7 + 7@ I 0 G+ `! A
.M7 0
-; ; A =E .є [ 01

3( \ D A .7
D / .к [ 01
(3( 2_ D 5) S
є [ ; G- - B \ 5 A 0 !"+ "
`G- (' ' .к [
Acknowledgments $ #

: 0 -1 .S b0 .- :a # .A 6 7
. " - 3-
B> :a # .A - 6 7 M(
References %#
&#
1. J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl, H. W. Kroto, and R. E. Smalley,

“Carbon Condensation,” Comments on Condensed Matter Physics: vol.
13, 119 (1987), p. 119
200
2. L. D. Lamb and D. R. Huffman, “Fullerene Production,” Journal of
Physics and Chemistry of Solids: vol. 54 (1993), p. 1635.
3. W. E. Billups and M. A. Ciufolini, eds., Buckminsterfullerenes

(Weinheim: VCH Publishers, Inc. 1993).
4. G. E. Scuseria, “Ab initio Calculations of Fullerenes,” Science, vol. 271

(1996), p. 942.
5. M. S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, and P. C. Eklund, Science of

Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes (San Diego: Academic Press, 1996).
:
'* +,
-
6. H. W. Kroto, J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley,

“C60: Buckminsterfullerene,” Nature: vol. 318 (1985), p. 162.
7. W. Kratschmer, L. D. Lamb, K. Fostiropoulos, D. R. Huffman, “Solid C60:

A New Form of Carbon,” Nature, vol. 347 (1990), p. 354.
:
'(

/#0 1#) *
-
8. S. Iijima, "Helical Microtubules of Graphitic Carbon,” Nature: vol. 354

(1991), p. 56.
9. S. Iijima, T. Ichihashi, and Y. Ando, “Pentagons, Heptagons and Negative

Curvature in Graphite Microtubule Growth,” Nature: vol. 356 (1992), p.
776.
10. L. D. Lamb, D. R. Huffman, R. K. Workman, S. Howells, [et al.]

“Extraction and STM Imaging of Spherical Giant Fullerenes,” Science:
vol. 255 (1992), p. 1413 (C60-C330)
11. S. Iijima, “Growth of Carbon Nanotubes,” Materials Science and

Engineering: B19, 172 (1993).
12. S. Iijima and T. Ishihashi, “Single-shell Carbon Nanotubes of 1-nm

diameter,” Nature: vol. 363 (1993), p. 603.
13. D. S. Bethune, C. H. Klang, M. S. de Vries, G. Gorman, R. Savoy, J.

Vasquez, and R. Beyers, “Cobalt-catalysed Growth of Carbon Nanotubes
with Single-atomicLayer Walls,” Nature: vol. 363 (1993), p. 605
201
14. N. G. Chopra, L. X. Benedict, V. H. Crespi, M. L. Cohen, S. G. Louie,
and A. Zettl, “Fully Collapsed Carbon Nanotubes,” Nature: vol. 377
(1995), p. 135.
15. A. Thess, R. Lee, P. Nikolaev, H. Dai, D. Petit, J. Robert, C. Xu, Y. H.

Lee, S. G. Kim, A. G. Rinzler, D. T. Colbert, G. E. Scuseria, D.
Tomanek, J. E. Fischer, and R. E. Smalley “Crystalline Ropes of Metallic
Carbon Nanotubes,” Science: vol. 273 (1996), p. 483.
16. A. Krishnan, E. Dujardin, M. M. J. Treacy, J. Hogdah1, S. Lynum, and

T. W. Ebbersen, in: Nature (London): vol. 388 (1997), p. 451.
:32 '(

/#0 1#) *
-
17. D. H. Robertson, D. W. Brenner, and J. W. Mintmire, “Energetics of

Nanosca1e Graphitic Tubules,” Physical Review: B 45, (1992), p. 12592.
18. D. J. Srolovitz, S. A. Safran, M. Homyonfer, and R. Tenne,

“Morphology of Nested Fullerenes,” Physical Review Letters: vol. 74,
(1995), p. 1779.
202

Fullerenes
(*)
.

(**)
.

!

TNT C60 :

1.5
Families of Fullerenes: From C60 to TNT
Discovery 1.1.5

' & ( ) ' % & $ ! "#

,- ) * +) & $* .
)
5 ( % 4
.0/ 1/2 3 % % /
) (Proteins) 4/ (Carbohydrates) 4 )
*
8
1 % /
# // (DNA) 6 7 (Lipids)
% / 0 25 .( : (*
5 ( / 9 2 4 +
8( # * : 1 8% ) (4
:) ( : 8

(*)
Harry C. Dorn, Department of Chemisty, Vergenia Tech, Blacksburg, VA.
(**)
James, C. Duchamp, Department of Chemistry, Emory and Henry College,
Emroy, VA.
203

4
A @ ?/ .(- = - % ->) / 4(/
. '
A & ( * & '
$D%

C B+)

C & "# ( "
30 = + * E/"
9 2
4 + 8 %E& % /
+) (Allotropic) G/F
(Sparkling) 3H/ A # * .A 4& > D

8 8 % // / sp3 (:
4 + IC/ 3 % ! > 0
/
(3D-Lattice) 5 D
C & (1.5
C) 9 2
4 +
3* 1 & J )
& .(109.5o % - C-C-C) !(5

: : & / 1/2 (8C K =) 4& >
% - C-C-C) π % / 4 8 () sp2 *
**
B+) :1/ . ** !E 1.5
C & )
(120o
:/ /"
L / /: ( 1/2 K2
(Delocalized) := π %
C * .6 9/*

C & .A E 4& > 5 :
/ 4& >
.A 0- 0D M* ) A & sp3
C/ )*/ E

() sp3
: .
1.5
)

() sp2
. .( )
.(
" .$ #
!"
204
prespective) A N ) 1966 -( L /=
(
O K2 ((New Scientist) 4*/* ( & C Daedulus
* C $ E &

4-(
( 6 K1=
/ (Rick Smalley) I * * A ( 3 & = I+
E 4( A 3 1 +)
.4=/ B+) (/ 3E/ & 1980
E 8( AE / 3& – -" -:( 2/*
C/ + (Clusters)
'
A =
(2.5
C) (Laser – supersonic cluster beam apparatus)
.(
* * ) 0 E 8(
& N (A
*
P * ( - +/* ) /
6 ) L /= 1984 &
6( D> & ,5 B+)
C/ % C !/) $* E
4(
E
4( / 3 1 .=D ' (
( (Analytical Mass Spectrometry) / /
% A= D2 N"
N" .0 + D # / +

4 + (- H 4(
720 /
E/ 0
+ /
0 + ( N N & I+ 8
8/ = .(3.5
C)
0 + 60 /
6*/ / (/ /
4 *E)
0 + 70 Q E /
) 840 / + - /
0 + C/
I+
(*)
60) E/ / 720 + /
4+ 0 + 3 1 I * (
& (Polyhedra) !(5 4/

C
-( 8 E*/ (
0 +
6

C +) .(Ih /) (Truncated Icosahedron) / (5 C *
!# R 0/ 4" '/* (Foot ball) = 0
N 9
+) Soccerball Q
C # .(3.5
C) (Soccerball)
5 E 0

(Buckminster Fuller) & /*
= 2 0 ( & (
. E &
1*D1 '
6+
(*)

! "
#$ 840 720

)* )+ , , (Lone Ranger and Tonto) "' ( ( " %
.) )+ ,
205
" '* . .
&" % . .
$
" 2.5
/ 1 - ) "& '
, ,
+$
$
#

.(NPG 0*

0/ 4 ' (Bucky *) & /*

E
+
) .(Geodesic domes) *( $E ' & *" )- !(5
C60
0
A 3 & 3% B+)
*: 0" 8
/
4
# & 4 /2 / /*
& */ 0(
.4 1
Production
2.1.5
&C/

A 3 & = E" B C C60 C/

IC ! / 1980 2 > & E ! "# > :
.'D- 7 =
(Soccerball) 3 2$# + " ( 1) ."

3.5
1 . C60 3 & 1 2" (*
) .C60 3
4 " " $
&
.(Toluene)

" C60 .
206
Kratschmer-
6" % . 1 .5
$
" 4.5
."& +$7
8
" '* . 1 .Huffman
! T/U $* 1 2 4* 4%/ I+ 0D

( &) &) C/
= 1989 & .A 9 - $ (/ &
& :*
/ !C/ = /2
, T/ (-
5 0 +) C 1990 & .(Interstellar dust) (
(Electric arc) :
AE -:( & !(/
C60 Q 2 1
# .2 - ( & 4& ( = 2/ / E % B+: .(4.5
C)

8 !% -D !5 T ) (Buffer gas) ->
L // %> ->
: 8 N =
T/# . 2/
&) C/
-:( & N N 4/ .200 torr # 100 torr
( = .(C70 C60 K2
C) 1 V/ W 15 # 5 $ E
%E/* 1/2 4+ & + = 1 %2 +) 2M
$+ 1 V/ E B+) & .-
/
/
4 & / C92 C88 C84 C70 C60) 4 1 E %2 /
: 4 1 & 4
/ 0%2 .4.5
C & )
(
(High Performance Liquid '5 * /
E % 0 – 7
'* 3*
C 4 1
/ :/E/ .Chromatography – HPLC)
& &
:N (/ * ) &

5 (3.5
C N) C60 Q ( 5 * !
.C70 Q 6+
207
= (/ & (4

) 7 &# 9
6X) Bethune / (NEC) Ijima (#
= E/*
C / 4& (
(Single Walled Nanotubes-SWNTs) ( $5 (IBM #
1 & !/ /*
&) Y C/
-:( & :(/#

2 *
/ 9 2 T # N 9 2 .A*
& ( Sc, Y, La, Gd : * ) 0 5 (III) (
Metallofullerenes & ) V// &( 4& ( =
(*)
- 3 % 2/*
E* B
+ /
.B J )
endohedral
T/U (Solar generators) *C =% 4 2/*
. 1 U
T/U
4& (
) AC C -
/ D2 4 1
.E % B+) %* 1/
" 0

&' (1800 K) % $ ! "#$ .
(Precursors) /'
, - ! ! (
&
) (Sooted) *+
36
!&
+# 4 5 3
! 12&
.0
!&
+

- 7 *
# ./# 6 (Aromatic Hydrocarbons Pyrolysis)
5 12& 8%, .% $

! "#$)
6 36
!&
+# (Pyrolysis) 4
.(Argon stream)
1300 K $
: 9 (
Formation 3.1.5
"# 1/2 / 3 % C60 4 & T/#

#
:
AE E % 0 ( 4-( B+) T/# / C) !
0 # # IC +) .3000 K -/ 0 4( 1

[2?/
C/ 0 * 4- ) :: *5

! 0 ( / - (endohedral metalofullerenes) -/ /$ (*)
.1 !2 $ /$ $ %34
208
"
/* # V/ & (A5 / ) 4& > /*" & /& >
(Endohedral & )5 1 0
4
I+
4& ( = # & *
/ 8 $ Metalofullerenes)
4* (4 *) * +) X . :
AE 0 * &

0 * %# & / C60
C/ H /" 8 / : "# / :1
0D .C60

4& (
E/*" 5 : %*
C/
& /* 1 %2 & C70 Q 0 : C60 O& I+
( #) 4.5
C & )
(1/5 ~ *) :
*E &) Y
4 I+
.
E/*
C70 1 & 4 6+ 4= &
4 +
C/ // (5.5
C) 4& ( 2/ & 5 \ 0%2 / &
/ E .Cn (n = 1-7) 6 +
0 > E 4( /

.13C/12C N %2 $ (/ 2/* 4( 0 = V/ B+) 3E/
0 > %2 *D* 0 > E 4(
C/ E \ 0%2 &
%// .Cn (n = 7 - 10) 9 & (Monocyclics) E 4-( # %//
# / 4E 0/ 4-(
4E # B+) E 4-(

0 + D 9 # 4-( B+) / .(Bicyc1ic)
/ ) \ B+) :C & ( )5 # .4 &

C//

5
4 1 , 82/ :/%* / (Annealing process)
(Isomerizes) //& - 9 2 4-( 8 4%" =% (Precursor)
%> (: 0) 2 -> $ +
) .4 & J/ E"
(Energy deactivation) =% %/ # 6M/ (200Y100 torr) * 1/
. 1
C/ & **
*2
C
/ ) : / & : 2X
%* 1 "
*@ E/ 5 1 4-( & ,D5

C/ X & ,D5 *2
C5 / = .,D5 ** /&

C/ ... 1 4

/ & % $/ 1
(Dangling bonds) / % E ,D ** "
,D *2
/ % E (* %5 'E/) 1=U &

C5 M &U E/*" * T+ +) +2H . 1
209
0=" Q 4* 0E
0 )N B+) 4 = . & - *2
&/ :H / / & (Isolated Pentagon Rule – IPR) "- *2
& %/ 0 ( 4*2 E 4 1 &# E/*

C & D (Motifs) **5
C5 I+ J/ .:/
-
& ) (C60 & - ) C
5 (Motif) **5
C # .6.5
/E % / / [(6،6) Bond linking] % / % * ! 6+ (Meta)
& %E& ** :N) / /** /E =% E/ :
/*2
.(**5
C
.
6 " % $" $
" 5.5
210
. 1
1/ :& & > : Motif **5
C #
!5 [65]Y &Y60 YIh ] !H )N E 0

C 6+ C60
+
)
6/
C &
0 + /*
** *2 4E
/
N )
Cn 1 IPR Q J* +
) .:( C
8 3%/ !(5 ** (n/2)Y10 *2 12 I) H (Euler's theorem)
N/ # I+
.[65]Y &Y60 Y Ih : 1 # * ** :( 20
IPR 4 & Cn 6/ ) ! & ) !(5 C
.Ih N/
# 4+
4 + (n = 60, 80, 140, 200, 260, . . .) **
0= I:// / C60 1 4+ 4 -U &"X & I)
*2 0= & > ) [65]Y &Y60 Y Ih Q /Q IPR
:
,D5 *2 4E 6 N Paramotif **5
C # .(IPR) -

C J .(6،6) 1/ % : A 7 : 1
) K1E +) H :( C 6+ C80- Ih K1E %* +) **5
=E 4-(
/ .(Electronic open-shell structure) /
# /1 ==
C80-Ih Q
(B N) 1E 4-( == E/* = 0 /1
0 E/* K1= I)
.(B N) \ / -
/
**5
C # * .La2@C80 (B N ) SC3N @C80 Q /
7 & B+) 8 5 IPR I:/" :& *
(Endohedral metallofullerenes (SC3N@C68, ) 4 &/
0 E/*
.Sc2@C66)
.(Para) ( <@) ?($0 ) " ?(<$

2=>)
9
; :
6.5
211
C84 C78 C76
5 4 1 - C70 1 # *

& *2 C !( 8 IPR ( N E& \ / :- / /
/)D .(C84 Q 32) ** !(5 & 0- 8 &
O& C70 # *& .= N/ 0 :N/ 0
4 1
# * .D5h N/ 8 (Ellipsoidal) 6
C E/* - -a
!/
(Empty cage high follerine) 2 K1E 4+ 0
4 1
0D .(7.5
C) C84 4 - 5 D2d C76 Q 4 - 5 D2 5
0
4 1 &

C 4 -5 0- IPR J* I+
.C84 C78 C76 C70 4 1
Properties .4.1.5

B+: /
U ) 4 1 :& & 3D% %E I)
1 '6-( '
%* V: 'b / .1E

K1=5
&#
4 + 3% / !(
.
4 + C60

M&
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# 0 $ = / (1s) -
4 /
U 8
-
0 + /* 4 : +O& .(2p) 4 /
# D (2s) /
#
4 /
# D O& sp2 (: 4 8 % / 0

C 0 &
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C
C/*
0 +
5 M&
/

c
-
p C I)
* +
) .E/ p 60 8
.60 Q
4 +
., & -

7.5
212
β ~ 36 kcal) .β $@
A59 C60 3 = Hückel
$ **& 8.5
(2
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/ * 1
C σ % /
C ( //* E/ %*
# %* 0 B+) 6M/ .
C/ π % :E p 4
.8.5
C & J )
-( 9/* %%2 HMO /
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(Highest Occupied / )H -( 4 D I) J )
213
)H -( 4 9 2 D (Molecular Orbitals –HOMO’s)
Q (Ground State) 5 & (Unoccupied Molecular Orbitals –LUMO’s)
Y Ih 1 '6-( /
U
C/ # .[6،5] Y 1 Y60Y Ih
+) (MO's % / & 60 Q 4 /
U 8( //) 1E == ) [5،6] Y Y60
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N 9/* +: .'6-( +) E/*" *=
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& (:/ &
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&/
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&
AE/
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C60 Q /
" 15 --/ # B+) (:/ 0# 6M/ .A sp3 Q
N (Electronegativity) * :
4+ 2.65 eV *E E 8
.
:
/ 7 - ) C60 3 <

$ voltammogram "
**&3 .9.5
.( = 0
214

-/2 N N & ! =% 9/* %%2 J
D LUMO's # $)+/
/ &# 4 /
# /* :* E C60 Q

:
& L +) ND .(Degenerate)
** # (C60)-1 Y65
C/ 8 C60 Q // //*5
/1 A= 6 /1 A= J/
(C60)-6 (Hexaanion) -
:
.9.5
C & )
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CO (' ) LUMO Q # 4 /
# D &# #
$

C K3C60
/ # 6M */ (Exohedral) ( 2 !(
) ( # 10.5
C N) (face-centered cubic (fcc)) !( 6-

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& .(33 K E/ 3& / RbCs2C60 Q * ) 1/2
$
6-
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C K6C60 # 6M/ ( 2 CO 4 /
# /* &#
/ 0 = !
( * 10.5
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.1 :
0 1 : ) 1 '

K2 : 9 2 0- I)
/
hexane *
: * ) %E/* 4+ & $+/
( 5 4 E .(- xylene - carbon disulfide

& 0 C70 C60 Q / %/ 6 2 5 ( 5
% 3% & : / /

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' # / K/" +)
( / 300 = ) (*1
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.
&
/ 60 Q

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13
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. 0 = K1/ A* A(
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215
B0 6 K6C60 1 .2
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C60 10.5
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< B0 K3C60 . 1 . (body-centered cubic (bcc))2
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% %
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Å % # (65) *2 **
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* C5 4* ( I+
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–
C & 1%2 * C60 '6-( (l3C NMR) 6 *%>
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249 K 3&
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ر ا‬
.($%&‫)ا‬
216
Reactivity 2.5
Fullerenes
1.2.5
'
4D1/

+/ : 4 1 & :1
12 $( / 5 $( (Attack) 1/ () # C/ C
4D1/ ) '
E/* I+ 2 .'6-( &
0 +
6 (C6H6) - 4E/C & ( & Electrophilic 4 /
g Q
: A / %* 4-( N & 0* B+) .- E :(
1E J%* 4+ 4 1 O& .(Closed surface shell) 1E
== J%*
. 1 J%* Exohedral ( 2 !( 1/ () &O %E& J*/
=/ 1 E/ 4 1 * /
U 15 O& I+ # &U
&# (/ 4D1/
: 82/ 4 1 > / 4D1/
**M (Nucleophiles) 9 4@F 8 Nucleophilic 0
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5 4

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4 1 8 R/ (Electrophilic) 4 /

g Q 4D1/ 8
C/ . 1 K1= J/& $%// 4D1/ # 6M/
C = : "#
7 8 = 4D1/ (Halogenations) (: (*
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+( 8 4D1/ :* 82/ 4 1 ND >
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.0
1/ ) 1 4D1/ : *

**5
C N) /** /E (6،6)
Y
(Junction)
4D1/ ) 1 C
5 4D1/ 9#
/ +
) .(Meta motif
217
)
HirschYBingel h )Y> , Nucleophilic 0 &U
0 25 & .C70 Q E 1/ 12.5
C .C60 Q 11.5
C &
(Endcap) 0*E % D
1/
5 (6،6)
%
5 6M
4 - 8 &U B+)
C/ 4(/ ) # 1 +: %E
9 2 4(/ '%U (D ) 0/ 4&# R/ I+ # &U .0/
4D1/ B+) # .4 1 J%* (Regio-chemistry) "8 '
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& 4(/ %/ & ( : (Functionalization reactions) 1/ 1N/
' )
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I+ (Hydrophilic) ' /M 8% - &/ > (Hydrophobic)
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.(MRI *%>
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"
H>; &$ G @ 2" F <
$
$ 13.5
.endofullerenes &$

218
Endofullerenes
2.2.5
4 1 E C60 Q C/
4 % / 5 *5
. 1 K1= 2 -( E 4( 4 + -(/
U
+#

!H 1/ 4 C E/ ED 4* & * M* +) / =
N) 1 0
2 1/2 / ( -(/ 8= &
0*
/ : \ / 0-(/ N # 0 CU (/ .(13Y5
C
/5 III () C
4 +3 (+3) 4" RD (+2)
4F* E& 1 2 4-(/ 4 + B+) .(-Rare earth- 0
.(Endofullerenes) 2 4 1 (Endohedral) !(5 2 4 1
"!(5 2 4 1"
/ */ O& -(/ /
& J
C 4-( B+) / .(Metallofullerenes endohedral)
& %/ O& I+ 8 .(IncarYfullerenes) %* 0-( 4 1
1 K1= %/ 4* 10 $ E 4/ B+) 0 4 1
.E/ 4 T/U 712 $* j 1
& (Xe, Ar, He) 4-> /2 -(/ / 9 2
lb/in2 1000oCY600oC) 1/ %> 0 4(
K1=
/ 6+) 3He 8C / / ) K2
C /)D .(40000
K1= & !( #
(6 V/
0 * D2 !
%* 8C N +)
!# R .He@C2n 1
/ > = / (: & I+ O& 3He NMR 6 *%>
4 + -(/ ) : 2X . 1 %2 & (4 -") N
2 0 ( / 0 + -( > // R 1*1 ( /
!C % 4+ 4-( B+) /)D .N@C60 Q C60 K1=
(Odd unpaired I /C /
# ( $* (Paramagnetic) *%>
4D1/ 6M/ .
K1= 2 1*& ( / 0 + -
electron)
/)D ( 0 K2 #
K1= & " ( / 4 +"
* 4E%/ & / E/* :2/* D
& B+) 2 4 1
.(Quantum computing)

219
*
.N@C60 1 .endofullerenes &$
959 14.5
Sc3N@C80 1 .Sc2@C82
Metallofullerenes !(5 2 4 & 14.5

C J
Sc2@C82 Sc@C82 Q (III () representrative endohedrals)
+) .(Sc2@C82)
* / + -(/ & )
Sc4@C82 Sc3@C82
Endohedral 4 1 !(5 2 E/ # 0 CU (/
/2 C
(Ni
Fe Co 4
Q ) metallofullerenes
$5 / &
/C (Catalyst) 0-1 ) B+)

(KratschmerHuffman electric-arc &) C/
:
AE E %
0 + 80 Q 4+
K1=5 4- ) 9# .approach)
1
/ 0
( ) .(∼ 0.8 nm) K1=5 B+: 2 ( ) =5 &
-( (
* & . + -( 4( 8 $/*"
.Lu3N@C80
0 + 80

K1= & 0-(/
/ Lu3N
-(
C ) !(5 C N/ 25 C80
K1E #
, // A3N (
.Lu3N -( ( $ & 0 E/* /1
--/ 6M .(Lu3N)+6@(C80)-6
K1= & E/*" 3E/ 4 /
# /*
D / , 1/2 !(5 2 4 & - # +) E/*"
Y Sc = A ) A3N@C80 (Trimetallic nitride endohedral metallo-fullerene)
.!1/ # I+
( Er Ho Y Gd
8= '
1/ & !(5 2 4 H/
" +)
!(5 2M 4P&? = . 1 4 1 :1 E (Regiochemistry)
220

pyracylene]
% &' A3N@C80 $
!
" # .
)" Sc3N@C80 " &' + ,
* .C70 C60 )$ % ( 6[(6)
4
5 )5 1 2 1" 3' 0/ -$ C60 -$
93-one 8 % Sc3N@C80 7 , )6 ) & .
62" 0
1،2،49triclorobenzene , (Refluxing) :
6،7dimethoxy-isochroman
> =
5
% (Adduct)
= (15.5 )2*
5 )
% A' 2'
@( , ?0 .15.5 )2* & $
>5
.$ = B
0# " 2
= TNT =
C0
=
@> $ 2 =
?- '
? .(Host-guest chemisty) 40 – ) D2 = (3

$ >$ =
@(
= FG E
. 22 =# H 0
>2
2/

(Diels-Alder Reaction Scheme)
15.5
.( !" 4 ) ( ) Sc3N@C80
"/' *+ ,
,-%
&' .Sc3N@C80C10H10O2 $ %" #"
.5 %#" 1#" .
0
#
Potential applications

3.5
.J &# F

# I 2
2 C60
(Macroscopic)
2 2
=
+ J
A' -> $
+ -$/ B E % .

H"
221
IC - * C*/
C = & 3% * 1
Q C60 Q
3%/
# 12 = .* B+) &/
E/*" C/ 4- 0( 1
("fuzzyball") fluorinated 1 C60
01 7 = .C60 Q * 1/ 1
/ 0 25 C60Fn 4-( *
0 25 E/ 0E/* *%> 1 K2 0(
.0 = 4
9 2 E/ 0( *%> 0
[TDNE]C60
4/ : (A3C60) E1 4D 4D ( ( 2/* O&
.$ (/ 4&C
/*" - $%//
/1 /
U 4E%/ /2 0H@ : 0(
I+ 8
.0
/ 0 O& 4E%/ ) (Photovoltaic)
!**
%# &/ * (SWNTs) ( 5 $5&
Encapsulated 1E 4 1 6 AE 1N N '
J )
(" peapods" Endofullerenes) 2 4 1 fullerenes
$ K2 : >/ # .1E La2@C80 Q # 16.5
C &
4-( Q:*1 4Q-( C E/ ) 6Q Q

2 4D1/ :N/ / (:
O .(SWNT) ( 6 $5
( 6 $5 2 1 1E -( 1 0 %*
1 N .-( /
U 0-:(5 **5 4

/ (SWNT)
-2/ = D2 4 % ) 0( 4

/ B+) #
.( :
/*- / 4 /*- / 8/ & 2M # 6X

C & ' J( E
&
$ E (FETs)(Field-Effect Transistors ( H/
( ( +) K2 /
(6 1 * N)
" peapods " Q & 5 )
2 4 1 1 -(/
.BD
0( " 4 /* ( &

/* 0 4E%/ N
/ & 1
= C60 6
1
C O& .(D 2C/
KE A & & (Protease) -/ -5 8 * -(
222
2 4 1 4 1
O / E& I+ # &U .(HIV) C
6 (*
# (In vivo) *( & (*
5 / R/
-( %C !/ E ( (6 +) 65 (*
5 # .(Singlet) 6 +
.% TD & D2 :/* & !2/* DNA Q
- !") .( 1) % E
K1= 0 = 4/ 4" B+) 8( & .*%> / & (
0-/ - ( (*5
0'1
-

" # 0- B+) // .*%> / & /
1/ N/ & 0( 3 % # ( I) -/" I+ 8 .C
B+) K2 = = 3E/ 2 4 1
.Hydroxylated endofullerene 2 *
) 4 & 17.5
C .0(
.' & !+

C * 2 4 1 & *
:
(
/ E/ / 0( 4
% = %E J ! "# ): & -/ " 2 4 1
(*)
.($%&‫ي )ا‬/0 &1 2 :(gadolinium) ‫دو
م‬+‫ا‬
223
= + / 1 C/

+/ . -/ " !/:(

* A2 " /
*& ! L
. C
".%* 7 5 3 % J%*
3C > : -( # A
Further reading "! # $ 4.5

Discovery of fullerenes

H. W. Kroto, “C60-buckminsterfullerene the Heavenly Sphere that Jell to
Earth,” Angewandte Chemie: vol. 31 (1992), pp. 111-129.
(Hydroxlated endohedral

17.5
.$ !" # OH .metallofullerene
W. Kraetschmer, L. D. Lamb, K. Fostiropoulos, and D. R. Huffman, “Solid

C60: A New Form of Carbon,” Nature (London): vol. 347 (1990), pp. 354-
358.
Robert F. Curl and Richard E. Smalley, “Probing C60,” Science, New Series,
vol. 242, no. 4881 (18 November 1988), pp. 1017-1022.
224
Properties of fullerenes #
P. W. Fowler and D. E. Manolopoulos, An Atlas of Fullerenes (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1995).
Andreas Hirsch, The Chemistry of the Fullerenes, Organic Chemistry

Monographs (New York: Thieme Medical Publishers Inc., 1994).
The March 1992, Accounts of Chemical Research thematic issue on

Fullerenes.
T. Akasaka and S. Nagase, Endofullerenes: A New Family of Carbon

Clusters (New York: Kluwer Academic Press, 2002).
Applications of fullerenes # !
The May 1999, Accounts of Chemical Research thematic issue on

Nanomaterials.
The July 1999, Chemical Reviews thematic issue on Nanostructures.
Questions
* ) 0C 0'#

2/*/ 4

A= # R .1
AE ' (# /2 6+ 75
5 (R '
T/# & 6+ Kratschmer-Huffman &) Y C/
:

C/
/ + .1989 & 0 5 1
4
lA 3 & = 1985 / 4 1
"% (

, ( C60 1 # * .2
0 6
: - # * & % 1/2
% %E& ! &
%E& I) (C6H6) %* (Monocyclic)
.V/ B+) L C# %
-( E 4( 6 8=/ & : ) .3

l4 1 & )-(

225
References %&
1. H. W. Kroto, J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley,”

Nature: vol. 318 (1985), p. 165.
2. Andreas Hirsch, The Chemistry of Fullerenes (New York: Thieme

Medical Publishers, 1994).
3. K. M. Allen, W. I. F. David, J. M. Fox, R. M. Ibberson, and M. J.

Rosseinsky, in: Chemistry of Materials: vol. 7 (1995), p. 764.
4. E. B. Iezzi, J. C. Duchamp, K. Harich, T. E. Glass, H. M. Lee, M. M.

Olmstead, A. L. Balch, and H. C. Dom, in: Journal of the American
Chemical Society: vol. 124 (2002), p. 524.
5. H. M. Lee, M. M. Olmstead, E. B. Iezzi, J. C. Duchamp, H. C. Dom, and

A. L. Balch, in: Journal of the American Chemical Society: vol. 124
(2002), p. 3494.
6. B. W. Smith, M. Monthioux, and D. E. Luzzi, in: Nature: vol. 396 (1998),

p. 323.
7. Q. Xie [et al.], in: Journal of the American Chemical Society: vol. 114
(1992), p. 3978.
226

Carbon Nanotubes
(*)

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Brian W. Smith and David E. Luzzi, Department of Material Science and
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227
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d! 0)$
! : ! .''9
": C SWNT \
8' 0
. ' ,' "9m d!
$
%5 )
#!J
#"
m .1.6 + %5 GB$ 2 "+ SWNTs 8 9 "O
.+ L)$ % " $ (Monodisperse) + L)$ "* #!$
0
$
1" 1.4 ± 0.5 nm 0"* Y*
%!" ( ( =
. (Growth parameters) * G) "! +! "- "J
(*)
!
"
Chiral molecule ( )

'
.%$
+ % &
' * # $ ،(Internal Symetric Plane)
/3 *

.(Enantiotrophy) %!

+ $ ' 2
,- /0&
1 %
3 %0 8 9
1 .'7

# ' * 5
#$

6 / 4* /"

; ،(Enantiomers) :
$ $

'7
*
.
."? " "
" /$ ':
' $
=- & /
<$+ . *$
231
! ! )
G * "
;)
: SWNTs \
)
5"* R ) 86 % (1000 % (Aspect ratio) ! $

!+ %5 9 # 9) R9
+ 2
" ,'
7*-!
. )
5 "
(5,5) L #!D ' ; 6 : C60 7L ,'

+J 6 % %
!" ;"
. : ! "!J #!J 6
6 C *
"!$ (Strain energy) 8 * 9
. #!D % " "6 !! 2 # "J 2 *65 )
G!"6 G ) "8 %! >! sp2 *! " %9 *
F5 = %5
.=! " '8 %5 8' L (Isolated Pentagon Rule) %9

(Structural perfection) G!

G SWNT \
Ng
$ 2

J d! %5 C )a g L ! ."-'J %5 = #
: ! ) # L$ .%!" ":N ! "!! 9N
$ # $
()
. ;" " ") 9 * ) " %5
L (!+ T5
$ .1 eV )) %5 ;)
,R9 *
F5 G"! G5R9 , 9 2$ =
%5 7 $ B! ' ) 300 K ) R
G 5R9 0 "
;" 100000
":$ + ) SWNT \
$ ! .1000 K ) ppm

) ( "+ ) # 5: L
$ U"
F5 ) "5
!"
0 ;"-' # 5: :
$ 5 C+
5 C = . ;" " ")
#!J :" ":$ # C .#!J Q'9 G G":$
$
G$ 9 ) %5 2 ,+ % (Partially severed tubes) G
. (Synthesis) #" 7:$ >) (Stochastic) + 7*9$ &
9 ) U*D Delocalized π complex =B "1 )6 π \

: =B9 #!J
$ 2! % L #!J " ) "9
*! Y' "2/ %! % .! 6 : (Dipole moments) #*6
0 .d! 2B! = &"9$ van der Waals ")
5
.‫)أ( أن ن ن و ا‬

232
;) % " ! %5 SWNTs \ %6 = %5 b (Affinity) 8J
(Gross % + %
J / %5 !
. (Ropes) "! " \!
) .#" 8
) )" ) SWNTs \ = morphology)
(Agglamerated nanotubes) #!J
=B! ! L
#B )) ) ./ "1
G +$
J d! %5 B" 2*6

* = :R: 2$ !5 +J ) * ! #!J 0 (Packing)
1.7 nm 1.4 nm ∼ "* #!$
(Lattice parameter) %!+
10,12
! "!
$ + #B #
$
1"
%5 ) : "*N! #!J *65 .: " ! 2$ 2 ;"-'
(*)
) !" SWNTs \ #B
N! % (Cocrystallize) ;" !
")6! = $/ R9 (Thermodynamics) " " ) "!
0
1" . (Kinetics of entanglement) C!+ " 0)
$

! 9 ) (Chirality distribution) % " =
F5 66
% !
/ %5 #!D L 0
.GB"

. ;"6 *
!
"8
$ ")
5 &6
2
! + !6 + ! 0 (Untangling) C5 (Exfoliating) Y"

2.6 + Q9 .SWNTs \
"!J 7 )9 Y"* %5 ,6 "* 0
.+ % (Supramolecular) Y5 !
#!$ G$ % (Multiwall nanotubes)

") ;)) #!J

" L)$ + %5 + 8 9 N!
(SWNTs) " ) )$
"+ ;) MWNTs \ "*
$ = (Coaxial configuration)
*J #!D %+ 0 %5 6!* = 6
! )!
F5 "
! '8 (caxis) c–" = Y5 % 0.34 nm

#"6
(Correlation) *!" ;""B! C X .(Bulk graphite) % 5 "- 6!*
) d! %5

MWNT ,T % )"8 = 6 , 2
!
C d 7.! 6!* (Chiralities) " %5 %2 ,R9 ":
(*)
.( !‫ أن
ر دة أى )ا‬cocrystallize ‫ رك ا
ر‬
233
Multiwall BN nanotubes
") ;)) BN #!J = / +!
!
6!* % " = #!J
9 ) = + L "J
.)"5 ) 88*
22 #

' +
=
> ? #
=
> /)
.2.6
() .
) SWNT #
#
!" (

() .!) + @
A+
(B) # 3+
3A+ D& .
=
> ? # > # SWNTs C 9
+ %& (B)
' 3+ F $MWNT () .E
22 E2+ >)

5=
> ? (C0) . +
) + SWNTs + (G
Polymorph
.SWNTs C + DA3+ > $
+

3.6
Intrinsc properties of individual single wall carbon nanotubes
"/ /R 6: **9! !)J p

2
.Supramolecular Y5 2 #!D
6) %5 !' G =" ) 0 ,' Y8$ L
234
.Q'9 0 %5 ;)" 2 O GB$ G X6 )
%5 ' 6: # $
Y %5 d"
) (Nanotube ensembles) #!J

B ."! iB
' 6!* #!J
! R8 +
J (MWNTs R'
# ":N b : #!J C .'8 Y* ("9 % ! 6!*
SWNTs \ Q'9 25 $ %5 ":T C
N! G .6 Q'9 %5 !
Q'9
d!
$ .;)6 ":$ ) 0
J )"8
.1.6 ) %5 "2/ SWNTs \ ;

! )

1.6
($
# "
#
1-2 nm Typical diameter % "*
100-1000 nm Typical length % *
Intrinsic bandgap ,'/%)) Y* ;5

0 eV/ ∼ 0.5 eV
(metallic/semiconducting) ('
∼ 5 eV Work function -+ )
10-4-10-3 Ω cm/10 Ω Resistivity, 300 K

8 300 6
cm (metallic/semiconducting) (' ,'/%))
107-108 A cm-2 Current density " 5:
Typical field emission >! %5 " 5:

10-1000 mA cm-2
current density %
∼ 20 km s
-1
Longitudinal sound velocity * ' "
K " " '
-1 -1
20-3000 W m K Thermal conductivity, 300 K
300
Thermoelectric power, 300 !"2 " " ;")6

200 μV K-1
K (bulk sample) ( ) 300 K
1000-3000 GPa Elastic modulus "
235

.1.3.6
Chemical and physical properties
! "1
!" #!$
F5 2*! " !*6 "1 !* #!!

(Hydrophobicity) 7
(0" ) "8 =! .7 %5
!
L)$ #!J 7
! 8B ") *! " + %5 G ! ":J "%!J "
d89
7`7
! 6 ")2 *! "! G "6 (SWNT) " )
SWNTs #!$ ='
.!*6 "1 SWNT \ U* 7 "%!"$"
: B ! d! %5 ;"6 (Suspensions) 6 +

%!" (Dimethyl formamide DMF) )"5 :) (Toluene)
* L$ %5
! ! "1 G 2 (Tetrahydrofuran THF)
"5")2
=B9 .(*)(Surfactant) %* " d59 = $ % )
)!
G
$
$ %
!" 7 ) 6 #!J
2$ Q9 +! G *+ 2$
%5 .(Covalently functionalize)
&"9J )T 6 dD ) +! # (SWNTs #!J )
(!" ")2 :) a 5 8/ = ,B 2$ )6 %
.
") 02 ;) (Fluorination) ;" 5 Y6 C #!D .!
")
)"" ,+ $ Alkyllithiums : J = 6R )! R8 "5
6+R G6"* l )! : ! (Grignard reagents)
2 %5 8 ;))+ 6
F5
. G)6 ":$ (Derivatization)
G 8 ":J %
!" " L SWNTs \
SWNTs \
R
."!J "*6
R
G 8 ":$
"-'J "*6
*

q 2* L #!J
!" ;"
66

.(Derivatization) Y6+ )) #!D %"9 % 9 ) %
, )!
$ ;) / ! SWNT \
6"* 02!
Q'9!
"6 ) .(7L ! " L J) (lumen)
‫ أو‬،-$ "#$‫ة ا
ا‬/0 1 23* ‫( ه آت‬Surfactants) "#$‫
ا‬%&'*‫
ا ا‬+‫)*( ا‬
.( !‫ )ا‬%: ‫ ودة‬-9 17 ‫ أو‬،17-9 17 ،87‫" ا‬#$‫ ا‬/‫ ا‬1
236
0
F5 van der Waals ")
5 \ ; (Physisorption) 8
.*
9 6!* X - 6 G !* G +" #!J
'9 "1 R8 % '8 %5 ":$ '8! r
.L
!" #!N!
% . 9 7 $ %5 G G " " G" "6 SWNTs \ "2/s

") 1200 ' ;" " ") ) 7 9 %5 %" +! Annealed
) c
%5

") 1500 ) ;" " ") %5 )' 2F!
"!$ #!$ SWNTs
;)) ;"-' #!$ " ;"9J
%5 $ 7 2 %5 G" " 2 ) #!J Y" 5 "- 5 . G"*
#!J
$ ;" " ") ) "*6 ;"-' #!J Y" . : ;)T !
"2/s .(Strain energy) 8 * %5 ,R9 G"/ "!J "*6
Y" SWNTs \
$ (Thermogravimetric) " " !
. ") 620`450 &) %5
Electronic properties

.2.3.6
Electronic band structure ‫ ا

م او‬.1.2.3.6
%5
!" #!$ = % #"
$
1"
#! 2 .: +! 58

SWNTs #!$
8 XJ
8 C

G )!
)"5 #!$ %5 "8
$ %6*
<B! .' ) Q'9 CR ;")6

."O SWNTs Q'9 R9
(Discrete '8 * L 7L "O Q'9 *!"

" ) )$ (HOMO) N % " ) $
! ;8! ;6! energy states)
+ ! ' ;) (Analog) "/

$ .(LUMO) N "1 %
SWNT
9
m .(Fermi level) %"5 &
#"6! * +
5BF! G") d! 2B! = 2 2 sp2 )"5
!" " 9$ Y"*
237
LUMO HOMO

" & ) ) .;" )
) 5BF! ." pz " ) 9 ) 2

π* π

" )
SWNT \ . (Exclusion Principle))! $)! 0 6 "
b 6"* 02! .Y* = U!' 6
F5 ;": )"5 "
π* π
* L$ LUMO HOMO %* pz " ) (Overlap) 9 )
=!* )) %5 $ ":J ) pz " )
F5 .%"5 &!
'8
6 Y"*
2 +
σ* σ
* $) . #!D %"O
5
":T %"5 & Y5 G)!
2F5 sp2 " )
.(5 :!
B π σ
" ) *R9
$
*! Y6+
SWNT \ Y* ! 2! ' /

% 6"*
5 " 8' pz " ) = $)! %
)!) 6B ! ) .14Hamada 13
Saito
2 " %5
) *R9 d"8 Multibody interactions ;)) R8 ;)
)! %* " ) 0 Y!* (*65 #"J ;" Wavefunctions
:%"5 & * + %:

E2D(
k ) = ±γ0 ⎛ 3k x a ⎞ ⎛ k y a ⎞ ⎛k a⎞
(2.6)
1 + 4 cos⎜⎜ ⎟ cos⎜⎜
⎟ ⎟⎟ + 4 cos 2 ⎜⎜ y ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
ky kx " (Overlap integral) 9 ) #"$ γ >

a = a1 = a2
0 '8 "!. k
"O (Wavevector)
%5 . (Qualitative implications) 8' ":u
":! $ $ )
J Brillouin
"! 6* * + / B89 6* **9
%5 8 + "2/g . 9 ;) G! 3.6 + %5 "2/ L
5 "
π
" ) $ ! . K, M ,Γ \! : *6 v"g > 4.6 +
.G G π )J Y*
C
5 "
( )) 9 ;) %5
) ) %"5 &
$ % C .K *6 ) π* Y* % π Y*
Y* )J ) 75 Y* 'J )
! (Degeneracy) R
238
"! #! 2 . G"8' %"5 & ) 5:
> '
.%) ,'
5 "
Reciprocal lattice ()

() 3.6
.# $ bisector "!
Brillouin
.
*+ ,- /

' & $%
M 4 1 K 4 1 Γ 12 0 *+
.
"! 1
`
"! ) (Periodic boundary) L") ) *"+ 0
w Bs

!+ 6 r > ⋅ r = 2πj BornVon Karman
"
5
k
0 %5 k` )! %* .U' )) j (Lattice translation vector)

:)! r \ x +! Reciprocal space direction )! 7B8
dkr 2π (3.6)
=
dN r
239
! " .

4.6
.($ $ *+ $ '(
48 & ) .K $ % #
"- k %5 "-
3`6 ) "!9 C )) N "+
F5 2 )
5 " 8'
$ B"8 #! .) )! %5 N %5

r
%2 #"6! ;)! k

F5 C %2 GB$ ! < "!$
' U C! .0 L$ %5 (Infunitly close together) d! 2B!
.*65
5 "
J Brillouin
"! 6* %5 (Continuum)
*!
>! 0" U "+ SWNT \$ =*6 9
;)
5 " 8' *"+ !+ .*! " *"+ %* (Unrolled)
) ) (Finite) ;)) 8' 2 " 0 * 2

$ ! . ⋅ c = 2πj :L") ) *"+ U!' ;"9J 02 .258
c k
+s . dkc/dN >> 0

$ (3.6) ) "+ " B! &
'8 2 #!J " * (Continuum) ' k`

. c * (Discrete)
**9 ;"'6 SWNT \ k `

$ ;"+! =!
" =6 0
$
5 "
J Brillouin
"! 6* 9 )
+ * ' .dkc/dN R9
d! 2B!
'8 #!J
%5 )" :$ C .*65 k` "'6 (2.6) ) )) Y"*

240
2 "' 6* **9 %5 *6 **9 "2/
1" .5.6 +
.;) 6* **9 %5 2)+ ) ;" = %5
%5
5 " π* π
*
! ;5 ) 4.6 + %5
!
SWNT \
$ C % .(Brillouin)
"! 6*
K *6 )

(Wavevector) (K Γ *!" L ) K
Y* ;5
.! G
?') (3;3) ;(2;4) ;(= ) (0;3) 9 $3 k723 01 / (-) 5.6
! '1 ;(3;3) (0;3)

A K $ % @3@ .SWNTs (
k723 G - H32 .F E D C' ;@32 B3 2 (2;4)
.
() (Annual Reviews '(
49 & ) .
- 01 D & E $3
$

' # $%+ $ G J .(66) SWNT 9 F $
.($ $ *+ $ '(

14 & ) .SWNTs 9 KJ

%5 K (")$ *! ! K *6 ) k` 2 #!$ L$ 5"
:* * ") )) *"+

K ⋅ c = 2πj (4.6)
241

%) K ⋅ c 6 . K = ( b1 − b2 ) / 3 )! !+ 2 )!

ai ⋅ b j = 2πδij
: . : )! !+ ,"

⎛ b1 − b2 ⎞ (5.6)
K ⋅ c = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ( na1 + ma2 )
⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
n m
= b1 ⋅ a1 − b2 ⋅ a2
3 3
2π
= (n−m)
3
%5 (5.6) d! δ12 = δ21 = 0
J %89 #' (Terms) ))
$ /
k` SWNT ' % " C .(nm)mod 3 = 0 %* (4.6)
= R' ,'$ &"9J SWNTs \ =
, .K *6 )
.0.5 eV )) %5 ;5 )
T
!j I ) % ;)6 0 %! c % #!J

5 " & + )6c .
5 " " ) 7 %5 "/ #
.(Overlap integrals) 9 ) R %5 ":T YB *! " # $ *$

"! 6* ! RG K 0 %5 K R *6 < %

< K 2 % #!J
))
F5 .(Brillouin)

**9 2 % #!J C *65 .;"-' Y* ;5 2)

R <
J ) G6
K = (Superimpose) # "
0
$ "2/ L) "1
.+ %5 "2/ Y* ;5 G
.n = m %" i " #!$ % #!J
+! ," !+ " "6 ) =B9 ) )! ! ' )

"8 &"9m "'6 *! " d! * > (Peierls distortion) "!
+ "- "
J >) *! " %5 )! .8B 9 ;)

;)) 0 %5 "O #" ) >! 6"*! ) %5 *
;5 %5 ;"-: U5 % 5B : ./ * % d89

(1D) L)$ )! L
) "! +
C .%"5 & ) Y*
242

!" #!$ ) 78 G
) C #!! . $ ' ,'

!" " =B ;) %5 * 8
F5 C = .)
)65 : ! "! + , >! 8" #!D *
"O * %5 "! #! G "6 G"!
" *! *!" *
5 ! ;"-' SWNT \ %5 "! ;5
5 ."! +
XJ
.2! 6 ":N! $ ;)) ;" " ") = 2 U!' % 8
%5 "8 , "! + ,* 2 %5 = ;"! 8 * 8
.SWNTs \ Q'9
Electronic density of states ‫ ا ا و
ت‬.2.2.3.6
:%m (DOS) 5: * +!
dN dN dk (6.6)
= ⋅
dE dk dE
k + dk k
! k )) dN/dkr (3.6) ) X

("O

: #
$
>) r \ *9 *
)6 B9 (2.6) ) = %* Y"*
dk/dE '

'
(6.6) %5 )! 7 " R9
.2! < 2
.* +

SWNT LJ 5:
L$
$ "2/ SWNTs ;) DOS :$ "2/ 6`6 + %5
>! (Straightforward) "+! "$ (Explicit derivation) U"' Y6+
DOS \
.+ Y 2 d! 6! C = *! 5
(van hove ,
5 z ) (Singularities) z L #!$
"! L DOS \ )
J
:C N+ .singularities)
1 / E − E0
"2/ z
F5 .Y* )$ ) ) * % E0 >
= "+ C
$ 6*J 9 ) ) Y* )$ ) )
(Band Y* ! Y6+
;"+! =! .) )! * 6*$
! %! Y* %5

! * '5
> structure derivation)

. c ) z
243

.
SWNTs
SWNTs DOS 6.6

& ' 0.03 "$ #$% DOS " (offset) !

0

* 2

#$% EF 1
DOS , -*/ .
+
*
$ '< ;- :& * 8!9 7 SWNTs " 45 . #$%
.( , , ,AB$ 50 45 ,) (I ? -) .=1>

.SWNTs \ (Spectroscopy) 5*! Y 5 b C

% >
$ SWNTs \
$ ;"9J m %5
! R ":
6" "O (Deexcitation) ;": R "! (Fluoresce) YN
. z
! ;8 "! (Promoted)
Vibrational properties

.3.3.6
.1.3.3.6
Phonon spectrum and density states
L)T . "
)) 25 9 ;)
!" #!$ : L)T
"! )) 0")! (Vibrational) #! " ")

"! )) C
High% : . (Phonon modes)
8 *$
"8 ;" 160 L 9 ;) 2 5 SWNT \ (10,10) symmetry
))
;) degenerate ") *J 0 d! .#! * 120

244

$ (Chiral) " #!J
C = .*J ))
$ 8 9 "
8 " i"5
*N! + "2/ c .25 ,* %5 i
x "5 100
":$

. "+ %5 SWNT \
5
8 *
F5 .Y ")
U!'$ G!"
) "!
$ !
(Lattice !+ 2*6 " (Coherent) C #! )"

\ %5 . ω ( k ) ! Q9 +
5 * +! .points)
*J .2!+ 2+ U!' L$ *J 0 d! ") SWNT
2B! = i"8 + (Branches) G"5 d! 2B! = ") %
) #! (Wavenumber) % ))! *J
G!1 .",* " d!
% C % (Acoustic modes) ' *J
. ν = ω( 0 ) / 2πc Γ *6
."'! *N! 6! ;"+O {k→0 ) ω→0 2
$ ! .2 D )!J %: + )

5 "
5 ,*
i"5

* (Quantization) d"8 *$ %5
5 " ,8
> SWNT
5 +
$ =

(Circumferential wavevector)
"5 6*$
5 "
5 + 6* %* Y"*
'

! ) 2R9
% C X8 XJ %5 % 0 .)!J )$
:G' G5
," = $ $ ":$ Y5 "O Y*
2 ) )!J )$ ;)) "5 6*$
5 " ,*
i"5 6
5: %5 z %"5 Y*
(SWNT \ ,* %5 ) i"5 = !6
;R .Y* 5 %5 (Phonon Density Of States`PDOS)
5
, ("*
| s) " 0 %"5 Y* +
F5 C

.d89 i"8 ))" %!" X6 ( %5 %* 6* +5 C = . c
; (Tight binding) YB *!" 6"* )! Y"*
! .Y)$ +! *J 0 % #" ;"+! 6!* (Forcefield)

G!"6 2 8 9 SWNTs :R: PDOS \ !
8 ,*$ 7.6 +
."*6 X8
' *$ !"$ + % 8.6 + %5 B *J

*J
.'9 $ % B *$ :R: (Acoustic modes)
" 2 (Longitudinal Acoustic`LA) %* %' * % '
245
(Transverse AcousticTA)
B"
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* {#!J "
(Twisting TW) 8 * #!J " ) 2
*
LA *5 .
5 " %5 : *$
*J 0 d! Y+ .8
Y5 TA * GB$
5 " .
5 " %5 LA * X8 *!B! : !
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* ! SWNT \ Doubly Degenerate R ) *$ ( C
TA * ) .(8.6 + "/ )
"6 "1 ZA TA
5 " %* * 9
.
5 " %5 : SWNT \ %5
(2,8)
(9,0)
(5,5) " PDOS "
$
* ,

1 & 7.6
(2,8) #
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8 G , 5 1 G&H , $ .SWNTs
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(165 cm1) 20.4 ) C >) (1010) #!$ !! .
5 " ZA
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J X8 *! ) .meV
*! RBM
J d! "+ .%8 2 Q 6 )) G2!+ #!J
* %: . : Y * (Point group) *6 A1g
10) #!J %5 >) L (DoublyDegenerate) R ()E2g (2)
L* LA * * !+) . 196.5 meV (1585 cm1) ) (10
. $ * ) >) O
G )!
Raman activity
" * } + 2
J
2 E2g (2) A1g
*
R GH

.L
246
Sauvajol 5 )~ )6 .,: +! RBM \ "* R ") )6
+ 9.6 + %5 Ga ! (Mastercurve) G "

0TR
.! 02 :$ : % ) 15.! !" b
ν = 238/d0.93 (7.6)
1
SWNT \ "* d cm \! RBM \ % )) ν >
SWNTs \ ,' %5 2 ) 2$ ) 0 !:$ ) .nm \!
= )! ) G$ "2/) . Raman spectroscopy
" 5* * !
b
*
'
)
R

. "+ %5 ν (224/d) + 14
.(G!"6 :
2.3.3.6
Specific heat and thermal conductivity
"O =5) J 9 ) * ) ) ;)
9 )
C C . $ *
5 *$ ' %! ;":
>! (C) " " %5 (Cph)
8 (Cel)
"O

2
.C= Cel + Cph
& () .SWNT (10,10) " *=

SWNTs " L #A$A & 8.6
(M) .(doubly degenerate */ M
!)
& (#) .
&

247
&) A1g & (") .( */ M
!) E2g (2) & ( ) .(
) twisting 1 &
("P ) .(MP)
&% $
* 8
8 '< IO .( N1
.(Z. Benes , ,A< 4 52 45 ,) .& $ , &
8$ , &G

RBM ,$ + Q '* 9.6
.( solid symbols $ !
) $5
( hollow symbols R !
) $
*
.(Elsevier Science Ltd :, ,AB$ 15 45 ,)
C
8 ) >! 100 ∼ Cph/Cel
$ SWNT \
! )6
.T = 0 G ) C Y!* .C ∼ Cph
!! u * 5: (Derivative) 6+ % ;" " ) ,"

PDOS \ R9
u '
")! .;" " ")
%' R (ω) * #! 9N (Weighting factor) U" =
:%m # G .() (8 %5 ! =
*g)
‫ آ"! إو‬$""‫ ا‬Occupancy ‫ ال‬:

‫)ب( ة و‬
. Fermi distribution %& '‫ارة *!ا) !ز‬, -‫ در‬/
248
du d ω
C(T) = =
dT dT ∫ dωD( ω )
exp( ω / kT ) − 1
(8.6)
. Boltzmann's constant
! !: k PDOS % D(ω) >
>! 8! ) ;" " ") Y6+ = "+ %5 ;) C "2/
" " ,8 " \! D(ω) #"B '
"!
G R
G
G") ." Heatcapacity convolution factor
UB C = .;)6 ) % D(ω) \

J (Analytical solution)
SWNT \ "8 6*J
))
) ;" " ") ) $ 7.6 +
'
*65 (< 5 K) B89 ;" " ") )
GN 9 )
R % G (8.6) 6
/ %5 .*65 ' i"8
)N ) SWNT \ %
8 ,* % C .T C
! *9
.B89 T ;" " ") ) " " "+! X6 * ! G!"
* ' 5 Y"*

G)! ;) %5 ' "+
* ! ' " )) (Longitudinal acoustic phonons)
!"6 % (κ) " "
8 '
F5 C ;R .k = 0 ) +
) /
.(Mean free path) " " * l > κ = Cvsl
.vs ∼ 36 kms1 ! '
= "!J vs Y5 SWNTs \
5 "

=! p8 +! 8" 6 0 ..∼20 kms1 LA *
;"+! T %

!" `
!" *! " (Stiffness) ;7
5 " X
d" :
!" ! ) /R L" " '
* #!! .) ;" " ") ) 5" ;) LJ X6 κ $
\ R &) ;)! (Crystallinity) " ! ")! )65 " "
R
G '
$ &"9$ "/
9 .B5$ L" " ' L)T ) 2N! SWNT
9 %: SWNT %5 6000 WmlK15"- ;" " ") ) G" "

%5
%5 6 0 =B !"B !" !
$
1" #
400 WmlK1 5"- ;" " ") ) X
) .20`3000 WmlK1 &)
.κ =
249
Mechanical properties
4.3.6
Elasticity 1.4.3.6
" %5 SWNT \ =B! *!" 8 *

$ "'
$
:
J %* %'
8 +! &"9N! $ 6"*! '
L"
G) *! R C = %5 .#!J " * "
! *
5: % ρ > vs = Y / ρ : * ' " (Y) "

!
! ")6
G b SWNT \ ! R &) C .
8 +
$ ! GB$ .#!J " ) + L 6!* L)$
5 "
\

%-! (Wrapping vector) , !! %'
"
F5 " 0
1"! .% " "*6! 6
$ Y \ vs
1000 (J$ 6"* ) * !) SWNT\ #
.GPa (1 TPa)
Kevlar "R8 8

!" J R
F5 "6
"+! X6
! ) .110 130 210 350 % % GPa ;)! ;")6
$
1" 8+ # L X6 *
G G" G Y \
"8$ ) ."O "2 ! 6
5*
! )
SWNTs \ 3 TPa 1 TPa
! < "
" "! #" 0
.;)R' 5" ) ":$
!

Plasticity
2.4.3.6
#!J
J d! %5 Y!* U *' (Resilience) "

$ !" )$ C )N! . 2''9 ;"+O )
7 kinks ))+ 5 ;) 7 d"
$ SWNTs \

#!J ;") & .G (Reversible) 7 0
$ &"9$ 8
2 ;) 8 )2 d" ) 2 + ;)
(Stress )2O "
G C" % 6!* )$ "
) (Rehybridize)
2 ;) %5 sp2
!" ! concentrators)
C #!J C !"6 : %5 .U* ("9
+ d"
250
(Buckles) b! % (Plastic drinking straw) R! Q +

.)2O 2 =5" ) % 'J 2 + ) 2 )2 ":N
.,"' " SWNT \ iB9 ) G (! 0+ C X &"9$
C , L" )2 2 Y!* ) & % Q
a + % G
. (Plastic deformation)
) + u GB$ L #!D
"" 6 2$ SWNT \ %5 J 8 u YR*

$ )6
" ) 2$ ! ) .(StoneWales transformation)(*) "
/8 % "1
U!' >! 8 * U!' "

`
!" *! "
") L* $ *
$ ) !+
2 ,N !* #
( ) L)T 90o ;)
!"
6'
!
)! %5 .7`5 # %! = b) %9

'
>! B" )2 2
(5`7`7`5 #" L$)
%5
! *! " ! ") "! # 79"
)
16

G 7`5 # + U!' .10.6 +
(5,5) #!$ !!) 6`5 8 %5 (Energetically favorable) *
&"9$

(∼2 eV 0 8 ) + *

8 Y6
$
>! ( G) *! + " =) G) G 8" *+
%5 8 '
.(Ductility) : $ ) Y6 7)! ! "!$ "
# C .8 ) G) %5 "+ 8"
SWNT U*
.
m )a G"5 X d8 +! SWNT ) ")
4.6

Synthesis and characterization of carbon nanotubes
+ 2$ G) R
G !6
!" #!J
$ Y! 6 "2/$ )6
" $ SWNT \
$ ," .;) ; Q 9 ;"9
X8! R
)! ;"! " )2
$
2
‫ آ*!ن‬%‫ر‬7 90o ‫
دوران‬/ ‫رة‬/ !‫( ه‬Stone-Wales transformation) "23‫ و‬4," ‫)*( !ل‬
.*‫ اا‬%& ;)!‫ ا ا‬9‫ إ‬8*
251

$ =
.%!" 5: B89 ! #!! G"
,89
C! 5" ;) L$
$ L" " ' SWNT \

% ) "1 " 5: ) SWNT \ B89 )!J
.X
" " %5 L" C XJ "5
$ (Singnlarity) )"8

.R
G :
10

SWNT (10,10)
10.6
%& $" 5#7#7#5 " !" .2.3 ns () 1.6 ns () 1.5 ns ()
4 / + + 7#5 %- * !" + +" () * .' 7#5
.(;""- ;"<"" ;": + +=> 16 9: +) .5#8#5#7#5 " "
%&
X6 "O ;2J Q 6 = !*!

": +! . CRN G G") # SWNTs \
$ )T
L
LB 7L 9 ) 5 ! ' 0 Q'9 " +)
(*)
= 2v g
$
SWNT \ (Ligands) )- '
.8/
‫رة أو‬7* ‫"@ ? *>رط‬8 A"‫ دا>ت آ‬$" ‫يء‬2- ‫ أو أ!ن أو‬،‫
ذرة‬/ ‫رة‬/ !‫ ه‬ligand 3‫)*( ا‬
‫وج أو‬2* ‫دة اا* *
ن و اع‬/ I3 .‫ت ة‬G‫ا‬,‫ إ‬$H 2‫ة ذرات أو أ!ت آ‬/
.3‫
إوت ا‬L‫أآ‬
252
R
G !6 2 Q'9 0 &) 6 C = .G8/ G)6 ":$ ! %5 %
# ! L) "1 / L #!J
:= $ GR
) )! " / ") %5
!"
"/

h (tractable)
.J 78 # d!
.% # X!
)! X '6
%)2 #

%5 .*!B #!J ='
$
G $ # 2 ") Y * %
.2 ") #!J
2R9
% Y"* ,+ 6
.
!" 6! *!" )
": UB , C!
Synthesis and processing 1.4.6

: .1.1.4.6
Methods: the black art is nanotube synthesis
$
!" #!$ ") %5 i )!O %5 Q6
C X
)! % Y"* 0 /
$ . 0 ( %5 G !:$ 6
))
+ %5 B $ #$ !"$
) # $
! (Permutations)
(Laser ablation) " ! 9 (2) %6 %!"2 Z"8 (1) :% 11.6
;"9!J #" (4) $ (Catalyzed decomposition) 8 (3)
.
.%6 Z"8 2 ) %5 5)'! MWNTs \ ,+ )6

%5 5 "-

!"6
)"
! " )2 Y"5 Y!* a } 6"* 0 %5
mbar
! < " *-B Y5) 1 "
B ;)) 9 "*
%!"2 "2 > 8 5 ! "! )2 Y"5
.(600`500
#!a
!"2
)"O
! - (Dielectric breakdown)
3000 ' ;" " ") ;" L %!"2 X + %5 (∼ 100 A) " Y5)!
;"9!
!" " 0 %5 G") )J CR2 a ;) . ")
.*

253
() : ;" + " "
* ;B
C ;"- 9- A ?"@
11.6
"C
() "
() CG <H F"
() E " "B

.;"<"" IB-
") ): ))

;"9! " #" ,* 2 %5
"5 5 "1 " ! "1
!" + 2 ;"
"v SWNTs \ #" ;"" X8 )
.;"5 N! MWNTs
$ " .;8
) d! 5 "-
* 9! p )J "8 (Cored)
(Gd, Y) ;") B"J "' ()) ! ) 6
)
.SWNT 8 %5 2 ) )J %5 ) " !! !
254
)$ %5 (Journet and coworkers) 0TR " 2)a " %5
\ ( B5$ Y6 > Ni/Y Co/Y Co/Ni *9 "!9 "T
#!J / B ") 0 %5 . 4.2% Ni 1 at% Y = SWNT
"Y*" ; ; )J 0 = .): Y* !+ ;"-' !" %5
90`70 !

B b i
20 wt% (Collarette)
11
#-! ' G)!$
SWANTs
R ":
. SWNTs
.% 6 %5 8 "6 m r .8
%5 .SWNTs
%5 "1 ,) "9! &"9$ % :

(Pulsed Laser Vaporization PLV) %B! " ! "9!
=
"5
2
.;78! SWNTs \ 2* ! % 6
;") L %B! "
"$
Y5) %5 1200°C ;" " ") %5 / %!!$
(B! %5 ∼ 500 mJ 30 Hz 532 nm ) Nd:YAG ;))
8! #"+ 5 "-
,) 9 l )! .%!!J
"8 8$
#' %5 2 % SWNTs +5
"8 9 ) %6 %)
") ,)2 " (Raster) ,
(Downstream)
.YR* ;)
;)8 / C
" PLV %B! " ! "9! # $ )9 ;" J )
17
SWNTs ;"9!
!" " =
15 2") 0TR
. Co/Pt (0.6/0.2 at. %) Co/Ni (0.6/0.6 at.%) 8 )9! C
12 10
* d! ) ) %5 %90 70

b ) ) )
.>! Y"5

"9u 7B$ !
2* ! % J Y "*

%6 Z"8 PLV \ 6"* )6
C"+ 6
.6 ;6 SWNTs
"-! ")6 (
#"6 i *! 5 6B "*$ 8 ' 2!
: b
;"!
) 7 )
6"*
,D .1.4 nm
(3000 ;" " ")
25 #1" "1 (Byproduct)
") ) + #!J
$ G ! '
!" ")' "9! 4000°C)
"* ) .(Growth chamber) 5"1 9 ) ":! C
$ ;" "
255
(Pyrolytic L" " 6 %5 "'6 ,8
6"* 0 %5 .8
!"
1 $ ) )9 % technique)
(Organometallic LB
) )! (Sublimate) % *!
!:
"5 %5 25) (200300°C) B89 ;" " ") ) precursors)
6* )! =5)s ) .9 L1 * ! 1200`900°C

G 2 LB "%) " 7
++9 ;" 8
2
#!J 8 $ ) )6
G65 % )$ +
) = " %9 # ."LB "
"2* " "! Y5) L
"J R
.()SWNT \ a d!
) 9 L- (a 5 9 )
")2 7 2
/
%"
!" ")' -
$ =+
.) "' )$

L" " 7 $ <! ) .'8 "9! $ %!"") -!
* ! MWNTs SWNTs
!

2
:
D
%5 .Q9 +! (Ferrocene)
"8 (Metallocene)
c 8
8 Fe(CO)5 )9 (
!" )$ J *-B) HiPco # N!
)$ %: (Disproportionation) # R9 * ! SWNTs +
.iB ;": 8 9 +$ C .
!"
8 (CVD) ;"9!J #" %6"*

! Y"8

)
1"
G )! 2 )9 i+
*'
$ ."! ) %)
$ ;""B! % ) %* "+ CVD

$ 66 X ''9
C ;8 ;" ) L #!J
! '8 "%! U* "
G8 CVD "" )9 .((Epitaxy) (" ! ) a 6 %5
C . "+6 %5 $ ;" U* ) ) #!J G )
2*!$ # * ." ;8 Y' )9 ;)) "
(Si

" r"g Fe(NO3)3 : %) U % ) 7R*
X"1 6"* )9 C

G )! .( 'J SiO2 6!* C" G!1) wafer)
%5
9 ) X . $ J
!+ %5 ) <RJ
RS ‫ارة‬, ‫ت‬-‫ در‬/ SWNT ‫ "! اـ‬2 ‫ أن‬O" )‫آ‬P‫ ا‬Q* ‫
أن‬/ L, ‫)ج( ث ر‬
.(18 '-"‫ ا‬V‫' )ا‬T! $H*
256
Y6 .
) )$
'8 ) <RJ (7 2
")2 Y5) = 8

"5 6"* L$ ! X8! Y %5
)) "+! "9! 5 GB$ !: ) .!"")2 - 8 9
'
%
(Shadow mask) / i R9

.MWNTs \ *a
Growth models 2.1.4.6
8
Y"* 0
Ga $
$ . #!J ' ;)) Y"* C
*6 ))' %5 0TR " <"* )6 .Y"* 6! 28 ;) (O
))
$ % 8 9 6! ;"B #!J !+
$ %
" " ) ,"/! 0)) ") !" ,"/ '8!
11
6"* )! '8
": +
9 , #! 2 .!"
.;) #!$ (O C
)! "
b! ;" " ")! 8 ! ' &"9$ ":T C
)! (15 nm "*) #!J %5 G) 2 )! 8
"!$ ! 8 )! MWNTs +
%5 SWNT \ G""B
\
%5 G B8 ;" " ") .G 8 #1 %5 $ G
;" " ") ) $ C %5 #! ) !" .MWNTs \

G )! SWNTs
G *! X6 : #!J R *+
B89
% "8 + G! * 8

) .8 )! G)
L
$ ) C %5 #! I"-'$ X6 "* ,' C
8 ( "8 SWNTs

R

$
%5 (Nucleation)
2 )! %5 "8
": .*
G
)
;" " ") #! X +! .(
J ! 6 - SWNTs %
\ ( (Quenching) 6 $ )9 :
;8 " +9!
:8 SWNT \ #"! ' 2 !"1 "8 0 . ) SWNT
IR 8 ;" " ") ) 8 # /8 ,

257
;" " ") ) SWNTs ;78 ":$ 8 ) ) "9 C
!") %: "9 .

"-'$ +9 5 ) ;6
> B89
. ;" " ") )
+9
)9 8 = (!' ":$
\ C " " %5 8 (Infusing) X"1 7 " Y*
$ R
G 9) G8 # * SWNTs =' 6"* ) >: "9 : .CVD
)! SWNTs Y 9
F5 {R$ >-B$ )"
) .(Extrinsic) GB"
C . G"9T Y6 ) (SiC)
)!" (001) 8
b SWNTs \ ,"/ / %5 $ : R ;": (Corollary)

R ) "+ .* #!$ "*$ $ ;" " ") %5 8
*6 ) )J #1
1" SWNT \ "* 8
! !
.C
"5J
)) C I " R9 " m % &"
6 + B"5 : ."B %5

:! ))
6 C
U* "Root growth" " ' u * ! + #!J

" ,' ; 6 (Nucleation) L = !:! 8 .8
,B . (Spontaneous closure) %6 YR1O ! ;"6 ; 6
U" "1
) %! U* ) "+! Y"*
l )!
!" "
L$ "9! #"!
!" ,$ ) 6 6"*! #!J #" >)
$
.(;8 * ! !" ;)
!" *"8 =!+ 6"*!
8 25"* R
7:$ #!J YR1
$ )!
%5 9 8 = %5 (C3 C2 C1 + %5) L"
!" () 2
6 :: B"8 .UB "1 8 %m ")

0 %5 .; 6
*! " "+!
!" Y"*
8 , "*J
#!J
""" u ! ," m 0 !'$ )6 .(Dangling bonds) )
* ! G8 #!J 25 6!
$ d"8 (Scooter mechanism)
#" G) * 5 G ) (Scoots) Y * L
) ;" %
./ ) %5 !+ # 9
258
? C * K" .=: () .;
G = "J ?"@
12.6
%& I ;*@& () .I"
"H * G - %G" - "
;"J !B + ;
;"H () .;"<H CG * ( CB) ;
9L
:H + (I= ) M"C: ;"
%& + ;*@& M
.(
C)

;#; !P
"@
MC () . <G
LO 9" (I= ) N"<""

.;"
%& + ;*@& . !B A!QO @ NG
C MWNT :
> 8 2

!" 5B Y"*
MWNTs <"
"6
$
.(Epitaxial) 6 6"*! "9 = 6 (Nucleate) &as
5+ , *
! "8+ 8+" R8 * ! 8 2 6"* 02!
8 76 #! "8 ) % (Exposed circumferential edges)
)) C .12.6 + %5 0 UB .MWNT \ (O
. ! "1 ":$
) &"9J B"8

2$ d % "" 0

$ 0" " L)

)s "6 u J
= %5 ."9m d! 2B! ) $ 5
*"+
$ % $ ":J *6 . ) )$ 2$ "
v s5 !" !
G")' G8 "9 = Q9 %!" ) ) 2B % " " )
;) "- + .b !* ,* 2 %5 ))
!"
)) $ " ) L)$ b
6 "1 (Dependent variables)
259
"8 L$ ) "B %5 .b % " "*6 =
")
0 +

G8 T 6! .SWNT \ ! #" C
%5 '8 SWNTs \ = * ! ;": SWNTs
) )$
*! "
.
:
C"+ b)! $ )!
!"# $ % & 3.1.4.6

Composition and purification of the reaction product
(Transmission electron +

O G
;"H: I=BR I' 13.6
<H F"
; C ;:
MB ;" (1.2.4.6 MCG ) micrograph)
(3) SWNT (2) ; SWNTs (1) I
P
T
" . CG
I
;"
"*Q 9LL (5) I ;"G
"C: (4) V U "Q
"Q +
.(53 9: +) .;" G
"1 ;"" % #!J

!"
$ 66
m )6
(Synthesizing % #" % 6! .G (Inefficient process) 5
Y"* /
! " "
)a ! G"$ %6 L #!J analytically)
7 *65 # ' %!" ))
9 8 b b G )9
260

6! )
,N %6! )'" . #!$

2 "-'
('! !+ " ;) 5 "1 = 6! N! 2B!) ;8
." ! "1
!"
&"9$ 5 "1 ) "5
#!D %"O "2 ;"' %5 B )! "' 0

":

J ) G": GB ' )) 6! .13.6 + %5 9
# +
!" #!J
! 2 ;"+! 6"* )
8
%6! 7

N! G (Macroscopic scale) L" X6
(Energy ;" 8 +J * + Y"*
2!

(Atomic L" Q' 5* * ! $ dispersive xray fluorescence)
&! ' X6 # .Absorption Spectroscopy)

.;) X6 6"* G65 C+
;"5 ) ;) )! %8

!" #!$
%B6 $ d89 , % 2 Y"*
:
# 76
%2 +! SWNTs QR9!

% =
.6
!" #!$ '5 %5 : C %5 ) $ &)

.: 2
0 ! / . : Q'9 !" # +

(Electrophoresis) %!"2
R"! ) 6 '8 6 !:$ "*
$

$
1" #9 +! 5 "1 2N! 5 "1"
#!$
;"6 6 ( $ #!J ! O ;) Y"* ) )
b
:
"
6"* &) =! 6 %5 G )9 ":J 6
$
.(Size – exclusion) % )! ;)J
%5 ;)
!" "
$ 66
26 ;)J **9 )
"$
$ .SWNTs \ %5 ;) C
*+ ":$
G!1 # +
*9 ;" dJ! 2B 2 " ! "1
!" ;"-' "8
.(KMnO4 H2O2) &"9J 6 )T (H2SO4 HNO3) dJ
%5 (8: ;) # "9! 7:$ * 9 ) (Refluxing) = " ,: b

(Functional 8/ 5B
(70120°C) ) ;" " ")
261
= #!D ) *R9
B .# +
! !

v s groups)
%5 ' Y5 ! + 6"* Y!*! G$ *9 0
s )T
889 ) %5 "" ,*+! C )! '8 .%

": L)T NaOH )' )")

0+ Y* ) 8 = GB$ SWNTs \
$ =* 7
.:
"1 #!J 6! . 8 GB$ 28 #!J
$ C 8
%5 (Steric constraints) " #" ) #!! G$ "! )
! !
"-
$
% )
$
%5 Y 6
7B8
C" G #!J
9 %5 ;") - ;)J "2/$ ) .#!J Q'9
L)T 0 :
$ U"
.COOH ! 9 8 22
.8
5 " )1 %5 9 =
= L$ %5 #6: L
&) C !:$ ) .7 2 %5 Y" !*" ;)J )!

.B89 ;" " ") %5 "9J Y " " ! "1

!" %5
Y " ;" " ")
#"6 5 "- # +
)) Y " ;" " ")
. G) ;)) 7 2 %5 ;)J 5 U!' 2 .SWNTs \ #!$ d!
)!! % #!J 6 %5 )! ":J 6"*

X6 * #!$ % SWNTs #!$
.(Sizeexclusion)
;) 2! + /
$
%5 ) )! %5 (Mesoscopic)
Lamellar %8' Y5)! U+" )9 G!1 . "
"+
!*" ;)J = C "+! (Tangential flow) % Y5) $ flow

G 5 U+"! i! Y $
!
.;6 #!J QR9
%5 9)

G )! #!J Y'R # +
J 6! ;)$
)

C!+ 7+1 +! U+" 7+1 SWNTs #!$ #" .

Q'9 ") "+ YR* *6 ;"+6 0 ) .G 0"+6
."B 6"* #!D
= % %) 8 O 6! Y &"9$ N :
))+
9 = 2$ SWNTs ;" ! %5 ;" " ")
;)8
262

) d!
F5 C ;R .(pyrolyze) G" " R
G 28 #!J
$
L (Unpaired nuclear spins) ) "1 (1) ) ;8

13 13
Nuclear Magnetic C) C L %*-
" ") N+
Electron Spin Resonance ) %) %"O
" (Resonance –NMR
B" J %5 Y6
.- !' #!D ((ESR)
) # L C" ")2 d = : 8
) = / +! 8 ! ) )" 2 ;8
8 cs1 .U+" Y"*
#!J ) )" C )!
.
!"
;)J * ! 25

>! %5 "- '! %5 ;)
# * .G
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"!J L) % 6
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; + %5 %*- ;8 *- X ,
*- "! ;) & % % ) SWNTs #!$ "
%5 # ,
6! G *- 5 "1"
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#!J % +! 26!* % 8 9 6 *9

G ; 8/ #6: C"5 ;"B

$
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5 " #!$
") (Chemisorbed)
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%5 (Annealing)
) !
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; d! O (11001200°C) ;" " ") ) "8
)" .%8 ! = " ,: 6!
#!J
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)
.8" ;" " ")! ) "1 0
$ !:$ $ 1"
263
& , -
" +" % * () *% 2.6 !'

[19] #$ ! " (TEM)
* +' ,

[12] (SEM) &' %

+ %-
[10,11] #$ ! " (XRD)' .-
[20] / $ (RS) % "/
[21] DOS 3 2 (FS) 0 "/
'/4 %
[22]
(NMR)
7 , SWNTs 6 % 5 % "/
[23]
$0 (EPR) '/4
: -
, ,/ ;/ 8 $$
[24]
<#$" $ <# $ "/ (TPD)

,SWNTs 6 !

[25] (Thermogravimetric analysis
$0 7
TGA)
[26] DOS % " (INS) % = >
[27,28] DOS 3 2 , (STM) 0 &'
[29] . / ,#$ ! " (AFM) '/4
,?
[3032] (TM)
';

Characterization .2.4.6

"1 ;) 6 $ )) ,' 6 ;) ) 7 d"
)9 Y"* + ! SWNTs 8' + %5 >) Y! ) .5"
L #!J Q'9 ! 6! 5"
F5 &"9$
.)) %5
#!J Q5
$ .,' ! "8 25 %5 G": )
2.6 ) %5 6 0
": Q9 )6 .6
"! )) * !
$ = . + 6 0

$
1" 6 8 = "! =
264
Y 2$ #!J ") $ 6 % ;)" 6 d!
.SWNTs \ "
'8 "! $ G .+
G)
Diffraction .1.2.4.6
Transmission Electron ) (L8 ) %6

"O! "2
(Powder XRay +J! ) Y (Microscopy TEM
(Elastic Neutron Scattering) %"
" + Diffraction XRD)
0 .() !" #!J ! %5 Y6 G+ ":J Y"*
:R:
"O
>
G" G5R9 , 9 2 6 % Y"*
" = 8 +J
$
%5 J = 8 "
,+ " ) "O "2

G c
F5 C .*! "
."O 5: XRD ,+ !
5:
J ! X8 2 %5 %* 0 6
F5 =!*!
&)
.(Specimen potential)
R9
)) "O

l +

!"
$ ) * !
!" #!$ %5 )
+ 6! .d89 L" 0))
G G"-' (Scattering factor)
G) "-' %5 2
;)+ 7*O %8 ! G"! "O
104 % +J + ;")

.(R9 )
"+ !")

*65 '
;)+ X
$ % "O ;")
2) % " !! :" ":$ B .()"
.(2 + ) ;) 2+ #!! +D 2+
"-'$ +
' )9 ;) TEM \

F5
!" #!$ !! $
%5 .() "2 = 0.1 nm
! ) ! "'
L" )) : !
(Contrast)
! Y+ *
!‫ ه‬TEM ‫ ا]\
ا^راء !ل إن‬،
‫ و‬.!] O‫ أ‬93/ TEM ‫ص‬SP‫ ا‬V \]ُ (‫)د‬
TEM ‫ *ـ‬/ `S ‫ وإن أي‬.(Phase-conserving diffractometer ‫ ا!ر‬93/ _& ‫!د‬, ‫ز‬O-
."O4" ‫? آـ‬b‫ز
و‬O4‫ ا‬a! L* $R&‫\ أ‬b‫!د" ه! و‬, ‫ز‬O-" ‫ر أن‬
‫ل &ة‬ef cH‫ ة ا‬c3 ‫ة إذا‬b ‫م‬4,‫ة ا")
أ‬H‫ ا‬93/ ‫ "
ا]!ل‬،‫)هـ( * ال‬
،‫ء‬h!R‫ ا‬9‫ ارة إ‬8 %‫ ا ه‬R‫ ا‬.-‫* "!ذ‬4 %& $"‫ل ا‬ef %‫ " ه‬L* ‫!ل‬g‫ز أ‬
.‫ ا‬4, i‫و‬
265
"" R9 " !
2B " % " %5
8 5 ! ;"-' )!J :R:

F5 . "!
% ;"'
F5 %! 0 %5 )!J %: *6O
i 2
WPOA) "%!"6 ,B "*" C .
"+! *6
$ 6 '8 C
$ = .(Weak Phase Object Approximation $
2"' "8
>! WPOA SWNT %8 :% #! C ":
") (Tangent)

" %5
!
: ;"+!
;"!
;"'
F5 %! (
!" " / d"
J) #!J
5 " 8'
! ;)
.#!J "*6!
)!

*9

>! G) % SWNTs

*
.;"+!
9 ) *$ L)T G)6 ":$ ;"'
.,B "*
;"!9 L
7 .;"+! "8
Interference patterns
"8 7
J d! %5 L)T 7 " %5 +8
$

"! #!J
$ TEM \ ) # C ."2 !
(G
:O $ * "O Y5)) ;7B ,"/ d" )
.""B 28"
)! /R R9
L

)
;"+! SWNT "*$ X G U!' (Imaging) "' )9 =

;"5 ' MWNT \ 6!*
! )! C
%5 .
"O ) )9! G G ! ))
$)! >
.26
6 0 ; 25
$ $ ) '8 25
F5 '8 , )$ Q9
$ :
"O ) ) Ewald criterion ) " U ' .2))
(Reciprocal %)! = ) ;" =*6 ;"' /R *
(Fourier "5 * ! ' %)!
> .volume)
*$
v ! ) *J "5
J 66 ! transform)
)6 *$ (1) \! SWNT *$ (Cylindrical Bessel function)
5 " !+ (Helicity)

,+ (2) #!J " = " )$
) G2 G:!
$ '8 B" , )6 .N
19
L R Amelinckx X $ !
"+ ) #!D
"O
266
(10,10) #!J ; *$ 14.6 +
! .B" R'8 0
8B SWNTs \ !" *J %5
;) .
%5 )2 L
w $ N #! 2 . +
"-' #!!
.()!" ) !
SWNT \ (mn) 6 "J ))
P P (10,10) SWNT +

& " I () 14.6
+=> 19 9: +) .(- %P ;"P ;"
& ; 9 / "C %P)
%& " .SWNT (bundle) ;@ + +
O " () (I IOP +
M
" K" B + ;G I<
.+"*: + + ; C
N"Y: Z" P ' "
Y I< +>* X= .$@ + " H"
"
.(53 9: +)
"2/ .
"O ) * ! ! %5 SWNTs " 6 2!

,' = ;)) SWNT *$ # " # 14.6 + %5 )" : ! *
% %5BO ,'
.! " )
%5B
* =6!
! )! #!D )!J : (Lattice) !+
b
#!J "
L % !+ <* )! = *!" ,'

F5 " <* )!
"!$ )!
$ ! .* 6* "
R9

: ,' MWNT ) *) .B89
Q ) ! !+
B Chiralities % " 785

F5 C ;R (.6!*
! )! ))
+ L)"5 #!$ ! *!" '8
5 " !+ =6! # "
$ %
/ O‫ &ا‬%‫ ا‬diffracted beams ‫م ا"ة‬23 8‫!ار ا‬gP‫ ا‬4 ًR‫)و( ا أ‬
.!‫ ا‬-!!‫ل ا‬4 %& k7‫ ا!ر ه‬3H" ‫!ل ذآ‬3, ! T‫ و‬.‫ء‬H 93/ ‫ "; ا!د‬$48
267
Q = ) 11 (Q = 2.94 ) 10
6

.! * %5 ;" X $
7B8 0 x L (Meridian) * *9
" (5.09
=
G X J 02 !6 .L #!J " %66
!+
L = ' .B %5 (Chirality distribution) % "
. %5 %*9 R9 L$ $ 7 %5 + L$ #!!
5 " !+

F5 G G "5
$ "O "2
5
" ! ) $ ! .;"! " +D 8B
* Y )9 Y"* " ) XRD ;)"8 ;"! #!$
F5 #! 2 .(;)) ! L$) (Polycrystalline) " ! ;))

%*9
" + L)T hk0
5 " (Anisotropy) %
+ )) 8/ ) %") = ;) )!) (Warren lineshape)
.(
5 " ) 6
+"" .;
B ;" " + "P K!/ + A"C +
" " 15.6
I" 4
.; I= 4L- NG CQ
;"@ I' * %
1
9: +) ;"G
"G
;"
"*Q 9LL : %& PLV * Q ~ 1.8 P
(Elsevier Science B.V + +=> 25
268
.! !+ " ! %5 %" %'6 ;"9 6 XRD ) U!'$
'
$ (∼1.7 nm) #!$ B "! !+ !: %
%" 9 ) C ) " G) !" ;"-' + )

B
5
"O ) * %5 "J .11 10
5 " (%)
+ *J
v ! ) * ! %" ) XRD \ ) %* %5 ;)+
) % " ) * 15.6 +
! .SWNT

)6 .25 $ ;"+O = (Polycrystalline) " ! ;)) SWNT
C * L$) ! "* 6 %5 )8 $ GB$ XRD \ ) !:$
R9 !+ )) ;" (Peak breadth) i
(Coherence length
.SWNTs \
! 6 (Interstitial) ! !+O
Raman spectroscopy & 2.2.4.6
)) %5 : L #!J

" 5* G+ ":J Y!*

7B * ! X 6"* L* . ;"!
B "*6 =
)$ +$ 8 .) "O
! !! "
0
> .;": ""/" *!"
"O (Monochromatic)

G"5
"O * * + ) ' ;":
G$ .
5 >! L)T 8 %"O %"8 Y*
B 66
* (+ ) >!
8 U!' >! (Inelastic)
" "1
>)
.(Incident photon) *
8
$ $ ":$
;":O 7:$ !' !! 6 * Y"5 )

" 2 Y * (Excitationdecay process) 2RB "O
!! *$
! * = Y5
"
F5 .(Raman shift)
G ) %) ' *$
6
" X ;) . %5 2! <
%"O (Wavevector) %
.N "1 "'! *$ (N

.(Scattering) ":! %5 "- %
"j k
. : #!! *+
" SWNT \ RBM
F5 G6! "+
#!J
(
" !6 ;)+ L$)
" ,*
F5 C
269
.(7.6) ) "/$ "*6 = %! 2! < RBMs \ "+! X
Van Hove singularities ,
5 z
! '8 :) UB C
\ G G"* '8 L "*6 GB$ ) "O DOS %5

G )! 66 i8"

$
.*
8 * SWNTs
0
F5 7! .10000`100 ! ;":O
) B "5

"8
$ U" )" % * = (Resonate)
a " % #!J

% *!
RBM \
" ;)+ Y 6"* 02! .i+O 2
"
;)+ *!" G!"6
*65 #!$
" %5
.*
2 *6 )) %5 G8 ":J
"
.
"*6! #!J )) =
"
6
"9u Y* C RBMs \ 5BO! ."*6 = + X
)9 . %5 / "1
!"
7 %5 )+ Y L D`Y*
d! ;"+ )6 . 76 %8' X6
J d! %5 D`Y*
.16.6 + %5
" ,*J ;"!
Y ;H ;"" C .E IG ;" " + + [" 16.6
% .(RBMA ) A1g () D#A () (GA ) E2g(2) ()
.(53 9: +) .RBM A "'
: B
270
M
" ." (11,7) SWNT G = ?C ;
C ;"H: I' 17.6
L (7°) (Chiral angle) + ;" Z"G (Indices) \ "
.(I +!" + +=> 28 9: +) .(

1.3)
Scanning tunneling microscopy %# 0 /' 3.2.4.6
Y"* $
(Scanned probe microscopy) U X "2 )
'8 "/ ) # %5 2 '5 X" ) /J ") %5
(STM) %68 U "2
F5
!" #!$ !! .(>:
* ! STM ( ) )
.!" ")
)) " Q'9
# ;" B ! %5 Y (Spincoating SWNTs) % ) 7R*
*-B (≤77 K) B89 ;" " ") ) "' $ .(111) Au
"! %68 " ) >!
!"6 STM X$" ."! %!
"- X$" !
U ' )"! .(Vacuum barier) "8
*"9 2 ! =B 0 X$"
.G!: %68 " /8 i8"
. (Atomically resolved) G" ! ;"' )c "O !*
!+ % ) "/ )! + %5 .SWNT \ STM ;"' 17.6 +
!
./R Y"*
#!D (n, m)
"+T ))
G B
5 "
5: " ! )) ! %5 STM \ ;")

U 5* Y"*
"9J ' .SWNT \ "O
.X$" (Feedback) ;)" - U ,6 > (STS) %68
271
.)2 Y"5 ) %68 " = U = %5 G!: X$" =
C 5: = G)"* dI/dV 8 !! ' B8 #
\ %B8
%* 2 % ! (Differentiation) B8
F5
G " SWNT \ ("9 "O X$" %!O
.DOS
\ %5 "O 6 %!
$
%5 N * "9
!

! STM )9! .N "1 * "9 G " SWNT
(chirality) % "
! 25 !+ R % 8 #!D DOS \ "
27,28
)9 ) .G!" "!9 % SWNT \ "O Q'9
9) !+ * ! SWNT\ DOS \ % # "*B )N 2 2
33
.Extrinsic dopant
Transport measurments !% *5 4.2.4.6
" " ;")6 " " ' !"2 ' X

! , "*$ Y' Y"*
2! SWNT ;"' (Thermopower)
G"! G") ) SWNT \ 6 Q'9 X # * &"9$
."
. "!

SWNT (Atomic force microscopy) ;"= IG ;"H: I' 18.6
+ spincoating ]! ; C +"
! +
& ;C %P C
*@&
& MB
C" .SiO2 Y I" .+/"O </ .(Dichloroethane)
.(C. Dekker + +=> ;BC
C) .;"

CH ;
272
SWNT \ !"2 ' X6! *65 "B %5 "+! )6
;) !"2 C %5 " !' ) ."+! +! )"8
X +
$ d! &") .X 6 #! U + %5 2B
7R* %5 % 6"* *!$
.(d"- 2 :J % !"$

)"O * > ;" SWNTs \ (Spincoating) %)
#!$ L$ = )) (AFM) " ;6 "2 * ! "' .25
AFM ;"' 18.6 + "2/ : ! 5 .U' )"O ) =B
,"* )9
.SiO2 ;" Y5 ;) )" ! L SWNT \
6
$ 28 ;"
G
"6 ! ! )"F %5B #" (Lead)
)9 GB$
.;)+! #+$ ) )J 6!*

C!
$ )9 )! b2 L* .C" )"F STM \ X$"

0 )9
N! G L #!J $ ;"+! , "*$ =B (FIB) ;"
SWNT
: #" "$ )6 .G+ $ % G)6 ":J 6"*
6 " / X6 ! 8 9 6

"1 "5 ! .MWNTs
. #!J 26!*
0
G":
F5 R9
%5
! SWNTs \ (Multiprobe) ;)) 6 d"
34
C !: .IV \ ,* %5 L"8' "1 " (Plateaus) !B 18.6 +
' ) *
2$ )6 % (":!
)! L$) %! 6
. SWNT %5 %"O
Modification 5.6

" Y" %5 "* " 7! %5 G U!'$ )6
!
85 .
d"1 = # 8 9 ) Q'9 '8
"-
!+
":$ # *
(Tempered) !*
. '
%5 "!$ $ "
7%+! 6 ;) ) ;")6 0

G G
$
! )!
6 "5 >

!" #!$ !
G!
F5 . 9 d"- = # G
273
Q'9 ,
5 .G ) ! 2 2 2!
$
25 ) % :J
)) C
$ %2 +! #!J$
Y"* 0 d! 8' 6 %5 .,/ #!! Q'9 %5 "-
" Y"* :R: C .25 ":T % #!J 2 XT % )
%8 (Covalent modification) ) : % C Y6
.(Filling) ! (Physisorption)
.1.5.6

Covalent modification of carbon nanotubes
\
!
,/ %5 J -
)'6

% * 8/ SWNTs )68 .#*" G) 6 SWNTs
6 5 " 2 ") (Derivatization) Y6+R " =

$ 2N+
,' ) . 8 "1
!" " *
;"6 ,* !
– *!"
$
6 %5 )9 6 )T
$ Y! %5
;)2 = = GB$ SWNTs \ 2 = J 6 %5 COOH
6! 5) )6 .! 2 ") + 9 9 $ (Strained)
d 7 )! C B ! %5 SWNTs \ !
)$ % !" d Y6 = %5 . * !"")2!
SWNTs
! ;) %5 G ) d )" "! (Octadecylarnine) \
35
U!'$ )6 ."* ! , 9
: " %: "5" %5
C .SWNTs \ *! " " $ )$ 7+O b"!
$ )$ " Y"*

G SWNTs = .66 0 -
2N
% L d () Q6) ) -N! ' Y"*
.&"9$ #!$ %5 i"5 = )
%2 COOH ` (Preferential) B8 5BO

.78 %! " ) 5BO )! *9 ) ;""B % L #!J
(Electrophilic compounds) "O 5: !" d! 5B
!
") ;"+! (Dichlorocarbene) " %:
!" C %5 !
* ! ∼9 *- '
$
")2
" "- X8 SWNT \
274
Y6+
) YR* *6 Y "* 0 "5 5 . Birch r"! 9
% %! " ) 5Bj G+ ":J Y"*

$ (Derivatization)
Y5) Y"*
2! #!J (Fluorination) ;" 5
.;" 8 R9
.(150325°C) B89 ;" " ") ) He = ,89 F2 1

)
C2F
!" Stoichiometries "' ) '
36
)9! G l )! U!' " 8! 78 J )!
.#!J
phenyl) (Sterically unhindered) alkyllithium "1 Alkyllithium ,+
alkoxides $ (alkylmagnesium bromide) Grignard )""1 ,+
Y"*
*!! R8 0 8 .( sodium methoxide )' ):)
= B ! %5 (Fluorotubes) ;" 8 #!J (Sonication) '
37
"-
$ # L #!$ %5
!" "
2
$ ! .,+
)
! 2)

$ 6+ SWNTs \ 02
5 %! " ) )
= SWNTs \ $ % )! SWNTs \ a 8 9 "
X
{C )T % J SWNTs 5*
$ .*65 5"*
37
7-
fluorotubes ;" 8 #!J
$ Y+
.,
5
R
")2 = 8 Y"*
(Defunctionalized) 28/
L" " R %* . 'J )! ) ) )" (Anhydrous hydrazine)
SWNTs \ 5 GB$ ∼1000°C )
"J ;" 8 #!D
;"9J /R 0
T m
$ ;)+! ;"'
w 6 ;" 8
.2
E AG
(I) : SWNTs LG
YC
P
+ B 19.6
. B ^=H ;
B - + " XY .I (II) "C
275
#!D % Y6+R
$
+
6"* C
6 'R9
)$ $ " *! " 2 (Carboxylation) !" (I) : .
)! 8 2 ;" 8 (II) ) )" d Y"*
ester or amide
B8 *! " #!! 5"* ) I 6"* B8 .LB
) =
" % (II) 6"* ! (Strained sites) 8 = = !"
! O T ! 19.6 + %5 B **9 .a 5 %! " ) Y6+
#!D 7
.SWNTs \ '9 ) =
= R8 ") %5 "! )
))" ) G:) ) %
0 # - ) .5"'
$ ) ) ) #!! SWNTs
. ,+ 5"! G1 R
G 6
$ G)" U!'5 +
.&"9J % SWNTs \ )! !+O

$ GB$ "! ")

%5 2
$ 2 = %
"
"! % ;) (Dopants) !+
d! '
.Y* ! %5 % !6

#" R9 = %5 BxCyNz \ (Stoichiometries) "' )
.- "* %5 L" " R Y"*
$ %6 Z"8!
# ! " 2.5.6
Physisorption to carbon nanotubes
(Surface adsorption) %*

R
%8 +
) )! (Trigonal) "/ :R: J =6 . (Intercalation) O
02
. 9) !+ ( ")O B = % %5 SWNTs \
!
) G !! #!J $
+ 6
$ (Intercalants) O
"! !
R

." DOS \ #!J # "*B
)J
galleries 6B " %5 6 % 5 "- '$ %$ (Intercalant) 6
−
:
:! .(K+ and Br2 ) N N
5 " ,'
!
(Stoichiometries) "' ) ) SWNT \ ! $ %5 7 )
276
;"9!J ;"+! #!J d" !+O ' .Br2C52 KC8

!6 "! !
" U !
$ =
1" .Br2 K
38
.∼30 ! 6 %5 d89
%5 O
b
"
Y* ("9 (
G $ G)' ) %"5 & + )! C "+
+ R )) > $/ ' ,' #!J %5 ;8
.) #!J %5 "!
= Y5 %"5 & ) " 0 U8

! ' ":
$
L DOS \ %5 (Singularity)
(Non covalentdoped G !+ "1 #!J
.SWNT
)68 % ) SWNTs \ .6 !" ;"'6 nanotubes)
)! Y"*
(ndoped) n`2!+ <! ) ( $ !*!
.39260 K
6 ;" " ") ) U* ! = +
6
)
L #!J 6 !" + %5 C C
)N 6 % 6 )9 6"* 0 %5 .%"2 " * ! J
%5 .): 9 ,' SWNTs \ ,T 5 (Sacrificial anode) #
(galvanostatic %8 -
+
F5 (%!"2 ) "O "B
! :

) .%)
$ #! 9 charging)
F5 C ;R . "-' #!! G) ;"!

9 : G"2
. 9 !*6 # c6 R9
G (Reversible) "2 !+O
i)' $ g"s8! 7 !
"! 7
$ "!! 9J )
Y8
$
#!J
$ "+ b 0
F5 (Interstices)
SWNT !
+
.:
"*! G) 5" )J )
%5 40(460 mA/g
Y5 ) Li1.23C6
"' )
O G5R9 .*65 LiC6 6 5 "- )$
+
$

" ! X "1 ! )65 L)T %"2 b2
F5 "9! "*
cointercalation C"+ #"- C & .(Crystallinity)
."2 %5 #
277
, 9 %5 SWNTs \
!
) % ,/
$
1"
#!J Q'9 "- 2J )9 ) "1 )!
$ *J
)9! 7 %5
! '
,+ )6 . 'J "O
Octyl R:O $ 5 C %5 ! (surfactants) %* " B59
)) "! (X100
" ` \ ,) " ) phenol ethoxylate
Sodium %)'
! )) 8 (SDS) )'

R
G ) 0

.(NaDDBS) dodecylbenzene sulfonate
* 7 ! $" SWNT \ = *! " 7 G"5 R
G *
$
! /J %5 #!J 9)O "9J =5 ) &)$ ) .7 = 8
R8 "! SWNTs , ( J L$) =+ 7+
$ 6 ,+
. %5
"6 2 7 ;"5
=
! 6 GB$ %* " B59 B5$ d! L
.π`π R8 #!! L #!J U* Affinity 8$

$
65 " "!! 58

$ $ SWNT \ ) 8 $)!

. poly(mphenylenevinylene) poly(aryleneethynylene) :
R %6 )! (polymercoordinated) *!" ;)) SWNTs !
") 8 9 = pi Q
a " 2 :! .! "!
" L linkers *! " )9! #!D "9
"! !: )6 : ! . conjugated moieties65 "
"! = (Succinimidyl ester) = )$ *! " R9

SWNTs
.(Pyrene group)
Filling carbon nanotubes # $% 3.5.6
%25 :22!+ "9u 7L LJ X ; '9

!" #!J

C ;R .
5 "
6! ("9 !
'8 9 ) ; 2)
" ") "8 Q8 / (Lumen) ,
F5
%5 = %5 )) <
$ L"8' )! (Macrocycles)
#!J ; ;N!
$ C .) )! %5 G) L #!J ,

278

G ;)) 5 7+ U F5 7L $
$ $ &"9$ ;"
d!! L
.) )l g! ! ;"- )
$
B89 )!$ 2 5" )
G) R
G G))
$ !
!* G "1 Q'9 ! !" *' ! 02

;9 ) 8 )$

.8 28'
))
T SWNT \ *9
;R .O! SWNTs !+
: B )! (Filling) !
(*)
SWNTs \ #+ ! %*
$
! C
(Thermal L" " (**)b % 8 B" % B" !+ 0
$
,"/ / %5 6"* 0

$ U"
X .desorption)
8
G" G
(Encapsulated dopant) G8 - G!+
$ 66
)1 * ! (Spontaneous dedoping) %6 !+
$ %
! , !

$
6"* 02! .* L #!J
.L)"5 SWNT \ (Q'9
"1 $) "O
Filling MWNTs MWNTs 89 1.3.5.6
\ 7 "! )2 X" )6 I L" 7 7 C ,
'9 * ! d89 (Surface tension) %* " ! MWNTs
;) ;*9
R9
)!
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2 Q'"
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400°C ;" " ") ) ;"9! Q'" ! MWNTs
) ! C #"
41
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(*)

adsorption
."# !
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( ) &
' desorption %
279
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42
") !" "+ ! "' .MWNT ;8
#!J ! MWNTs :J + . 6 %* )+ B89 "2'
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)
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/ {)" " <R$
"1 AuCl CuNO3 CoNO3 AgNO3
. KClUCl4 KClCuCl2 (Eutectic) "2' 2
+" ;' ;*C .Sm2O3 MWNT (TEM)

O H: I' 20.6
+) .$@ "C- * ; $ C Y_
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MWNT G
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280
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G8 9 G SWNTs 6 "!
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C60
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L ("% "1 %B
43
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281
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O H: ;"H: I' () 21.6
;a ""
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= + = (TEM) ;"H: I' () .% ^=Y +
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44
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282
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Nanotubes for sensor applications
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Nanotubes for medical application
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$ % #!J ,8*' %5 ":N (Reaction chamber)
% &"9$ ) ;"
#!J .- Y5) 0!
.X $ " ;" ) 7+O ;)8 "
(Paramagnetic susceptibility) *- "! )9!

#!J ,*' (L6 ) %!"2 2!*6 #!D 'N (8B )
.%!"2 %*-
)9! 8 ")!
. **9 = L ! ,8*' >) 0 %5

0 Y!*
) )! 6B " $ G) ;"! *-

$ !"2 %5 CVD \! #!J
F5 C = .Y"*
.2 !:$ 0.25 V μm1 >
295
Conclusions " 7.6
2''9 !" #!J ! '8 &" '8 %5

%5 :9B %1 >!$ + %25 26!* 2 ) 28' 2!"
% ) "1 Q'9
d" &"9$ ;) ) XJ
#!J ! #! 2 .6!*
=
66 Y
i
1" .
)2 7
#
$
d1 & : )6 &

$ "
$ 2
'8 Y*
% J *65 *1 )6 .)
u %5 % % 5 .d5
>! )6 L ) ;)
0 $ %5 "!
"6
"5 % 5"
F5 C = . )6 #!J
. #!J "* '
":$ ,+ J "+ Q8
Acknowledgment ;
B. C. Satishkumar "+ ") D.E.L. B.W.S.

"+
.6 6
Questions +
* * 5

! "+ DOS \ %5 ,
5 "2/ .1
+ *!$ = $)! :/R) . % UB .)! )$ "O
)! L)$ ":!
2 2
( E E0 = k /2m
") "!$ "5 . %5 SWNTs \ i J G) G6

" 5* "5 .2
.16.6 + %5 28* "2/ > %5 "*6 =

I! 0
8' % " )) C .
$ : G
.
" 5* * ! % " ") <" C

296
0.34 nm
#"6 *
B8 5 "- ")
5 ;5 Z ! .3
1.4 nm 0"* L #!$ 9 ) % 9 ) 8 ,
$ %
"*6 C80 "8

$ !: )65 C = .0.7 nm
I 0 "8
$
, .SWNTs #!$ 9 ) 0.8 nm %
,' SWNTs \

$ 6 #" R9
J d! %5 / .4
| $ .P i !+F!
!+ ,"' '
02 "8 *
./R
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300

Quantum Dots
(*)
. .

.
. .
.

Introduction 1.7

" . !

0 / ( 109 = 1) ( )*+ %&' $ #
'5 1 4 /$ . 1 23 1 11
/ 4 /98 78 /1 6 ! 1 / 4
. 1 ;$ 1 /585 8 )*+ :& !
(Quantum confinement) ! 1 *$ 1 1@ <>8?
;; DC ! 1 *$ !;;+ C !B . '+ A
3 F85 !1@ 2 E1 11
093 3 ! de Broglie ! I 09H " (Schrodinger) G
.(Momentum) ?* ! D4
Quantum mechanical background

2.7
3 80 J3; K IH ;C ! 1 *$ G0 D 0
; /1 G 3 ! . 8 ! /1@ G
(*)
A. B. Denison, Louisa J. Hope-Weeks, Robert W. Meulenberg, and L. J.
Terminello, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Livermore, CA.
301
$9485 <8 ) G 3 4; 1@ /5$
(Kennard and 1 1 LRichtmyer L G LD D ; L1 11
.(Eisberg) # ; L(Schiff) 7G Lcooper)
H Ψ(r)= [-(h/8πm)2Δ + V (r)] Ψ(r)= E Ψ(r), (1.7)
+ ∂2/∂q2 1$ 04 D Δ L(Hamilton operator) ' D ' H M$
(∂2/∂p2 +∂2/∂r2)

1.7
'( #$
!
.%& !" #$
!
4 -
3 1'2 /
0% -
.(h) %&' (e) !* )

.5
-
3
! a ! NI& D I& I !> 1

' V(r)
1 m L:9 / ' h . V(r) = V(r+a) I L(Inter-atomic lattice spacing) 1 G
3 !' LG 3 D$ L(Eigenfunctions) D .1@
) (a) !1 G " H !' ! (Bloch functions) O D
/1G LKittel LD D ; L 8 $ K* BG $9485 <8
E (Mermin Ashkroft
Ψ(r) = eikru(r) (2.7)
' (Interatomic potential well) /& DC > 1 D u(r) M$
$ I& ' k .u(r) = u(r+a) I LI H
302
./ " 04 /04 "0 I 1 %9 3 D$ .1 G
' L3 1 D$ 0 P 3 Q> !43 I& 1 L4; + 2
0 1 .(Parabolic band approximation) ! R1 "4
4 ;
:!' 2 & (Eigenvalues)
E(k) = (hk)2/(8πme,h), (3.7)
6 ; 04 $ ! C 1) 2 1T 3C 1 !' Lme,h M$

; D8 78 ! $ ; 04 74 44? ; 1.7 D1G .(
R1 "4 )C .2 1@ /5$ D
U 1
)G 4 /98 78 " ! L)C
4 ; ! (Parabolas)
R1 "4 F0 4 )
4 .3 ) 8 <>8?
78B ) 4 %&' ! 04 /5$ R (Valence Band-VB) "P1
4"
"D8
4" + R1 "4 D? 4 H
4 ./98
4 1@ 0 L:& " .) W !' (Conduction Band-CB)
4 4 ! %K 7? I& LD D ; L 4; D8
1 L(Exciton) ;1 "0 1 &' 2 N1@ * .K1
I& '40 78 " & $ ! (Exotic) )& L"0 ! L;1@
. (Bohr radius) ' 40 78
3.7

Quantum confinement – 3D quantum dot
!1 . (D = 2R) 40 /& 1 ) &?B ! 1 *$ ! D 1
! D4 X8 1 D )1 40 2 L 1
$ ;
Eλ L! I Y
λ = h/p, (4.7)
(Momentum) ?* ' p = hk/2π L:9 / LZ? ) L' h M$

!' E M$ LE = (3/2)kT = p2/2m &? &[ . T )$ 3 ! 1@
λ L(2 ) 1@ 1 m * / k L1$ 04
303
D< '40 1 ) ! !3 &' .∼ 6 nm Y ; (∼300 K) X )$
' *$ ! !3 4 W D1G (2 ) /1@ *$ 4XH 6 nm
1 04 &?B 1@ .) 1 2 X8
40 78 D ' B &' ! Z?+ 4 . ) 1 1
/ %&' ; .7H 1 ' Exciton Y !3 4 '
*$" >*C $ ; L(Quantum dots) 1 4 CH )X8
.(Quantum confinement) "! 1
.1 1 4 H0 ! D8C * L\
L>; 1 "0 ! D$ 5 !1 L>5 1 > &?B LKG+ 4;
\ &?B . (Quantum confinement)! 1 *$ 20 ! 8 ; !1
/0 ! ]0; I& 2 1 DC D ' " ) (Hamilton operator) ' D
:! $ (
$5
H = -(h2/8πme)Δe -(h2/8πmh)Δh + Ve(re) + Vh(rh). (5.7)
: 1
0 ri < R
Vi ( ri ) = i = e, h (6.7)
∞ ri > R
:&?B 1 $ (Exciton) ;1@ $ !

Ψ(re, rh) = ϕe(re) ϕh(rh) (7.7)
1 LJC; D1G !>5 I1 > G 3 /;
I3 D$ .1 11 093 /& $9485 <8 3 ! $
(Spherical 1 / D9? 43 (5.7) 3 (Normalized solution)
] LD D ; ) (Jl) D;
_ /5
^ (Ylm) harmonics)
L(H /5^ D L(Stegun) X; L(Abramowitz)
φinlm ( r ) = ylm(2/R3)1/2(Jl(χnl)/ Jl+1(χnl)) (8.7)
!" Jl(χnlr/R)

.
χnl
: '0 ()- /& &, & *+ #$ .$$) &'( %& #$
Enle ,h = (h2/8πme,h) (χnl/R)2 (9.7)
304
!
.

2.7
- */$ ,
" . & )*$+ #$
%& '(
& "
.(*
#
) 1*2
'
*+ - 4(1*2 #
) *

? Eg 04 )
4 7H !H 48 ' \
! .2 1T ! 1 *$ Enle ,h I L(Bulk) ; 3
:!' (Exciton) 2N1 * @ 4 C 04
hν = Eg + (h2/8πme,h) (χnl/R)2 (10.7)
! 1/R2 " 2; I& )C

4 D3 6* :& Q
L1 " LD D ; ) ) / 1/R2 Y 1B 0 .! 1
!>H
B C8 6*5 &' DP (1 D1G
D$ ! & C? $ /& 1 4 ! (Photoluminescence colors)
$ < D9? : $ D9? :& 1 .(2.7 D1G )
<8 5 !>H D5 D8$ &> .)C
4 "; 1 / ;
D8
4 D'B (Band valence) K1
4 1@ ")
305
>H /B L M3 9 ;13 3 D9? (#C (Conduction band)
; ) K0* /$*5 D ; M$ L(Photoluminescence)
3 D' 4; & &' W . 1 $ 1 4
"0 ! $ D1G 5 6H ' 2 ! 3 1+ /9C
2 9? I& (;+ 6H !43 L Q> 1
.
945
Other interactions

4.7
5 )C
4 D1G $ 04 /; D8C K!G ? !1
LD8C * ' 7; .Z? /9C 5 3 &?+
! L; mh me 1 ./9C %&' ' 1+ 1& 7; 1
1 4 .3C 1 ' L 3 $ *$ !1 L$
.D8
4 P1
4 D5 M$ M$ /C
4 ( 3C
(Transition D5 4 ∂2E/∂p∂q 4 3C 1 X L"0 !
D 3 1 K* D 0
4 / ;$ K )H !3 &' .point)
(Angular a * ?*H 1@ /5$ : &' .D &' ! I
D B /9C D8$ (S) (Spin momentum) ?* (L)momentum)
I3 DC [ &1' .04 /; ! /93 2 ; ! (λL.S) N
! 1 .H /; * D3 !' L) 1 ! Excitons Y
(Electric susceptibility) > 1 ;;$ [ 2 1 DC ; G0
4; 1 H 8? ' ./; D3 L(ε) L7H I
. 1 ! /& 1 K* )X8 $ ! I$ M$ 1
C? 4; K 3 1 4 !4X ! ) 1 $
.8 4 ! ; /X (0 D3 L ;
$ H
B $9 !> KH !
306
B 'G ' (2.7 D1G) D$ ! C? $+ /&
$9 !>H
B BG .(Eg∼1/R2) )C
4 ! (Confinement) *$
.> )C
4 P1
4 1@ 2 1 $ )
.)C
4 ! 6* :' Exciton Y $ )G@
! 1 *$ 5 L1 1 4 D8C K!G ; "
3 + !9 (I; ) !> 3 L(:;) I$ 3 ! H D8$ 1
" + %&' & 4 ! " Q .(?c !;' D1G I )1)
Excitons Y $ ! :&1 LG 3 D$ ! D 3 K@ (C
$ ! Z? /9C * D1G :&1 G0 .2 1 DC :& !
%&' " .*$ D8$ M$ 1 ! /C 4 04 /;
/ 4 4 ' 1 8; L4G M$ "H $ !' /B
/B L 8 1 )* D ; ;5 . 8? )*+
. '+ W ! ! 1 *$
) 8 1@ <>8? X C1 ! I " &'
$ **3 L)3 ?
>4 $ X D9? 1$
' G .C?
?
>4 D9? $ X D>;
'9 ) )C 8 1 <>8? ! 1 4 3
1 > )G5 L:& .8 78 / $ ! !'
) >H1 <>8? H J3 (2'& D ) 3 / ;
.%9 8 : d $ C? c D9? :& 1 L '9
&' D9? 8 78 1 4
?
4 *1 7;
.D8C
4 8 78 1 4 "8 G 1+

4
.(Ion implantation) /+ F* L(Epitaxial) (*)!e L (Colloidal) IX
L/ ; $
3 73H 4 )0 4
4 %&' 4 D
f 1
2; 4 !' "Epitaxy" ( !;1 @) e (*)
.$ )*1 $ / KGW
307
3 . 1 4 "8 ! )C
>4 W D 1 L* L
5
8 Z; &' "Z" 78 / 4 $9
W . %&
0 ; ; '+ A LI (
5 L(8C G0 F949 D+ D8C ) D8C &' $ D 5 :&
. / ; $9 ?; /+ %&' 1& C
(Transmission !1@ (&C) D5 !' /+ %&' *

L 1 4 & ; /& 8 !43 I& L Electron Microscopy-TEM)
'* (Scanned Probe Microscopy-SPM) ; ( !' )+
D8$ D (Scanned Tunneling Microscopy-STM) !C ;
(Atomic Force & ) L4;+ 4 & ; /& 8
.4 0 & ; /& 8 D8$ Microscopy-AFM)
5.7

Colloidal growth of nanocrystals
/ /98 78+ $ 8 1@ <>8?
3
$ L<>8? %&' ; ! 6 ; ./ $ 1 $ 3
2 " L21^ g (Monodisperse) /G $ 3 4 /& /
(*)
/ M$ 1 /G $ 3 !X .3 H I

$ ! .4; K 1 ? D1G $ M$ J3 H3
78 ?; L9
0 HCH "/G I$" 73 1 L /
! %&' /G /$ $ / 0 .4 ! h 5 D0 !4; 7$ "
.! 1 D1 9 /93 " $ ! 1$ / 1 /K
4 @ L!> 1 LIX 21
4 1 X; ( [ L&
.G 1+ !' /98 78 1
0 ; 8 78 / IX 21 ;
+ 80 0P $ / ! LDinegar Le Mur X
(*)

monodisperse colloidal

.%
! "#$
308
/W D1G ! ) Z 1$ K!4 Z
! ; 7G1 $ L 3 ; ! 2.(3.7 D1G) /G /$
" L(4.7 D1G) $ (Coordinating solvent)
; 2& $G K
1 )$ 1 1 :& .(Nucleation) I
*1
I ) F G@
23 .F+ %& " G
D$ D1G L7G1 D$
F+ *1 ! JC? IP LF G@
$ >* 7C? * )80
4 L&1' .D$ ? " "C" LI $ *1
/ D 0 19; I& D3 * 5 /G H D3
"* [ L G / .H Z D1G L
:& . ! ; ! Z D1G 9? I& * ;; 1$ $
0; 1 1 / /1 1 [ DC /0 )* 4; !3
"* *1 " %5 &' G 1 L$ 1 1$ :& !43;
(Aliquots) $ * / $ ;; Q 1 ."$
. / K
> 83 4? I4 /

? ! 4
"H? &i > .DC )$ /$ (Coordinating solvent)
; 2& !
4 DC ) F; 1$ )$ ! )* DC
.F G@
.

3.7
309
.

4.7
! 0 1$ .D8C I C Z? ) " G #k C;j
H D3 LI; L D0 /G DC D3 K H )$
. F G@
$ D8$ 2^ ! L / 4;
G L 4 / 21 3 J3

X8 2& &' ; H D9? . (Ostwald ripening); H
/ 2; 3 L$4; 04 FC 2 ; /
)* " L / ! JC? ); %&' Q . 1
3 $ / / ! H ; H ; . $
/ 40 h 15 10 6 $ /3* " L$ ;; !
9? D1G ! )8 * )C ;; / $ $ .
H D$ )$ / FC *C$ :& H@ . ! Z
. / 1 $ 4; D8$ .;
310
:& L! D1G / D1G X /9C D3 1
D3 D9? :& LD1G ! / $ ! 1$ *
$
; ; .l ...DC ? )$ L*1 D DC /X
L$ )4; * (Surfactants) !$4; C
I D9? )X8 Z D1G !$4; 3 ; Q D D ; 3
D ? [ L:&1 .X8 / D1G $5 IP !
D * &' . / $ ! L) LH P !$4;
$ D 3 X 4 D1G / 4; (13 D1G !$4;
4 / 1 1 .D3
$ 9
H L / ! ;5
!$4; H D3 1 L 4; " !$4; D
4; $ /& / :& 3 Q .HC? 1G /

$ !$4; D * ?; 1 :& H .X8
1$[ D 3 $ 4 D D ; 3 .$ 1$ )* D3
L 1 ! L ! F; D8$ 1$ D0 ?\ 1 $ ! 4;
. 1$ 1 $ D3 D3 H 9? 1
2; D9? / $ "* !>

H
$
2& 5 ! 2& G 1 .DC D$
m 2& H
D 0 1 L / 4; / " /
i W C + (Nonsolvent)
/ " 2& 9 Q .DC 2& " (Miscible) * 9
M$ ! 3 (C 1 $ ' :& . (Flocculation) ' 2 ; a
. & 0 W 2& H
4 D$ H ) ) 3
D*3 (Decanted)
C8n 2& )
3 I*1 &
4 !>* ; 2& 9 (Titration) $; K4 1 .
$;
/ " W
$; IP / 1 " M$
. 1
II-VI :

Group II- VI semiconductor nanocrystals
:* = M M$ L(ME) II-VI /98 78 H$
! o ?; :& L ; L/ 1 = E
>* 1
311
38 1+ ' /98 78 78 &' D3 .C8
;
!$ (Triggered) 60 . 1 ; :& ! 2 ; 3 L;

2& ! IHN3 /G "; $
4 I LF G@
.(350°CN150°C) ?; *
;
& '# %( % & # $

! " 5.7
.( ) + ! + +,
+ .) * (Micel) (*)

%

II

! $ " #(Dimethylcadmium) ! "
%"& &% " #(Diethylzinc) $ " #(Diethylcadmium)
*%+ () VI
"% ' .(Dibenzylmercury)
' (Chalcogenides organophosphine-R3PE) -/ ,,
' Se #S = E 23 #(Bistrimethylsilylchalogenides-TMS2E) %
7) 56 #R3PS
* , ' 4 % TMS2S 3 ! *%+ .Te
! #/3
( (Chalcogenides organophosphine)

() , 96: ) ! %6 .Te 8 Se 8
#(Alkylphosphine oxides-R3PO) :' #(R3P) (Alkylphosphines)
(*)
.
‫ب أو "آ اب أو ا ا ا ا‬#$" %& (micel) ّ‫ا‬
312
Alkylamines #Pyridines #Alkylphosphates #Alkylphosphites 8
.( % 5.7 ; <) . (Furans) ,
TMS2S 4? D 4? /> ?; I4 ! /9C

/ C 83 .:> ; D1G ) ! R3PSe
4? HC D3 (13 (13 D L+ /> ; G D1G (13 5
2& o ? . (Differential rate of precursor incorporation) o
?P $ :* " ) DC R3PO LD D ; .DC D1 >9
IP (Alkylamine) 91c " Alkylphosine Y ;1 D ; 1 L
3
. D3 **3
Group III-V semiconductors III-V

= E M$ LIII-V InE 8 78 /

?
II- /98 78 ! H ' D K
4 Ll* C;C
[R3P/R3PO]
; 2& ! 9
3 , [InCl(C2O4)] In Y o .VI
%& ; H 24 .P As = E M$ LTMS2E Y $ D 0
? LD1G L$ /& /
$ 6N1 1 /
4
. >9 4; K 1
Epitaxial growth
6.7
(Epitaxial growth) ! D9? !' 1 4
? Z?+ 4
! /X 3 :' .)*1 (clusters) "
D8$ C1 FH .
4 1
I KGW 71 (;+ ! 5 L21 &' 2$ "; !
? (/1 ) /& ; $ 6 / KGW )
D I? 4 !
4 J3 H .3 )*1 D>;
& D1 (Laser ablation) * & L> 1 )? 2; L>* *$
> 11 ! M$ 1 .C
>4 74
/ D9? :& L(" Plating GX ") I LD>; (Electrochemically)
%&' ?; .(" Dipping ( X") / N 5 / D9? L)
313
$ ./ ) /& ) 1 ; 6 GW @ )
4
; 2 L
4 %&' I
d 4; )*1 1 4 @ LZ?
L;C )*1 L)*1
) 4G )4; 1 0
Z? 7 L$ L)*1 /1 2 (Crystallinity) )r
1 L3 )*1 2; 0 1+ Q &' D9? .(4$
5
1 4 ! ;> 83 $ . 1 4 / Q
! !' (Single crystal films) $ GW ?; C1 )^
.)*1 ; )$ /04 ! (
4 ) 2;
4

4 3 )3 <8 I ! :& D8C D8$ 1
.!
)*1 1 4 1$ L"; Z L! 4 ;
4G H (Matrix) C8
$ 1 4 %&' D9? .3
L4 %&' M$ C1 D 1 C
4 %&' )$ &? & .)

8 L>* *$ Da ! . %&' 4 J3 H 1
L D
s D
s K? 4$ ! L
4 )3 1 I& L/>* /&
7C8 ! 4; "" " /& %&' 71 )*1 /& 48 Z
? /&
1 L">G D ! . W 3 + !> / ;
) (Crucible) C ! L(Knudsen cell) ;1 ? ! ) $
J3 ?; LD D ; ) 4$ *W 4XH X D9? .3
"
; 2;
$ 1 L( + D ? /*X
1 " $ K + )C 4 %&' .I? 4 ! L&
3 " 2; 1 L! L*X 4G X D9?
KGW 5
Z 6.7 D1G ! .3 )*1 )G (Nanoclusters)
4;+ 71 L? (Ge) Y /
?; 8 &? .( Si )*1 L; 8 ! /X)
H 1 L1 $ / 3 4 !43 5 I& (AFM) & )
.KGX (Morphology) >'
1 ; 1 GW 1 @ 5 La 4 H /; "
. 1 0 1 L$ "; "* " 64; "
314
1 @ . d $ 3>G W /C8 L1 1 ; 1+ GW+ "
:&1 L)*1 4; )& D8 4 4G &C D9? Da $
)*1 "
$9 .( + 24 &) )*1 4G
. 1 4 GW " C; 1
! L* & !' %&'

5 Z? 4 :'
$5 (0 (3 ;1 LD D ; ) /98 78 $
(Sputtering) GG 1 . ! ;;+ (Stoichiometry) I83
$ %&' ! HC ) I&
@ Z? 4 !' ; >
)*1 2; (4 %&' 1 I& /& 71
2 ;
.3
Ge

(AFM)
6.7
( '$ . % SiO2 & % $ ! "!# .
& ) +'$ $ AFM *( ( "'$
" !
)
.,-
"' '$
315
:' 1 &[ .KG+ 3 D8$ )*1 4; ) D8
3 ! 4; :$ /& ' 1 L1 0 04 !C1
" (Dilute array) CC? CC8 : ! D1 L4;
" ! !>G D1 (20> ! /& ) )X8
80 )8 ) /1 ) 1 D0 $ ! 6
/ ) CC8 $ L+ $ ! .(6.7 D1G !
(Single )$ *>11 L 8 8? 4G 24 )*1 )X8
4; )$ /04 " ; 4 LC 4; " crystal substrates)
.CC? >GW (Morphology) (H >'
$ :& ()*1 " )
! HC? 1 $
4 1 4 $ ! 1$
$ 1
4 /CC8 . 4$ 8+ 7 K @ )*1 )
*>11 L1 > /1& ! ?; 1 @ ) 1 ' %&' 1
>G GW+ .I ( ! 1 78 ! D1G ; D;
D + !' & !
4 1 !' "
! . (F+ " ! () 8 4G 4 3 L5 <?
$ KGX aX " GW 1 L$ 1
9
H ;) ); H 3 + !> G5 D9? / ;
.(%W
! ! 4 $ X !$ ; ! *1 $9
GW ;; Q . 3 4 $H )1 + :& L 1 4
)* .C? D>; D9? C '8 $ 1 "
1 " )G 8 /& 1 4 Q !' 4 %& )$
IP L1@ 8 J3 )G 4 D8 BG ! ()*1)
. >H1 )*+ J3 "8 ! 3 *

7.7
Quantum dots formed by ion implantation
! ) D > 1 1 4
4
QDC Y Q .;C (Quantum dot composite-QDC) 1 4 1
.(7.7 D1G) 8 ) ! (kV )) 3 04 /& /+ F* 4 )
316
)4; + QDC Y @ 4 /+ F* 3
. (Spatial) 1 )4;1 LF* + ;
! QDC Y ?; 1 L!+ F* ); ! 3 >5
; ./98 78 /1 KH / 6 / 4
/>* Q !+ F* ); 1 71 : D8C &' ! *1
.KH " DC %&' 1 4 />* 1 71 :&1 L1 ) 1
. 3 $H /+ F*

4 QDC 4
7' 78 :& LD8 78 >9 F C1 *$
! 1 Si 4
$ 9
.(SiO2) 1; ;1 ! L) L!*
/04 (∼1017 ions cm-2 ) Si / F* 4; SiO2 /C8
1; 00 ) 0.65 μm-0.75 μm 1 ; SiO2 4 ! 200 keV
D8 )$ / Si/ SiO2 )*1 LF* 3 .(8.7 D1G) (100)
4 ) $+ 7? 1 Si 4 ) QDC 1 1 .1100oC
.(8.7 D1G) Si+ Y *$ 04 :& 70 (60 Å-20 Å 6
:& ! Z?+ + 3 44? &'
4 1
.GeSi LCdSe L GaAs Y D > + J3 Ti Au L Ge Y
5
.

4 3 0 12 ($ /$ 7.7
! D1G * )*1 ! * 04 I& + 1 71

; 04 C 7; L)*1 ! 04 & F* u 1 4 "0
317
4 )*1 /& " /+ 48 7; .)*1 " DC D9? ) 1
2 ; .(kT = 0.025 eV) $ 04 2 04 R4 $ >G
" 3 G
)*1 8 1 L!+ F* M$ 4 4G
1 & ! $ F G@
G . (Dopant ion) G@
.) 1 ' 1 (C8 ) D$ ! (/+) 2&
I L 1 4 D1G ! + )4? **3 K4 3 G
)*1
.
2
!8 ! "7 6 Si ,
/ 5/% 8.7
" 3 9' :$$ 0 ;-< ." 12 )
6
.3)< !
2
0 4$
! /+ I (Cv C8 ! F+ F G@ ! 4C &'

! F+ %&' *1 4 LI D9? .(< 20 Å) $ )X8 1 / ;
) Z Z? H &i >$ 1 LI $ *1 D$
* )$ " $ " "!+" I &' M$ &' .4
.500°C
; H ; D9? M$ 1 4 $

; H .D8C &'
; /0 ! ! (Ostwald ripening)
LK4 !C? 1 L ! )1 )X8 / D1G 9? ! 3 !'
LZ? ) 3 .)X8 / 2;$ 1 D1G D0 K;
L 1+ / D9? . 1+ / "& " )X8 / 78
+ > 3 %&' D8$ .)X8 / $ 4 7*;
318
D8C ' .)X8 / 04 $ 1 HC 1+ /
[ ( 1 ; Z + I) L)1 )X8 / D1G 04 $
4; 04 I) 9
HC 1 ) 1 / 1 $ 1 $
.3 )1 )X8 / D;+ [ L1$ L:& .(
/$ & 04 $ A 1 L) 1 4; 04 Z? $ Z
! X [ L; H $ G5 ; L) 1 /
R ∝ Y1 3 1 * ! 31 & " 2; ) $ 4;
$ A D L2; * ' t L/ ; 40 78 ' R M$ L(At)1/3
D9? ; .8 /& F " 4 ! /
L (Asymptotic region) $ D ; H [ L4 /
H
4 1 1 4 $ 80+ $
4 $ !3
.(3.7 D1G ) ;
' / ; $ $ QDC + D?
Z; * 7; F* ); ! + )* . H

/ ; $ 4; [ L" G
C > ; * " .!+ " G
H@ . I K $; )$ D1 1 / ; + LH *;
L) 1 $B 1 4 1 H Q )$ FC [ L:&
$9
_G . )$ / !' ! ; H1
3 . 1 4 $ 3; Q 1 :& 3 X X
ions⋅cm-2 Ge+ / ! LGe 1 4 $ LD D ;
)$ ~ 50 Å $ 1 4 $ 4; A 1017
2 $ 4; 1000°C )$ / * $ ! L 600°C
[ L:& " .200 Å D8 ) 1 $B 1 4 " 80 Å
1 4 D1G IP 1000°C
$5 " L6×1016 ions⋅cm-2 Ge+
.$ /G ! JC? " 45 Å $ 4; " )
1 /98 78 D L! 1 *$ 1

(Band )C
4
* 6* H@ L ;
wj
4 (Quantization)
1 ; (Si) 1; LD D ; L!3 :& .I8 gap)
1.12 ; ) 04 ! L 1 4 G ' L(CdSe)
319
> 4 % D1 ) 04 6* 1 .(298 K ) 1.74 eV eV
! )C %&' D3 )C 8? %&' .!;4X 1 74
" ! 1 $ 0 c Si QDC .1 / 4
)$ * " 1 $ 1 4 "0 ! L )$
04 Si 1 4 8 L950°C )$ ?; 3 .(9.7 D1G)
IP LZ? ) 3 I .~ 1.82 eV I; (Photoluminescence) (PL) !>H
B
$ ! X " 79?5 &'
.~1.65 eV PL 04 1100°C ?;
.1100°C 30 Å $ 950°C 20 Å D0 Si Y 1 4
SiO2 ! 12 Si (Photoluminescence) 9/ >?$ =0 9.7

4 ) .1100°C 950°C $) $ ') (400 keV, 1.53×1017 cm-2)
.(A28 ' B)
0 . QDC Y ; H /+ F* 1

(Li) 1 4 @ /+ F* /C 3 ! $ ?;
Å D0 $ 4; Li 1 4 D1G .(MgO) ;X ;1 D *>1
" %&' 1 4 .700°C
$5 " 30 keV 04 /& Li / F* 100
5 .bcc ; /& CC8 ! Li Y W L W fcc
.;5 0P K*C C * ; QDC Y F+ %&'
320
GaSb

$D ) 10.7
F F)$$ ;$ .500 eV 0
4 &Ar 0 0
)
E-$
:4 ) 2$ (Insets) "/ ;$ .
4) >'$$ 2

.(

928
' B) 5 ) .
!
(Ion sputtering) "+ GG" ; !+ F* ?c D1G :'
F* F !' + GG . 1 4 ) D1G ?; 1
' + GG !+ F* !;>
C .HC? 04 1 !+
4; 1 4 ) /CC8 !' D E 1 /; GG
1 &' D3 1 keV 04 Ar /B )*1 4; 780 .)*1
;5 2 ; :& M$ .(10.7 D1G) 1 4 ;; /CC8
4; /& FH? 4; ; 2 ; .04 + / *$
D4 8? !$4; G5 4 1 .M$; ! G )*1
/ ' D M$ L lc = 2E ( 2 D / E ) Y )43 ;; CC8 Llc L!
.+ 04 E G5
Further reading 8.7

L. I. Schiff, Quantum Mechanics, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968).
F. K. Richtmyer, E. H. Kennard, and J. N. Cooper, Introduction to Modern
Physics, 6th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969).
C. H. Kittel, Introduction of Solid State Physics (New York: John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996).
321
N. W. Ashcroft and N. D. Mermin, Solid State Physics (London: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1976).
U. Woggon, Optical Properties of Semiconductor Dots, Springer Tracts in
Modern Physics (Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1997).
L. Banyai and S. W. Koch, Semiconductor Quantum Dots (London: World
Scientific, 1993).
L. Jacak, P. Hawry1ak, and A. Wojs, Quantum Dots (Berlin: Springer-
Verlag, 1998).
P. Harrison, Quantum Wells, Wires and Dots (New York: John Wiley and
Sons, Ltd., 2000).
J. G. Zhu, C. W. White, J. D. Budai, S. P. Whitrow, and Y. Chen, Journal of
Applied Physics: vol. 78 (1995), p. 4386.
C. V. Falub, P. E. Mijnarends, S. W. H. Eijt, M. A. van Huis, A. van Veen,
and H. Schut, Physical Review: B 66, 075426 (2002).
L. E. Bros, Journal of Chemical Physics: vol. 80 (1984), p. 4403, and vol. 90
(1986) 2555.
Y. Kayanuma, Physical Review: vol. 38 (1988), p. 9797.
Questions
G )* D4 8? ?; L10.7 D1G 5 .1
.!$4; G5 D3 2;$ + 04
Referances
1. C. B. Murray, D. J. North, and M. G, Bawendi, Journal of the American

Society: vol. 115 (1993), p. 8706.
2. V. K. La Mer and R. H. Dinegar, Journal of the American Society: vol. 72
(1950), p. 4847.
3. M. A. Hines and P. Guyot-Sionnest, Journal of Physical Chemistry: B 102
(1998), p. 3655.
4. A. A. Guze1ian, U. Banin, A. V. Kadavanich, X. Peng, and A. P.
Alivisatos, Applied Physics Letters: vol. 69, (1996), p. 1432.
5. S. P. Withrow, C. W. White, A. Meldrum, J. D. Budai, D. M. Hembree,
Jr., and J. C. Barbour, Journal of Applied Physics: vol. 86 (1999), p. 396.
6. S. Facsko, H. Kurz, and T. Dekorsy, Physical Review Letters: B 63
(2002), p. 165329.
322

Nanocomposites
(*)

.
.

Introduction 1.8

Nanocomposites

# . 100 nm "
!
.
(
) + & * ) '( &
$%
4 %)
+2 0
1 &/
- ,
(9) *8 6

6 7
6
() :(1.8
*8 6
7 ( > !
<, ) > = =
/<,
;
! .8 6
+( =
/<,
A+@(
(?)
! D<
(
C; *';
B
8 6 - + 6 C6 E/ -7 .< ) C;
+ . > B

+
#
/ B C2 ,; G FH F
G / I+
+
+

+( &/ 700 m 2 cm3 G ,
+ J7 * + ! .$(

+ - *
&/ ($ +) &6 ,,
(*)
Robert C. Cammarata, Department of Materials, Science and Engineering, Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD.
323

+ J7 .1 $( G $6 9
+
+
. > 6 1K+
#+ ( C2 ,; G > B FH
() :

1.8
& '*
( #$%) " (!) .Λ

& &
65%4 (3) . d 1 2 /1 &/

0
+,-
. d 1 % &/
0
+,-
!
+ 6
,
>)
2 4G (F, &+K &2 + >)
<%
1, ,
<%

.(
,2 ,;
6 & (
4
62 < 1, , > ! +) 6

6
+ CL6M / .
GaAlxAs1-x " GaAs "

*
1
O+(
P = &N + + G
.
,N ! < 9+ -7 *(
2=
G C2 ,; D6
GaAlxAs1- "
4 (&66 R =< &/)
D > >; 2.8 4 Q@
2" &/ >2U( >U( GaAs "
6 &/ T ! .
62 < GaAs/x
Ec
D <+ & D< F + ΔE /
U( 0 < "

*
P A+@ T
+ X ( W, *ΔE → ∞ ! .6 &
:2" ! #@
E n = n 2 h 2 8m* w 2 (1.8)
324

&) m * *-1 ) h * ...*3 *2 *1 F + & ) n
Y! K .(GaAs
6
+)
2 Y! ) w *
< T
73
.
2=
N 6 Y T *2
& .GaAs/GaAlxAs1-x 9 + 8 1 7 " 2.8

% @= 8 + 2 8 2
0 (Ψ >?
) &
<
=
B1 7 ,%
1 & 7, ΔE 0 A ,
% .GaAs 9 %
.G, 7 1 C Egap FE+
7 DB= 1 C Ev .&

Ec
#
6 P = F
2 4T

(Yield strength) 0=;
6 # > B .
,
- + +(
+ 7E/ . = & 6 !
,<N 9ZK
U1 6
( +( > K, [ Y/ ) F 9L &/ +(
/ +
U1 6 # 0=;

6 E/ *

&/ 8 6 K,
+ J7) 3.8 4 F@ . RN +( U ( & ,<1
σ 6 M .(Orowan bowing mechanisms) 8 R \ $+
/
:

6 +( R1
U1
σ ≈ Gb/λ (2.8)
(Burgers) UB 0 4 ) b
/<, C ! ) G
+( W, $ 7E/ . +(
/ + + ) λ * C ;
+(
/ E/ * +( - ! 7 < ,<N ] >( K,
325

6 D6 *
+( $;+ *7 .RN Q & &)
.9 ,10 K,
( +(
+
%
! U X *
,

,< 7) &/ Y+ +
!
G
/ =G *= 6 1; D6 F7 $6
^ + .
( 1, ,
+

6)
&+2 0
+2
( 9 D2
.

6 6 G
/ =G *(
A+
P @(
;
.

λ

3.8
Nanolayered Composites

2.8
D $ G > 6 <
6 6 7 ? G
11
#+6 7N/ 0 6 & 12

64 +
*
! ( 7 6 X, ! 6 . !
/<
J7) ] .(Thin films)
6
4B 9+ &/
6 D2 % X 66L 6/
>/1; . 6
+ >
= ? G D2

6
+ C6 *
+
O(P
<, $%
.

+) G , $# *
7
8 6 UQ

, ; E/ *_1.8 4 G
&) * >

2 6
#
6
&/ *

0 ( F *(
(U
6 ) Λ F
(U
6

6
, PM . ( 6 & +
326
R+ *(Heterostructures) K
<; 6
6
* 6 + .
6
! & &4 D/ , & * +<

7

J7) 0 .(Superlattices)
62 < 4 *( 6 ! F) I+
GaAs/GaAlxAs1-x
4 *
,
62 <
4 )

6M
+N
! , > =! >6 4.8 4 .
6 &/ 7
InAs-
62 <
4 (Transmission electron microscope) &T 7 < (
U
+ epitaxy
6

+ P Q M & GaSb (100)
.13
2U(
<LH

6
6 4 ! K+@ > B
4 7 6 M 7 *

6
-7 G =@ .
62 /
4 $ %N
6 ! >
/# <,N
1! 7 *
<;
7 6
.
62 /
4 >= + * +(

I ,

%H = G- /= 4.8
(M. Twigg + ? %
) . InAs-GaSb (100) 8 +
327
Synthesis and processing 1.2.8
D2
= B
6
? T >!4 D2

6 X= '( &
6
4B X=
0 X, &/ X+ D ! 9 + J7) + G >% .13 <;
Y 4 < E/ *
6

';
Physical Vapor Deposition ) >2 U/ ; X= D2 M+ 6 .,<
6
4B 6 ? G &/ X+ D ! *
44 ; *((PVD)
= X= ! D2 J7) = .1315
+

,
,
R 4K ? G
K 9 DKM Wa<M , R `1; (
W+ X ( ; U B $ , =/
44 . 6
U ! ( F( & 7 01 G FH 7) * = &/ 9B
*

+ 6 - +
&/ .D R 4K
# +(
U + )
+ 4
44 R(G
;G >= .(14

44
2
4
.
+ >! <
44 R(G ( G ( (+

+
6
4B ? G ><
44
6 9
44 G -7 D6 .Al-Al2O3 "
(+ < $ , D1BG W< -7 (Al)

44 *<;
6
? T >=
44 M+ .14 >! < - +
6
44
.
N
+

62 <
4 & 1, ,
4B
&/
!
X, 9L 6/ *
6 &/ 7 GaAs/GaAlxAs1-x
16،17

2U(
U
6
+ 6 $% (
;
%
6

% M .(Molecular beam epithaxy-MBE)

!
! ( / +M *4
; % = / X= ,
(Reflection of high
& T 8 N *& 8 6 D2
Auger electron spectroscopy
T (
/ energy electron diffraction)
U
6
+
&/ .R 4K X=

328
* Ga)
4
Q , X=
# *GaAs/GaAlxAs1-x
62 <
4 X,
2U(

( 7 X= .9+ 1; & + ; ( As *Al
. ;
G
U +M *+
! ,
18
+ (Pulsed laser deposition (PLD)) &= U X= =
.1
` ; ( ; U ! = ; , U
=
8< X= ] [
PLD " +
1,
+ % ? T
2 4
+ , 7 *9
, M+ .
2
Q<

( 7
62 <
. 6
4B X=
&/
2 D2 M+ * >2 U/ ; X= D2 G
/ =T
Chemical ) >2 ; X= D2 - .
6
X,
+
% ? G &/
2 4
6 &) *(vapor deposition (CVD)
1! < + * >2 ; X= R &/ .6, 13

!
,
+ * Reduction 0 (T *Pyrolysis F -<
<;
Metallo-Organic ) >2
=
; X=
6 b M .Oxidation
62 / 4 ? T
)
( ! (Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD)
4 & N ) X 1 ! < = &) .1, ,

62 /
4 X,
1! < + *1
> / .
,
6
:GaAs/GaAlxAs1-x "
Ga(CH3)3(g) + AsH3(g) → GaAs(s) + CH4(g) (3.8)

xAl(CH3)3(g) + (1–x)Ga(CH3)3(g) + AsH3 → AlxGa1-xAs(s) + 3CH4(g) (4.8)

U K U K K=
( D = ]
.
! ( 7
62 / 4 ? G
? G L * >+
,;
6 &2 X= @
+ J7) = .20,19
,
+

! 6
-7 NG . + &2 R1 & > >=
329

2 R * , & 6 % 0 !
J7)
&/ +@ 7 . + X
6/ N 6 &
U &2 X= , .<; 9 X= %
& *
+ B U2
4K ! 6 *
< Y <; G
/ =G ';
[66 >
(G
+ F 9 X= *
+ D
.R1; &/ '; X= D2
22,21
X ( D2 Languir-Blodgett ( _(N D2 6QM
23
(Monomolecular) 2U(
6
=!
4B ? T &7
? G ! 6 $! *( _(N
4B
4 4) .! + ' !
2 / # 100 nm
(G
+ (
! >7
# (
4B
-+1 6 D 6
? G '( [ NG .
6
& 6 N\
X,
6 J7 .25,24
F
[ -7 G =@ . 4!
K,
+
.19&2 X= 6

4B (Oc
Functional materials .2.2.8

4 * > ! K 1, , FM * >6 + J 4 >6/
2=

T C2 ,;
!
! ( *
, ;
<,
62 <
% - ] *& ,N ! < =< / $Z &
/1
- , <
4 8 .
6

6 6 $)
,,; X( G $ d 6 ! * ) $21 ! 6

.73
.14,26,27 >Q C;

62 <
4
+K C;
&+K G > + @
/1 )%
!
! (

+K
6 / &
4B &/
+K
6
0 &/ % & $ )1 G )% 'G .
+K B
+K
6 &2 &+K < &)

62 < 4 ;
330
28
6 ,6 .((Giant Magnetic Resistance (GMR)

1
+K
% &/
2
6 &/ , F7 b K
1
+K
7) ( . ! H &( ; &+K 6 D Co/Cu "

U B <, ,
+K 6 &/
62 < 4 &/ <
6 ! D#@ ! *H = 0 ! (8 U ) (Antiparallel)
G
H * >U >/ <, /
+K $U , * 6 F &+K
6 ! ) % J7) F .
2
6 &/ C6
. U;
, 9+ C De + &/ >
+ &) *

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6

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342
III

Nanoscale and Molecular
Electronics
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()
Appendix A. Useful Constants and Materials Properties

19
q = 1.6×10 C : E
ε0 = 8.85 × 10-14 F/cm : @ (Permittivity)

εsio2 = 3.45 × 10-13 F/cm (K = 3.9)
εsi3 = 6.64 × 10-13 F/cm (K = 7.5)
εsi = 1.06 ×10-12 F/cm (K = 11.9
k = 1.38×10-23 J/K = 8.62 × 10-5 eV/K : 4
h = 6.63 ×10-34 J-s = 4.14 × 10-15 eV-s :5) 4
kT = 0.0259 eV :&> # kT
kT/q = 25.9 mV :&> # kT/q
.ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3 : Si

:&> #

ZV
%& )

μn ≈ 1.500 cm2/V-s
μp ≈ 450 cm2/V-s
5 × 10 22 atom /cm3 :

* & 4
:&> # 3 9 #&

Si: Eg = 1.12 eV
Ge: Eg = 0.67 eV
GaAs: Eg = 1.43 eV
Si: Eg ≈ 8 - 9 eV
Ec ≈ 3 x 105 V/cm :

%&
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) %H / ! $
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405
(*)
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!
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Appendix B. Typical Si Process Parameters*
0.18 μm ! 0.25 μm !

pMOS nMOS pMOS nMOS
4 4 5.5 5.5 tox (nm)
×1017 ×1017
1017 1017 Nsub (Cm-3)
2 1.5
a0.41 0.36 a0.55 0.42 VTO
120 400 120 400 μ (@: Y )

(cm2/ V-s)
106 1.4 × ×106 ×105
Vmax(m/s)
10× 105 1.0 1.4
0.64 0.68 0.62 0.55 γ (V1/2)
.: "

! !
(*)
References %$
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407
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2002), p. 32.
408

Molecular Electronics
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Michael Zwolak, Physics Department, California Institute of Technology,
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Massimiliano Di Ventra, Department of Physics, University of California,
San Diego, Ka Jolla, CA.
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Questions
: = 6 +! ! # 3.10 !3
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E f ,L
2e
h E ∫f ,R
I= T ( E )dE (4.10)
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+
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4
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&+ !3 $B

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3
6, "
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436
References #
1. A. Aviram and M. A. Ratner, Chemical Physics Letters: vol. 29 (1974), p.
277.
2. M. A. Reed, C. Zhou, C. J. Muller, T. P. Burgin, and J. M. Tour, Science:
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McEuen, Nature: vol. 407 (2000), p. 57.
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(1992), p. 485.
5. H. Park, A. K. L. Lim, A. P. Alivisatos, J. Park, and P. L. McEuen,
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W. Mahoney, R. G. Osifchin, and R. Reifenberger, Science: vol. 272
(1996), p. 1323.
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Jones, D. L. Allara, J. M. Tour, and P. S. Weiss, Science: vol. 271
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vol. 84 (2000), p. 979.
11. S. Datta, Electronic Transport in Mesoscopic Systems (New York:
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12. See, e.g., C. J. Muller, J. M. Krans, T. N. Todorov, and M. A. Reed,
Physical Review: B 53 (1996), p. 1022.
13. M. A. Ratner, Introducing molecular electronics, Materials Today:
February (2002), pp. 20-27.
14. E. G. Emberly and G. Kirczenow, Physical Review: B 64, 235412
(2001).
15. Z. Q. Yang, N. D. Lang, and M. Di Ventra, Applied Physics Letters: vol.
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438

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References %
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480
IV

Nanotechnology in
Magnetic Systems
481
482

Semiconductor Nanostructures for
Quantum Computation
(*)

.# $ # "!

1.12
Nanostructures for quantum computation

!

*+ ) :% & ' ( .$ " #
7 56 34 1# %21 . - /0 ,(
(Algorithms) = 1 6 <1 <1 9;0 "(
"
A= ( >1# @4 > ? !9 (
. (Quantum computer) (
6 ( +
F 24 D4E - * (" C BA41
%A , * ? C BA41 CG( .(
%2 $
!4 - -? I ( H =(
.69 LJK 6 !9 E C (
(*)
Michael E. Flatté, Department of Physics and Astronomy and Optical Science
and Technology Center, The University of Iowa, Lowa City, IA.
483

6
3 BA41 M %40 + %6 D
A=0 -? % CO .6A =2 <( 6 % N+ (
+A . P+ / C -? (
4 / ( A=0 /A DQ4J C BA41 -? 0
("E “( ” %( - ;=1R N+ 9 .(
.“( ” % ( P+ -? 9? "qbits
- $ ( S - %40 + 1# *
CW %# =V( . ( C (Confinement) 4
+ * C -? 1F /X ( (" C
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Y ( $O( D1 E ( !S ME < =
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2.12
Quantum computation algorithms
+ $ X %A O Y
%A6 ' C3
< / 6 .$ 6 % 4 E Z( E
# # M 3# E W M 3# W4W
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.,
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(*)
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n

.(, ) t ≈ na !( )# %
"(
t ≈ an !( )# %*
(
484
1997 C Grover 3 = 1 (E .( E
+ $ * 4 B0 3 AW $4 E
C 0 <= = 1 %( % .(
.(Quantum principle of superposition) (
( E ( N(
= 1 6 C C3 = 1 6 01 %(E RS
< = 1 D( A O( % = H0 < Z1E
.6
E
BA41 (
BA41 (
I R + . B0 (
, M @9
D[ . (
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CS - > < 6 "1" E "0" Z ? 6 %( +1[

! $ .= 1 6 S E .Z1E
( 24 D4E 4 6( ? ] ( N( -
- * $ S - +1[ "(
" < E .@4 - %
4 ( .( N( S
=5 1
( (
(
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*E ( E ( ( . # -? A 1
( S
|α|2 + |β|2 ] φ = α |0> + β |1> 1
(
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3.12
Superposition and quantum parallelism
%A % - E (Superposition)
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P+ - / R E .( φ ] F(φ) 5
:(2
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485
α exp[iπF(0)] |0> + β exp[iπF(1)] |1>
P+ S - ( P+ - < /X I1 *
%1 - % +
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.α = β = 1/2(1/2) ! $0^ (+ )
( ( n (
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$ 1
( + /
.C( N+ ( . 2
$ A $ E

>= Z HS ( W ( H $
. # -? H 0 E .( <
N+ ( γ |0> + δ |1>
( + (
( HS (
. # -? !9 D 04 +
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(
< ?
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6
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. E D E ( +? 3 ( P+ H
( , <4 , $9E D E P+ -? 9Y
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(|0> + |1>) / 2(½)
* 04 (|0> + |1>) / 2(½) ! -# (Overlap) %1 *
<>0( %4 6
3 B21 ? . O %1
3 bJ = 1 % Z 4 <>0( H0 . H %21
E
$ O(E = 1
E C3
.% # ! < ZR

4.12
Requirements for physical realizations of quantum computers
= 1 $O( )E (
= 1 R
(
!4 ( % ( $(E

5 6 %R <4 (
9 Z F - !4K C _
<( (
@4 ( OO 6 %+ -? O (
A0 -? 4 6 0 (
=2 ( E .(
(E E % -? % = 1 +0 0( ( 105-103
E 1 DiVincenzo =
Q Q * =X .*

: (
/
.!X ,9 ( *+ ( D A= %O (1)
(
)2S? ( A W W - < (2)
% - |000000000....0000> %S A /2W
.%O
.( =E -? ) (Decoherence) C ; K (3)
9 ( *E +0 V( "" ( (4)
.(
. ( HS (? (5)
487
!X 4 .1 P+6 9" M
(2
$ O A !9) ( $ ( ( E
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E ( %VO (3)
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Analog *
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<
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> # D( C C\( E ( >1E @4 = 1
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XOR

1.12
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0 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
0 1 1
*5 X S .(
%( *9 (4)

- "" XOR 4 = E
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1.12 % *K .\ XOR = 1 ! > ( ,E
( E . 4 = (Truth table) %
488
n 7 i A 04 (
= 1 (
A ] f = A i 7 %\O $9 .( n 7 f A6 ! (
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4 n × n X( 04
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7 L O .% - 0 >O 6
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.$9E ? (

2.12
-# O I1
|0> |0> ⇒ |00>
|1> |0> ⇒ |11>

|0> |1> ⇒ |01>
|1> |1> ⇒ |10>

" !

5.12
Spin as a Physical Realization of a Qubit
|0> .( $ 2
$ O ½ , * *+ C K
% - (Spin-down) 0C (Spin-up) *C |1>
489
04 > ( .(%O % - z ,)
.C - CAS N % ( n 7 A6 A (
: < $ ( 6 04 > (
A = exp [– (2π i /h) ∫ H (t )dt ]
6 > O ( E < ( / ( +?
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.O(E E S / 6 A= ? O
< ( A= +0 O %O % -

/X z % - ,
X B % . $ $ ( (
N D1 |0> * fC S % D ½ * , C -
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W
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( +? ( 0 > + 1 >) 2½ 7 / x % - , C
. ( 0 > − 1 >) 2½ $ fx -? +x
C P Y 2πgSµ B TB/h = π
% - % / ( " ( ! / (
.C
-? O(E ^ ( XOR 7

D( 4 D %40 ( XOR 7 D4 W
$ + .$ <
604 ( 6 ( %1 .% + / (
:(Heisenberg Hamiltonian) i=
D4 (Eigenstates) =5 3.12 %

6 <=5 W " ( W E W .6 +6
.(+ i=
490

3.12
( C S <=5
1 J(t) 00 >
1 J(t) ( 01 > + 10 >) 2½
1 J(t) 11 >
0 0 ( 01 > − 10 >) 2½
( ∫ J (T )dt = π 7 01 > A E +?

-# ( S % 6# swap“ “7 P+ - . 10 >
" ( ( XOR 7 D[ .O (
. ∫ J (T )dt = π / 2 6 -? 9? 0^ <(+

6.12
Quantum computation with electronspins in quantum dots
? - %4 E F @4E S ( E

6 C - % / - < ! < =
- , (0 - ( W , $\( $S C I =E S -
( ,E = * Loss H
j R , (
' 9 .
.( 4 D4 ( (? %
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10 nm 2 S ! ( 4 + . <
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< AQK +? 9 3E B1 ( .( (" 4
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k ( 09
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491
P+ (" W D4 . < -? < 4
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. % (" 0 C

.

() 1.12
$
- ## (,) .(+$)
$
& '* $ % $
$
!"
#
& 4' 23 %+$

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1
% $
0 /$#
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492
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( W
$ -E ( < P+ E -? $ .(" S
CG( .%j J > 0 O ( 2 C ( 1 C
A6( % / N+ / ( .0 @( E == *9 J
.(2.12 %( X /) 0 = ! E M01

7.12
Quantum computation with phosphorus nuclei in silicon
S - + ( Kane ( ,X S 1^ ' C6
$ !A -? $ .(" C W
$ * C
- + ( ( * C %1 (
( %VO < P+ * C + + M %1 ? ( .%(
W
n E
1 + Y ( E < ( +0 %6 .=
6 ( E
% ( ! (Isoelectronic) (" (
* *+ * C + 00 + % + .01
00 Z $( 40 0 < %( ( .? +( ½
= < + . $ $A ( N ( E !SK
. ( A
,SS A = (? - , A = - 00 *
( ( < !S 0 < % .( 1
+ .(Shallow hydrogenic impurity) 9 6 A - X (

(" 5 CX O 6 < (" 9" Z
493
(" P+ V .(~10nm) X (1s) 9 9"
. BA41 ! % "$ +" < < X
6 < 6 * /A < 0 ( ZR
21W E C3 .< ! 0\
E 6[ 6 < D9 b
( E $O( %9# ,Y E ] 4 < < %( $ * ?
6 1? E %1 - 6 < D - S
Knight '= - < %21 N+ % ( .1 % ,
%21 * C ! O[ 00 <+ % A (" % .shift
:4 O[ N+ +1 .S /A0 % O[
H=CS⋅I
- % / .* C I S /A0 O C ]
S @4 . -? $ $
Q X (" @4
% ! 04 01 < Sα > *E / % *= (" C
- * C VO& 9? % [ N+ ./
9" %0 % + @= .(Hyperfine field) S /A0 %
% A * .C !
<
% N+ ! 5 %
.Z1# C -? 6
2' G/$* # . 78

*8 ' () 3.12
(,) .(10 nm 2$8 ) HI8 $ 78 ' H
*8* ' 97

0 : ?
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'B " /$# $
$
"8

.2 $

494
/A Z ? %\O + .Z (" O( - C O S
A6( % % (3.12 %( ) < 0 ( / <
< 5 *+ C O N+ 5 .Z (" O(
% , I1 E %1 - * C %
.1
- N+ +0 ( .* C C S \ (

] ("
+ .$ % < (" 3
*= D04W (" N %90 4.12 %( X / %1
S /A0 (l ( 04W P+6 .H(
+A .H( D04W -? 6 S -? !91 ("
: 4 L S ( (
H = J(t) I1 ⋅ I2
+? .(? $0^ (+ 6 %0 H0 D4 +

+0 ( < (" N A6( !4
.( E < (
> ? (-
$0 2$
)
@$L
= 4.12
%>$"
(8;)
+ %/$# $
- # 6 .@A :!"
6$* #6 & M 2' @=$ #

6$* & 4' 23
.9 :F7 #$A < @$
# E#+ $B 6$* NOM %A -/$*
495
Conclusions 8.12
/A " O Z X ) (
H# PW + %4 C V S .01 ( 4 CG(
4 4E ! % Y N+ %4 C - . (
>
6 -? * & D 6 CG( ( *E (
E ( W ( C CG( E W? . 4 ("
(E > + C\ =6 BA41 W? %4
" 00 + [ !9 E ( %21 N+
6 *=( $A * & E * C - + .(
:<
)5 R ( = 1 O

% 4 %A M •
.2
$ A $ N
E ( (" C *E - C V( •

.= - (
!4 ( * C
.( % W S / %R •
C\ - BA41 ! % ( % %\O •

i= bS E 01 g % ? $ <4
.01
Questions
2n–1 - 04 = # !

( > ( D( 5 .1
.( n
-? β = 0 α = 1 A % 621 % /

<
.2
., % /
*+ 5 γ = δ = 1/2(1/2) A6
.( XOR

o .3
496
i= %0 W i= %0 S 5 .4
.C S /A0 O S < X ("
References !"
Overviews " #
Introduction to Quantum Computation and Information. Edited by H.-K. Lo,

S. Popescu, and T. Spiller. Singapore: World Scientific, 1998.
Semiconductor Spintronics and Quantum Computation. Edited by D. D.
Awschalom, D. Loss, and N. Samarth. New York: Springer, 2002.
C. H. Bennett and D. P. DiVincenzo,”Quantum Information and
Computation,”Nature: vol. 404 (2000), p. 247.
D. P. DiVincenzo,”Introduction to Quantum Computation and
Information,”Nature: vol. 399 (1999), p. 119.
Algorithms $
P. W. Shor,”Algorithms for Quantum Computation: Discrete Log and

Factoring,”paper presented at: Proceedings of 35th IEEE Annual
Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, edited by S.
Goldwasser (New York: IEEE Computer Society Press 1994).
L. K. Grover,”Quantum Mechanics Helps in Searching for a Needle in a
Haystack,”Physical Review Letters: vol. 79 (1997), p. 325.
A. Ekert and R. Josza,”Quantum computation and Shor's factoring
algorithm,”Reviews of Modern Physics: vol. 68 (1996), p. 733.
Fault Tolerance % &
P. W. Shor,”Scheme for Reducing Decoherence in Quantum Computer

Memory,”Physical Review A vol. 52 (1995), R2493.
J. Preskill,”Reliable Quantum Computers,”Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London A: vol. 454 (1998), p. 385.
497
Implementations
D. Loss and D. P. DiVincenzo,”Quantum Computation with Quantum

Dots,”Physical Review A: vol. 57 (1998), p. 120.
D. P. DiVincenzo, D. Bacon, J. Kempe, G. Burkard, and K. B.
Whaley,”Universal quantum computation with the exchange
interaction,”Nature: vol. 408 (2000), p. 339.
B. E. Kane,”A silicon-based nuclear spin quantum computer,”Nature: vol.
393 (1998), p. 133.
D. P. DiVincenzo,”The Physical Implementation of Quantum
Computation,”Fortschritte der Physik-Progress of Physics: vol. 48
(2000), p. 771.
498

Magnetoresitive Materials and Devices
(*)

.
Seagate Technology
Introduction 1.13

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+ <23 <1O 2 " %
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4.2.13

!"
Acronyms: AMR, GMR, TMR, BMR, and CMR

01
23

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0
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6 < $
Anisotropic magnetoresistance AMR *H
23

62 j
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2
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2
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References
1. M. N. Baibich, J. M. Broto, A. Fert, F. Nguyen Van Dau, F. Petroff, P.

Etienne, G. Creuzet, A. Friederich, and J. Chaezelas, Physical Review
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R. E. Scheurlein, E. J. O’Sullivan, S. L. Brown, J. Bucchiganno, D. W
Abraham, Y. Lu, M. Rooks, P. L. Trouiloud, R. A. Wanner, and W. J.
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539
Gehanno, R. Ferreira, and P. P. Freitas, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics:
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and J. M. Kikkawa, Physics Today (June 1999), p. 33.
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Science, 281, 951 (1998); H. Ohno, Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic
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17. S. Datta and B. Das, Applied Physics Letters: vol. 56 (1990), p. 665.
540

Elements of Magnetic Storage
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Jordan A. Katine and Robert E. Fontana Jr., IBM Almaden Research Center, San
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2.14
Fundamentals of magnetism and their application to storage
! 1.2.14
Fundamentals pertaining to media
.5A
( 2
8O#
4 11/

KH
98 nm @ 40 Gbit/in2 8<=
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2 DG
8' O#

130 # I

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.(Superparamagnetisn)

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1

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+
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1

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T
:0 τ
T

τ = τ0 exp(KuV/kT) (1.14)
E# : V 92#V
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T

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-/
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Fundamentals pertaining to the writer
24 ( I 6GQ %
*
() 2 4
4
/
/
1 5 K
2 @ 1S .(g3.14 *4G
)
2 (-/
) *
# + + A
+ (/
/
1 5
(4)
:0 - K
<4
H = n μ0 i / 2R (2.14)
2

: i 9(4π × 10–7 Tm /A) h

& μ0 9
11/ : n f#
2 (Ni81Fe19) 8E] 4 1 ->
+C .K
K : R 9K
H 2
*
% @ B 2d
2
*
X 9K
<4
: V +Q H -> B / 7O .M
9
51S @&
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* 2
9

1

2 μr @ .
31
& : μr f#
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* B=
E
1/ 98E] 4

&
* %Gd
->
* 9H 0
E
1 .?
.1#

->
546
() -> K
2 1S
2
I1
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E
= 31/ 364
5&: 2 S?T ./ 364 6
\7
[
1/
31
7 3:C : (Magnetostriction) 2

J = .1
I #
->
+C .(Stress) 244
1d
11#

34
1S 9()
2
1

D @
#
11
V
D
*
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1O + = K
2

J =
V
&
1

4
& .+B) 31
2
+1> *=
_ 1 (T

2
4 * 2 ! B Q
+1 B=
2
2 *
& 92
J=
+/ = 8E] 4 .
() 2
. GQ) /

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D
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1, .@&
e
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2 3
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D
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Ni 0
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9
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547
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& 1
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2: 4

& / I# -B

9+#A 5
K
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Fundamentals pertaining to the sensor
36

*
k 4 1#
f# K -
4
36

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- K

2 1, 94 I ()
# .4

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1

E = – dΦ/dt (5.14)
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36

(T E# [) 9#
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4 9
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4
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(#
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J =
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@ 4 (# 11#

* .(# <V
V
549

& 4b 2B
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V

* c .40 Å #

+1
+= (#
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1

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* + , 1.3.14

Moore's law for magnetic recording
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11<A @
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31<
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&

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#
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94
()
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3
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4
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Writer scaling issues "# )& -, 3.3.14

V
+ ? 94
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11
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554
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() *4G *# 4 6V > 6GX
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Sensor scaling issues %&$ )& -, 4.3.14
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2
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1
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1
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1
2

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CPP Sensors 0 * . + / ' & 5.3.14

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/

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:

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1
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9B

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Questions 3
9
10 -/ 1< 31 +
#
+
4 24 91.14 1 + .1
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) \
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)
s
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w #
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1

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s(_#

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9
\ 0
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/
1 # 31S
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1
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2
*
PJ1 *
(#
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0 P
s) 2 V

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2
*
References (+
1. H. Neal Bertram, Theory of Magnetic Recording. Cambridge, MA:

Cambridge University Press 1994.
2. M. N. Baibich, J. M. Broto, A. Pert, F. Nguyen Van Dan, and F. Petroff,

3. R. E. Fontana, S. A. MacDonald, H. Santini, and C. Tsang, IEEE

Transactions on Magnetics: vol. 35 (1999), p. 806.
563
4. E. E. Fullerton, D. T. Marulies, M. E. Schabes, M. Carey, B. Gurney, A.
Moser, M. Best, G. Ze1tzer, K. Rubin, H. Rosen, and M. Doerner,
5. S. H. Sun, C. B. Murray, D. Weller, L. Folks, and A. Moser, Science: vol.

287 (2000), p. 1989.
6. A. Blondel, J. P. Meier, B. Doudin, and J.-P. Ansermet, Applied Physics

Letters: vol. 65 (1994), p. 3019.
7. R. E. Fontana, J. Katine, M. Rooks, R. Viswanathan, J. Lille, S.

MacDonald, E. Kratschmer, C. Tsang, S. Nguyen, N. Robertson, and P.
Kasiraj, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics: vol. 38 (2002), p. 95.
8. J. A. Katine, F. J. Albert, R. A. Buhrman, E. B. Myers, and D. C. Ralph,

Physical Review Letters: vol. 84 (2000) p. 3149
9. K. S. Johnson, M. Drndic, J. H. Thywissen, G. Zabow, R. M. Westervelt,

and M. Prentiss, Physical Review Letters: vol. 81 (1998), p. 1137.
564
V

Nanotechnology in
Integrative Systems
565
566

Introduction to Integrative Systems
(*)

.

Introduction 1.15

, !, - & *"+ ') &' ( $ % !"!#
65)" (!3 2"3 4 ' "+ 1"

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(*)
Michael Gaitan, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
567
C .JB + "O G
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@ T.&$ >0 S J' Q" >0 R< " J G
G
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3" >0 ! !' G
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2.15
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>& (+"+" ) " "' CVD 5@ "'
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f^! % $ 2M 1 > X!# a0 61 ",' T ! $ = ."&
Analogue Devices "+ 3(< 6(! >0 .' ] %- k"=
\ 6Q" G, T %- ( 7
.\<!
2 >)" >@7 &,# 3(< A7"! 1 2 >!C C

%- 6" ["
", 0 S
< 6! .T' /&, >0 "Z
3(< @ - >0 $ .(0 'b" " 6
>0 .!" # / ))" %- ', "
.! ,"& > 6
:M \"& !- ';& T, "< '= % $ /S& '

H 6" !" # k 0 65" l >C= ] 9!
>C ] % $
6", ] %- MST H MEMS
(Gordon " "< ?I'! , .(! 3 T, ! " A< b"' 6
" k! .1965 7- >0 A< (' 6Intel !$ "+ >M = 6Moor)
3 .! "3!" 0C >0 5-7 9! = %- " !,' 0"
98
2"K 2 6.15 + >0 I' 5,0 O % @) >0 A<
1968 - 5! !$ "+ (-' > "3!" - > <# 5!' 5!!
.2002 - %
578
C1
B1 1! '/ " 51 44' "
A "1/ "11
6.15
:1! 8
4;/ /<#) 2002 * 1968
<http://www.intel.com/research/silicon/mooreslaw.htm>.
/ f7! " % $ CMOS G " !, ,
3 .kS, ' ' 9 " 1 610 nm ,) '=
")
- A0 ) >? 1 ."J 3 / " 9 /!
= > 10 ) .O A0"! 2 "3!" k, 3
>0 A< .2017 - % 9 nm
", 1 "3!" '' &
2&! .MST H MEMS H ') &^ !, ! 57= O
>0 & .C MST H MEMS H = %- ":! (< ]$
. "
H MEMS H ,'& \ > :! = ,' ') $
@! A! \"& 2 ( M a0 6' 0 !! !, 6"< SMT
= ' C.C 9! 65 . U ]< T@"& "C= >
:MEMS H !,
.7 •
.5!C G •
.
5 = G •
& / 2" J+ "" & 9'+' 7 f(! ;C
"&
< 6!, ! 0 :"' ' < ! .G /! ""
$ ./! ' , -! M Q!)$
< 6"< ! 6""
579
6"C= = 5-!) 14 7 = 6, + C " /! ""
"< G "" , 2 " /! .& @ /
)" " X!# A"" C (< ) 5"C ' =
<
7 J' A"" >0 . a' /! Q!)$ ( G .":!
/! 5 "" k (1) $ $ (0 MEMS H /! !,
H "" "& 5 (2) 6<!# ()& ' MEMS <!
/! !m,K <^! T "< & ! (3) 6!I7 MEMS
&, a0 61 ",' "' 3(< T ! $ 65'& ."C
.( > X!#
'' +
Analog Devices "+ ] Q" G, /!K 65![ A $ !"+= 5,0
11
G, >@" T'& ;C .iMEMS "+ "" >0 !I7 ,"& '
,0 ." >0 @( @ T.&$ %- & U G
>0 Q"
!, >7, 6(0 "' = T, % $ " >0 @( @ ]=
?' , "", 9! .(0 Q' " >0 ('" 5 >0
12
.2002 - >0 @ ()" > &, -' ) Analog Devices "+
70= A0 7 "'K T&! / T'& %- C = 47
. A b"'
'C# > = X! % $ < 9! ! = 65 T'& < $ =
' a0 . : ' 1 < 7 "" "& a0 6"
$ 6MEMS H "" 07$ 6(' G G "" %- *,'#
. ' = G "" ')
"" ( MEMS "" ]"<Z 65!C G ,"& >0
13
Sandia !& ! "' ] W"Z f(! "LZ& , . G
.,"& (' A! 3(< 57"- 5&, 7.15 + 2"K .National Labs
"" ]"<Z C .MEMS H 3(< /!K U ))" %- "3<
5 = c!Z
jZ 6"" ' ."3< 9 >0 MEMS H >& 2" J+
=' @' .5! 5@ (' ))" ! 2"< C 6T ?' "3<
3(<= "" > " & ."3< "< " /! G ""
!! :! 8.15 + ' ."3.
6f(! ( ,'& 7' < .

5 = G f(! "[ f(! 9!
CMOS ) cif-MEMS14 H ,"& >0
5 ,"& "C=
,"& % .ASIMPS15،16 ,"& (Integrated Circuit Foundry MEMs
17
*+b >0 0 %- cif-MEMS f(! , .G ,. < ' 57=
>0 ? ,'& '
,C ,'& /< G' I K " >0
2 X<3 ,'& G = 3" &+! ,&! :""
. @' k
,C
5 µm - ! "&)= , 0 /! 6!, '

%- @) %!' /! ,"& Z ) .07$ @7 -'& & 2=
2" 9 3J T0 -"
I 6"" " .' ""

I T0
I 2"" %- @, Q" G, 6
"! X! /! 57= ,"& Z ." @ .-
,! && (C ) 7" /@+ 0 "b " X=
2 "< 3(< = .",
I "b !" +" @(
.9.15 + >0 I' 2"" Q" G, 5"= 53 5 %)
581
41 9/ ;17
' EF3 944;
511
94 97 8.15
:
1$ 41 5/3
8
4;/ 97 5/<#) SUMMiTTM
( <http://mems.sandia.gov/scripts/images.asp>
MEMSIC

24

97 9.15
:
INC. MEMSIC 8
4;/ 97 5/<#)
(<http://www.memsic.com/memsic>
582
>0 2"J G, > cif-MEMS ""
C ]$
*'"( ' IZ > ! !L /! >0 "' + . X<3
- , > , < >0 =
< " # ' < !
( "& ]"< ) .3(< J+ ', (< % $ J' "
.(Carnegie Mellon University) ><!" < >0 ASIMPS ""' +
>! c! 5 -!) (! ) 2 >! ] Z 6"" >0
2"J G, I 6 >0 .A > = ,'& RIE >-
." - , !'' A+ 2 >! ] ,'& &'
XeF2 ' \! c! - ]"<Z 6>- >! c! & '
5 C 10.15 + ' .!' > *3< /&,
! *'"( ' IK !"N
.ASIMPS H ""' /N!K
9/ H17 1 I// J;F 1

"1A G

97 10.15
(G. Fedder 8
4;/ 5/<#) ASIMPS
Outlook 4.15

! . SMT H MEMS H T " 2"<i= ,
C " ?I'! ,0 .!, ( /" 2) !' " 9 ?I'! 67
583
' Statistical Process Control SPC "" @# "# %- , T
! < " I .%30P20 2 2! >& !
6&J7 ) 6"' 6" @ 6(Inertial) & , :-!
! " A!7 5!' 5" 11.15 + L ' ." " 3(<=
.2003 % 1996
20
- "", '" NEXUS -< ("<= ]"= " !7
" 38 % ! 61996 >0 " " 14 g' MEMS 3(< > - T
I .2005 - >0 " " 68 % ! $ / 62002 - >0 "
! 1 > MST MEMS %- 2 > < <! "
:5" ()=
.&!J ' *", GM" •

.'& >0 "' U! GM" •
.
, W'! B:! •
.2 >'& k+ 3(<= •
./ - •
.&J7 •
.Q" •
.'"< •
-+# )& G, 6"" <3 6*" +
I •
.""
.T0
I •
." ++ •
. >0 * /3 :! •
.>@ " :! •
.@7
"?0 •
584
. G, •
.,) 1& G, •
."' MEMS •
." " MEMS •

.' o") •
." " •
." @7 •
.>!" # T" •
.(8
4;/ 19 H

) MST K MEMS K 1
1 5
11.15
585
>0 5) 9! a0 6! A- 1 %- Q<# - b"'
.! 9! 1 A!= %- 6T " /<
9 ) 6MST H MEMS H @" ,'& > I $

/ >& "! @. " "J " ! 3(< = ,, - 5<!
,0 .JB + T "'= = .(J+ = 2" G, " :
., 5"C
& *7 A< 6"' ,'& >0
MEMS H 0 .!! !, "< ,'& % $ ! ,! / 9 "IJ )

2!! "' - & > 4& %- "!- /7 = 5< @. MST H
H a0 6@7 T@"& *!C' ." , "(< >0 ]"<Z > 9 ('+
" :! ' &'" = 2 ' MST H MEMS
.!! :!
Questions
,'& - G "" 3. '" Q!, .1
lcif-MEMS "" >0 4Z I
,C
l " !) .2
MEMS H "" >0 >@ c! Q!, Q! .3
l c! G / ,0
2"< /! >0 2" J+ >0 @+ .4
lMEMS H
References
1. For a more detailed reviewal microfabrication see for example:

Fundamentals of Microfabrication: The Science of Miniaturization, 2nd
ed. Marc J. Madou. London: CRC Press, 2002. ISBN: 0849308267.
586
2. For a more detailed review on deposition methods see for example:
Andrew S. Grove, Physics and Technology of Semiconductor Devices.
London: John Wiley and Sons, 1967. ISBN: 0471329983, 1967.
3. H. Seidel, L. Csepregi, A. Heuberger, and H. Baumgartel, Journal of the

Electrochemical Society vol. 137 (1990), p. 3612.
4. O. Tabata, R. Asahi, H. Funabashi, K. Shirnaoka, S. Sugiyama, Sensors

and Actuators A: vol. 34, no. 1 (July 1992), pp. 51-57.
5. R. Howe, Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B: vol. 6, no. 6

(November 1988), pp. 1809-1813.
6. H. Guckel, J. J. Sniegowski, T. R. Christenson, S. Mohney, and T. F.

Kelly, “Fabrication of Micromechanical Devices from Polysilicon Films
with Smooth Surfaces,” Sensors Actuators: vol. 20, nos. 1-2 (November
1989), pp. 117-122.
7. G. E. Moore, “Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits,”

Electronics: vol. 38 (April 1965), pp. 114-117.
8. G. E. Moore, “Progress in Digital Integrated Electronics,” Digest of the

1975 International Electron Devices Meeting, IEEE, New York, 1975,
pp. 11-13.
9. G. Moore, “No Exponential is Forever ... But Forever can be Delayed,”

ISSCC 2003, February 9-13 2003, San Francisco, CA.
10. International Roadmap for Semiconductors 2001 Edition,

Semiconductor Industry Association. <http://public.itrs.net/>.
11. “Using iMEMS Accelerometers in Instrumentation Applications,”

Analog Devices tech. note.
12. Small Times, 13 November 2002.
13. J. Smith, S. Montague, J. Sniegowski, J. Murray, and P. McWhorter,

“Embedded micromechanical devices for the monolithic integration of
MEMS with COS,” Proc. IEDM’ 95, pp. 609-612, 1995.
14. J. C. Marshall, M. Parsmeswaran, M. E, Zaghloul, and M. Gaitan, “High-

Level CAD Melds Micromachined Devices with Foundries,” IEEE
Circuits and Devices: vol. 8, no. 6 (November 1992), pp. 10-17.
587
15. G. K. Fedder, S. Santhanam, M. L. Reed, S. C. Eagle, D. F. Guillou, M.
Lu, L. Carley, “Laminated higha-+spect-ratio microstructures in a
conventional CMOS process,” Sensors and Actuators A: vol. 57, no. 2
(Novembet 1996), pp. 103-110.
16. <http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~mems/projects/asimps/index.shtml>.
17. M. Parameswaran, H. P. Baltes, L. Ristic, A. C. Dhadad, and A. M.

Robinson, “A New Approach for the Fabrication of Micromechanical
Structures," Sensors and Actuators, vol. 19 (1989), 289-307.
18. C. Mead and L. Conway, "The Caltech Intermediate Form for LSI
Layout Description,” in Introduction to VLSI Systems (Amsterdam:
Addison-Wesley, 1980), pp. 115-127.
19. MEMS 1999 Emerging Applications and Markets, © 1999 System

Planning Corporation.
20. NEXUS Market Study, © 2000 Network of Excellence in

Multifunctional Microsystems (NEXUS).
588

Nanoelectromechanical Systems
(*)

!

(**)
"
.' &# $ % $
(***)
()
!

NEMS MEMS 1.16

NEMS Of MEMS and

$ # 1 !! "

- \

-/ $
* +",
.&
'( ') ! $
%

245 23/ 0 (1 ') !
# #

1 (
6 (Mechanical Actuators)
/'
!% 92-( 8 ( ', 1
7
(*)
Stephane Evoy, Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.
(**)
Martin Duemling, Technische Universitat Hamburg-Harburg, Germany.
(***)
Tushar Haruhar, Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.
589
!! % "-

( . ') $ 0 12 6/
0 % ) ; ( ') .: $ ' & 6
= -$? $$: (
5 >! = 3 6 (< & )1
5
1
$ >' %5 &) ' & 2
# ( & A $ @

& (- " & &
= ( & D 2 B 6 C$ #($ 3
;
6 1, 2 & E F ($ $ & -
G / 6
%
(( ) ( &
5 H6 5: &3 A & B5
5 &
.C
. $, I #
#"

( = J ;
5 3( '

* #6
(Reconfigurable)
5 ) '! 1 - 2 & ::
2
C$ .C KL - &
: = # '

5'

!!
'(: % '

H ') K!
5 #6
3،4،5،6
/
'(2 $
') 1 >'% &
3 G / .
1 +"-
$ ."-

& # ;
/( (

.
N *\RF M :$ = '
' % =
H($ ) =
5 (Nanomachining) K 45 &O (
( ( 4 - $ $ .50 nm ! $ 0

(Nanoelectromechanical

-
* +"- &
H$
(( # 7 $
8( 3 ( & system-NEMS)
K
45 #6 9" 6 .6 '
$ C! +$ 3(
P/ GHz M $ &O '

N
( - = . !! ') RF 5? $ = H , $ ,
2
5 ,) &
% = $ N NEMS M #6
!%' &
(Millikelvin) &/'
7' $ = $ = . (( ,
=
Q $6 & 4 &
& GHz M $ = NEMS M'
0 8 = (Transducers) !% : .(Intrinsic quantum noise) K,$
$ = 1? 8 # ' -$ = (( &) % =, 0!
7.8
.=

590

-
* $
H' # ) # 6) / ", H
=) 1
0 8( ) $
= =%4 ( .(NEMS)
1 @1 ( " .RF M $ ' = & 1-$ % ')
.NEMS M = Q $6 ; , P 9"
+"-
1-$ ') %
NEMS M =
6 # 6) / " (

? 1-$*

1-$* & '/ R%( ') 1

T S = 1$ H $ 5( / H< ( .H
')
.NEMS M
H ')
NEMS

2.16
Surface machining and characterization of NEMS
! & D =

-
) 5
( 0 ' ) 3 % & "' 9McDonald
Arney =
C$ = .
1 %( %
'( =$ (
L # '%
) $ U # -
1 K 8 " &
'( 2 -(
( =/ 8$ 8A 0
&

245 0 - ' ) -(/
: = ' +", &) %( ( Roukes 8
Cleland 2 '
H; 10.'

#6 ' +", H( . %( $ % =
K > ( >'%
(Surface =%( '
/ KA $ % V
# $ #5
&) X W .% $ 0 'L (Stiction) =
( 9
:
5 Tension)
11
150 P) " (Mechanical resonators)

0 ) $ +",
% ( 0 ) $ +A2 1 Carr

.70.72 MHz =(( = nm
R = (
Y J( $ & = K 45 ' 6
12،13
= .(Silicon-on-insulator-SOI) 1) J &
'( & J!
5 ') # $
1 F; H( SOI J = S! % :
# C$ ' +",
H( &
'( % ) % X W H; .1? =
?
>$ "
, 4 (
* ) ! = 12 Z ' )
= Z %( " =

1-$ K$ .
& 0 %( ' +", ( .HF = 8 %4 (
Y (Underetching)
591
C$ 14
.(1.16
5) 380 MHz ' 0 50 nm
(Single Buried sacrificial layer) " 4 %" +", J %
' 8 SiO2 16Si3N415GaAs - & 0( C ')
18 17
20
. * = #;
W"
GHz $ = 0 19SiC
MEMS M & 1-$ ' 8( = H( ( C$
% '( C$ 12(Interferometric) =6 8 = .(.2.16
5)
NEMS M K( & =6 )/ ; . ') 1 1
%`'W = 1_ #(( (
5_ (Modulation) # / %( K(

I(W +", = .AC &< (Photodetector) =6 5
H(
# %) 1
NEMS M & AC 5 J % ) # ( '/
+", H .& = %46-

J !! 06 (Inertially)
= .100s MHz C K K & C ' ((
11
=

8 %4 C$ (Magnetomotive)
( %4
5G 1-$ "4 #" C$ . ' J 8 %4 & Q 5 =( %4 $
.(>.2.16
5)
45 ( %4
3 !
AC
K 8 =(
;L ) (
-
5? !
8(
( =% &
$ a (Electromotive force) -

!
.1-$ ) K$ E
Dynamics of NEMS NEMS 3.16

! 1.3.16
Euler-Bernoulli model of beams and cantilevers
F ( ($ (Beam) 6) , P/
(d) 6
( & P: 0 .(3.16
5) ; =6) 0% " /
') L( H 9" b' (l) -% # & 4 (w) P
(Normal stresses) & & -$? ) C$ 9" ') # 2) .6 %
& ! # N" ", P/ # 21.& ' - & $ & ,$: = (σy σx)
K & 2 !* >! " .(K) (Radius of gyration) H %!
22
-$?
&
6: +", 0 .=% F =6 3 ) ,) >$
:='
σz = =
592
σz = kx .(1.16)
' = $ &
& >$ .6 1
= 0 x = 0 ; , k I
:
5 %< #/ (Fint)
Fint = ∫ σ z dA = 0 (2.16)
A
& Q H1 K( D: H1) = $ &G =$ H1 J % H) 0

:% y +$: = 6 : 1.16 & = ' C
M = My = ∫ xσ z dA = 0 = k ∫ x 2dA (3.16)
A A
.Si NEMS 1.16

" "
:

.SOI
#
$ % 50 nm !
*+ () .Si &'$
( DW.Carr H.G Craighead
%$ Si &' :-
) .
$ /0 1 100nm
34$ *+ 14 21
-0 /# :0 .(560

136 8 06 * (7)
4
$
A.N. 21 ) .SOI 8
Cleland and M.L. Roukes,
*+ Nature 392,160 (1998)
.(Nature 1
593
(3 /# #
. 4 9; < $0 2.16
.? - # :0 >='
.3417 B6A # '$ 5?@

3.16
594
:M (%) =" H1)
:4.16 3.16 &
:M =6 0% -$ %<
:M /: % 9, &! H(
.e , E I
# 4 : &
x +$: = 6 1 =, ux (z, t)
"
:r 8 %! >' # , 2 =; J5 &
3 G (dux/dx << 1)
:(4.16
5) B ') /: >( &

.C $0@ 4.16
595
(Euler-
(9.16) (7.16)

:!
Bernoulli law)
43
3 $%& '
*+ , -
. / 0
1 2 * "#
:5 2

.67 2 8- *.+

-#
:3 2; $<
-# 8
! 2
:1 '
, *+ =-
'
, *+ ? (14.16) (12.16) >,

:$<
m=ρ $

2 @ (15.16) (13.16) >,
*.!

D3
1C dz
B< 1 A
3
%2 1 ρ A) AdZ
:(11.16) 2
5 (z
596
. -
(10.16) = P &O
H( & % '6/ +",
f &

&

& - , ( .2321(Separation of variables) 4
(Fourier B %( B ') K" 6' = % & %
:transformation)
:
5 ') -
) &
=
:0
:, '6/ +", &

3
) (Boundary conditions) %5 &G T; g =

:=, ; -
(Shear 3 ! C! D H1) & (z = l) - )

b
:6 = ;A forces)
597
0 9" 6 . B1 = -B3 B2 = B4 & * & 3 &%5 P/
: b' & * & %5 J %
:" =- F
f %<
:= P ) # ) -7' &

&
=' ' - 8 +",
& % & >( &

.1.2 $ = βi H ! $ &

:(20.16) M (19.16) &
:M % K =6) 0% " 6 (=" ) % H1)
:

.
d
: 3 %5 &

- % & ; 6) =
: 3 %5 &

& % 6) =
598
6 B(/ , =- .g 9' -5 % &
3
.(1.16 $) βi g &) % ' " M " "; M ; "
>( K) (Coulomb damping) >

9" K$
(Complex K) e 0 = M J5 = (R 1: 0
:Young’s modulus)
:

1.16
βi2
M ; g ; M ; 6) I
22.373 3.516 1
61.678 22.034 2
120.903 61.701 3
199.860 120.912 4
298.526 199.855 5
:L( +"- '6/ #"
>"" (An) $(: % g ') & 1 ' ! % "
: >

5 K) K %5 J' ; , αn g' & , ωn I
.% ( = >"" J K" B(/
5 +"- .(%
599

2.3.16
Mechanical resonators as forced harmonic oscillators
= 5 9' B5 6
: & J( H( &U
: I ; 6 = .(Harmonic oscillator) = >""
:
= .H' (Stiffness) D($ / '

, keff Meff I
:&
&, K( % ( 6)
:, +"- &

3 .(1 $ ) 11,: % βi J' I
:= KA
K) >

K$ J( H( = $ = 5! J
24
:K) P ; 2 & (R 1: 0 >(
>( K) (Viscous damping) N1' 9" K$
25
:)( 0 >( 9
! 6G ()( 0
600
: $
3 ! 0

:, +"-

&
3
:# Q =

& ' &
3
:(Phase shift) % = # 1
') % % ( &

(Q) (High quality factor) ) $ ) 3 )
:
:0
% 0 (Lorentzian function) 1

5 (46.16) ' &
3
:= )
601
: (
)
(Stretching beam)

:
3.3.16
Non-Linear effects: Beam Stretching
&. &" +' ,- &'*
#$$% !"
#4'$. 4 54
2' 3% ' . .0'$. , / (Restoring force)
8< . 3% 87 9; . %7 ,-' . 6'4 &'-
26
@ 7 >? .=/ ; #<- , 2- , # !8
.4$B '-' ,C + - / 2;' A - +" , '- 4 /
4$E @ 7 ,- ' A' ,C D3 3% @'
:(5.16 -G) % . 3% , ; &. &" .φ '$ 7 δ 'F+
% φ A/ 4 ab A @. % ε 6'4

: '+ '$ , @. 2
> 4' .'$ 4$B
51.16 +
602
.- '
#- !3$@ ! 5.16
:') φL ~ δ & &( "* 0
:

+ 3 4 ( =% % & "-

# !2% &
3 . k3 = Eab/2ML3 0
& #D .(46.16) = 1' $(: & $(:
;2; $ & &
I (Bi-stable) N1 ( " $(: N %
$ . $(: (Hysteretic) # %i 2
#
5 9" < .& ) '
Evoy K/ ! &

"" = =%2 9 ", 2
S & (Nanomechanical Paddle)

/)1 "" = B2 1
"=;" & <
' & (( & % 1-$* +"- & &U .6.16
5 = &U
26
1- & /)1' &

K
C( ') I (Torsional) "=/" (Flexural)
) 6) 1
/(* ')* & %,

j
% ) 1- +"-
1-$ 0 &
=;
= .> 8
.(7.16
5) 6' =7%: %% 2 -
603
34$ *+ 26 21 ) . 06 D** 6.16
.(560

) .-(@ - 2
-
E F 06 & 1* 1 ;? 7.16
.(560
34$ *+ 26 21
604
! (Tunability) :
4.3.16
"
Non-Linear Effects: Tunability and Parametric Amplification
% =, F(ωt) (Actuating) 45 ! &

3 3.3.16 2.3.16 & ( P/
0 $ 0 H ( : 06 ", &
3 .
;G % 9, 8 & 1'
# ( '3/ / /)1 ) 2
# ; . / J% (-
5* S
>
W .(7.16) 1
/)1 & AC 5 J % ) ) -6)
:26='
/:
+"-
= & -$ =$ (Torque) H1) >( K$
: /)1 ( ')

(-
' >

) 6 ') K -% , d %( J /)1 S/ , h I
5 > & "- &
.6 % ') -6) w
:;; & (Expansion)
K" + 0 1

( K F = , =$ /

&G ;; & ,( ,G .θ 8/ & !*
:
605
: 1`W =
:0
&
3 +) K( 11,2 K J5: = # ,/ # 4
5 ", 7;
D($ =$ K (Modulation) B ') 6
5 H-/< =$ 0
'!
"-

5 / .& 1 ' ! B ;
H
) 2
# ; .=

& ' (Parametric amplification) =% ( H 6
, >( .
3/ = VAC 5 ! DC 1k 6 I 6
6 1M k ", & Q ( (61.16) M (59.16) : = &U
:& = R 1 9" KA H D($ = $ = P/
(Paddle /)1 "" ' ) = .H' =(-

5 α & 6 I
: * H( = oscillators)
./ ' # $ # 2 8.16

5 &@
& & 5 J % ) # ( ) /)1' : +", J5 H
& ) =/ & 9 H I ) .1

:(Actuating drive) / J( % &)
606
21 ) .DC <
0 06 & 1 ;? 8.16
.(560
34$ *+ 26
:& =/6 ) %6 H D($ K$ I
", & % 1 =, θ =$ ", % , κ0ext I

2827
0 >$ ( H & 0! '( / !( =$
:M % A0 11,: %
607
>"" & $( , τ0Q/k -$ & , *
, % #' #(
& ( & 7; .=% ( J( > F = K(!
.H 6 H &) 1 ( θ=0 % &
) .H D($ &) g5
-: # ' ) & &
>$ >(
$ θ=π/2 % &
)
.κ'0 = 2κ/Q )
27
= =% ( H 6 ", 28+A2 1 * ' 5
& # ( '3/

"" 2 C$

28
b!
5 -
= B5 / I;( C$ .B2 1
!
29
-$ 1 ' & ( I +", = .(Optically-Pumped) #
n 6<
C$ . " ; =% ( H 6 # E # / P ; 3
.Q=110 000 Q=10 000 & $ 2 1 2
NEMS # " $%&%

4.16
Dissipative processes in NEMS
Introduction % 1.4.16

-
* H #( 9" 5? $
& N &

3 G 9" 6 . '
' (( ) (< )
/ ( (1 $
0 F = RF $ = =

=

') 5 $
NEMS M 5:

6/ Q $6 ( & % & ", &
>'% . !! &
'(:
:B ') B/ H 3.16 H( = o K" Q $ ) . ) / %
1 1 ‫ ا
دورة‬
= (67.16)
Q 2π ‫إ ا
ا‬
.;
& $( &
=
Q B ! " # &
3
$( ! Q B &
& ) ' ) -< =$ $6 H &

&
.Q $ = !% /' E ) H,( H)
5 .P)
Q $ 2 ' 0 $ B ') H Q $ = $ $
: /
608
%& #$! !"

. ' '
Atmospheric damping

2.4.16
+2
.03 430 :*!+ ,- /0 12 "! #)! (
+< 7
9 ! 3! 5 9'; .63 74 ' 3 2 8! 5%
:% ! 9'; 30 .Fdrag (Drag force) 0
9 7 ? ! γ1 * >- *' . + L

u x =<
* +2
A B *) @!&A 7 .! <3- 7 ? ! γ2 0
A "! < *' E+ , *F& 5( +
A) 28 3

?! *' .(Continuity equations) !A A H'! G &
8< 4 ,+! .@
* 9! 9'; 3!! %! ' *
I 8
:G E+ ,
:% # 3 2 < %& .3 2 & #' ρ0 + ' 03 μ =<
'< *'! =< 5

+< + % δ *
F& 5K ,- &
J
:G - .(Turbulent) +
3 2
609
:$ % Q $ ) #"
6/ %46 ) .6 P r % > &

I
+", Q .P &) -6 '( & %( 0 D- 1$ %
0 p D- %46 0 γ1 >( .& ') ! %:
:w 6 P)
.(Mair≈29 g/mol) 14' 1$ 1$ '

M 14 ; , R I
:$ )
30
N1' H & : &
3 +A2 1 H' $ .6 ;
ρ I
(Intrinsic) K,$ H = 1$ H & 1 torr = = 1$ H
4% .mm2 M $ = =6) 0% K" g 10-3 torr 10-2 &
= $ >'% % %5 = NEMS M D ') 9" ') Dq K$
", h ( 8 2 % ) .2 & (Microslip) K

;
= #
&
: .9
: ! >' 0 ;L "- $
&U 2
# ; .H ';` s Lr !% S 6 P / &
BG H) 2 1 & *
31
` $ & H) 0 t$1 t6) U( MHz $ = B +A2 1 8
32
"# 3 M 3" 6) +A2 1 e &U
.% ( gM # 30% &
M " 6' & 0 %
6' / ) 0
9, 8 ' - ) ) /: 6 9 : H "- $
B* ."
33
# / # +A2 1 8
H( B5
5 . ) = !% &
.B ) &) K1
& &! 9
3 / #/)6
Stress relaxation %). - 4.4.16

.& ( & 6 & & '
5 & : & -$? D( Q
2
# '! & /' !% = ( 0 H = & ) 9'( ", R6 &

B = H &
-$ K J % ! .H S/ K" =
1$ & '/
-! & @ 4 !% ( &G =$ -$ JU %< ) .!% &
') >'4 H S%( "G .# !% "3 C* (9.16
5)
0 6 H =( .& ; & H !% 1$
.& & !% J
.9; - & G- 3417 FH 9.16
611

34
&
& .-$_ H F S13 7' = % > & Q
>%! =; L5 ' & ! > &
" .> )
J &
" .8$ J% -$ >% =; & ;L 9, &
( 9" $ .&
;L "- $
' " (Activation Energy) % 5 !% ') >'4 H
>% =; K$ bcc = .>% ; > ) (
.(Snoek relaxation 9 ( D() (Interstitial Impurities) $ >5 %(
- &
+$ ; " 0! (Interstitial atoms) $/ "
+$ ; 0! 1/ $/ &G B $ >% =; ) .=)
9' -5 D(: & 1 ') % ( = % 5 !% & $ & &
.$
. $/ $- '

, (Dislocation Relaxation) )2: D( %(* N"

-$ #11, "/ - - ) H
G ; (Loop) %5L
S2: )
-$? & , N" ", =
* .( 11,
) =$ K
9" ; ; % 3& P/< .' - J:1: K( N :/:
' &
. - 5: I 6/ $ ) %
.% ' ! K # %: &
& (Dislocation damping) ='

K -$ # #," ' (Grains) J1

35
" ) $ ) & H L .!% = 9" & Q J%
"' &
.(10.16
5) "' #
(/ I J% '/ h
X F
1? +"- .- & " P -6 J & F
$ "/n W =- H3 ; & - ') ) C H 1 , &

5 ' ) , J:1: = $ 5 ' ) =, $- .$- J:1: & Q
&
= H D( % 5 !% &
& 0!< >( "- . H
.& % 5 & !% &
612
.;@ * 1 I* --( J'7 10.16
36
.- & J 9" 1 H J:1: $1' B5
-)/ &
')* $ D(: ! R1
* '
37
J:1: P< & ! & &
C
1? & .B(/ , #
%( >( % H$ = .D(: & 1 1 9"
*
.(Sgrain= α/dgrain) 8 >' 0 (Sgrain)
&
.(Egrain= βdgrain) 8 0 (Egrain)
!% >(
:#" , % H$ = (ΔE) 3 !% = $
ΔE = EgrainSgrain = αβ, (77.16)
&) ( 3 !% = $ &

3 (77.16) R .&; β α I
. 8
# 7'
j % # %( '745 NEMS = = $ ) >'%
7 6 &
3 G 9" 0 . - >
& Q 3 & 0!$ .NEMS M D = #;A
613
/ 0 # / / # / 5.4.16
Phonon-phono and phonon-electron scattering
;

1- =$ % &
) & M & ;
( $ ) 11, ' /' &
./' ( %( &
38
=, ωQ H ! & $< .K 11,: ' / 0 )/ &
9" 6? .= ') 4 $ 4.2 K ) H Y 1012 1014
$ KA 3 11,: ') $ * $ I(

? &
;
') * = .=' AC =-

? 14 11,
=' =-
$ ", I (
",
&
3 G N1 0 B ') #
? 1F ) &
B .
K( ωQ M & $< H * = .!% = # ' # $1 #u` ( 0
.4.2 K ) 51013 273 K ) 31011
& - ;
/' 4 $ ) #6 K
J% A
J% &
_ ;? $ >;
?
1/ &
? &
a % J% =$ /: @ ( .
% ') .!% = 3 "-
& Q .E J% & #
&
= Q ' ' & , +", 3 ( ( # ,$
.&3 H = -
Surface-related phenomena 1 2 3 6.4.16

14
%( ( NEMS M = & # $ #% +A2 1
:
@ ' ') 4% %( & > %( , = H$ M
.
O P R! , H . Si NEMS ' =
1-$ P " (
* & ! (Amorphous) 7' : % &3
K$
=/6 N SiO2 M & .392.5 nm # =, %
( .D-' &
'(
&
K" * = %( ) =6 -$ &3
" &
'( B' K" 1
. = =6 ur KA &
614
3 ! ! % $ ) 8 % 40+A2 1 , 3 %
J (
:='
% Q ) & !2 .K
=
'( &
1 G Si t Si ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ − ⎟ = G Si t Si 1
(78.16)
Q ‫ء‬ 3G ‫ ء‬t ‫ء‬ ⎜ Q ‫ز و ء‬ Q ‫ز‬ ⎟ 3G ‫ ء‬t ‫ ء‬ΔQ
⎝ ⎠
tSi tD5F (Rigidity Modulus) D($ 2 , GSi G D5F I
SiO2 D54 $ ) & : .= ') &
'( (
(
$ ) B Q R .= ($
h SiO2 &) # ;
'
% &
3 & 9" 6? ./ 1 & % & # ;
)/
D & .SiO2 % B% 0 &
'( %( J &
10 nm
( D &
41
& 1- Si-OH ) $ B
(SiO2) N$1' =' 9
: & 1
/ .NEMS M &
'( = / 1 & !/ % +"- #6 3$
Q ) = # 1 $ %( ;3' 0 $ SiO2 M 1 -
45
.Q ) & #6 1 & $ - %( D- .# 8
)
%4 56 6 $3 7.4.16
Overview of experimental literature

* H ') 5
.NEMS M MEMS M & 1-$ H$ b' 0 & ) = P/
') & - 3 , $ H = +", ') ) &

% - ; ( ') =
8 ) .8 0 $
; % " & 6
5 ') $ ) (Contour disk) b
43
e 4 8 ) .8 +", ) ; N % ( #
-1
Q = & ; ;2; !% = (Threefold decrease) #! #; +A2 1
5-7 P 60 nm
( D %( $ Q-1 = 1.2410-4 310-4
44
& 60% M >( %( ;L & Q +", R .10-80 μm % μm
* b ' . ) H$ %( ( "
D +", = !%
% K (
* $ & +A2 1
K/ R! NEMS M :
#
= 200 nm×200 nm×(1-8 μm) 745 %( !% ') % ( C 6
26
% & 7
L i $ H .Si MEMS ' 1,4 $
615
& $ ') %( $ ' 0! &G 6
5 =%( / "-
9" 6 .C* ( 0 $ ') %( , , * B$
4 GHz $ " 0 +", / O ( ,* 1 & 07!<
.

= $ 6! S6 & $
. $+)4 8 NEMS # 7 5.16

Integration of news with quantum electronic devices
$ , / !! = NEMS M 5 = O K

= "
a . '
!; (( E
&
. /' Q $6 = -( 0 6 #$ / 6 M ( 5 &
&
= <
.6 D H & =/ / &
? ;
,'
(Single election Tansistor- / &
? (1 H( 5) K /
9'( .& M 1) M & ' ) 5 =
/ SET)
')
? $
5 1$ /
') J/ ' =-

/ &
? (1 ;( .1$ H = &
M $ % )

5 # i ' ) #
1$ ) 5 &
474645
`$ 6/ !% = (( 1-$* +", - .
j
45
M
H@ ."-
1-$
11.16
5 &@ ./10-5e Hz 6
C " 1? !! ') ' #) #
(1 0 NEMS
(& P 0 SET) rf SET M
+$ , H .&
&
.

0
48,49
C h6
X < .NEMS-rf SET 1 5
# %% 12.16
5 &@
3; -$ 1 = I & J SET M' ;
=
0 8 2 Cs 4 ( " ;
.5 = '

1?
) - ωT = (LCs)-0.5 = " 6 &2
5 L I SET M
' $ J % C$ .SET M ' 6 +", .QT $
( 4 I ) & ) 1-$ ') v(t) =$ %
;
1k & 6 .SET M' Rd '6/ ' 8 ! =, (

K$ 9" '6/ = 4 & '

3
.(
5? !
616
CT2 CT1 Cg SET
11.16
'( 45 &" ) #$% ! !" RT2 RT1
( % Nature * "
/
0 '( 48 &" ) rf-SET !. - **, 12.16
.(1!$
I fs

5 ) B/5
&
K" 1_ * %
=/ SET M & Q '% Q $6 ): & & "E 2πfs<ωT/QT
:!2
617
0 1_ '; * (( &( . & , ISD I
16
m/ Hz 1 (( 1 C$ % +"- . -$ 1
50
.4×10
; $1 6) & &

1-$ +A2 1 N 5

( %4 1 H( & ) SET M %
51
5 # V0 -$ 6 1 C$ .(13.16
5) (Magnetomotive)
T # 3 SET M 5 6
@ 4 .;
') &!
5 & ;
& 1? .(1 =
1? & ;
5 (( %( (( K$ .
", 0$ / &
3 .=

& ') SET M' 0$ / &
51
&
3 . 1
1$ ') -$ >' ) & ') % & Q
50
.0$ / Q $6 D Q $6 1? ((
! *#% x !7 5 6 .SET % # 3 "

! 4 13.16
-3 %% 4 4 . !% 8
% # % 4

%0 " '( 51 &" ) .SET # ,
C(x)
.(
618
> 5 .&

&
? H( &

#

# / #( B/ H( K" K =

-
& +A2 1
73 ) B' 45 .1) 1
J / &
'( ' = & ", / H .#
52
R3 .

%(
? 4 $ ) MHz

( 4.5 μm % 6) & &U
1-$ &) +A2 1 8(
#;
53
K
& dc 1 J % K$ .&
& )6 0.5 μm
H( C$ B* H ) R 1 3 : . D I
Q 0 & 8 2 = 0 %( ; J % ) .dc 1 -$
g 8 2 ) .&
? 9" &
5 B
7 pA ) $ 5 .=;
? = 5 +",
8 ! &
: &
" .D- = 10 K( Q 1.7 pA =6 Q $6
10-19 g B ') B( &
31 '
* 5
3 &G 100 Hz 1s h &
53
.5.2 kHz+! = )
" ( >4 ? :"56=<; " NEMS 6.16

"Botton-Up" NEMS: carbon nanotube nanomechanics
-5 1 ) ) " NEMS D =( ' 1
1-$* * 0 .
?
? v 0

0 ( ') # '
=
"

12 &) H$ 6 &
3
.K 8 - $ H = %('
' ;( C$ .-( %'
" 1-$ N & 0
C$ 1$
5 ) $ ' 2 ( % )
.K6 =" 0 $ J%
' $ Z &) ='
; ! =%( 45 &
3 G

"
1-$* v 0 K1
>'% % = GHz $ = ( ' ) NEMS N? B D2 H)
& =, %( & %( , &
3 G H ,2 ;
5 . ) / %
I
? ') =%( 45 # . 6 1
= $
=%( /: % (
* 8
w !
5 ,
;A
.NEMS M MEMS M D = $ / 7 5
619
1
5 "K Q- J" H' = * H
= - &
= C ) =%( 45 &) -

> * H 2
# ; .S%: J ! %6 2 &
( - . $ b ;
#$ # ) e
59585756 5554
TPa $ = e 7 +"-
&
3 $
%( ;
5
+"-
H 9" 6 .5.0 TPa 1.5
.RF ) $ ) KA & &
H3 ; & =
D, 9'( P/ 9

(Cumings and Zettl) 1 8$
5
+", ( .(Multi wall nanotube-MWNT) &$ K > & P/
' % K !! !! )/ C! ) $
& / 6 9
! ) $ : . $ ! & N' -(
;L' $ $ ! & 6 )( >' Z
( H3 ; & .0!
61 60
!% / 9' >' & +A2 1 e,1 >( .1 X &x S &
+", ) .& '
? J; = 6 ) = ') ')
.C* - J; H; & &

!% " % ) -G !
.* 0! ( P/ GHz & C = >' 11, ", >(
K > = & = 1% #k 4 & +A2 1 &

>(
X
DK1$ '
# 800 amu 6 '
J SWNT $
H ($ '
= K > & # +A2 1 5 H( 62. C60
63
> * %: ! = KA & &
.% HF K
+A2 1 : .(: ; $( %5 P & 6
64
;( &
& .& & > * =((* % ' % (
. (( =) = 1$ 8 N % (
$
% >$ / !! " = +"-
1-$ 5 R ('
,$: +", = % &
.J %' '
!! ')
. -/ 1 -$ 5 # ( ( ", $ !
620
Questions @=
:( * = %( $ &

:
100 nm -6) 1 μm -% Si 6 P/* & , M

yGaAs M & 6 45 C$ " ' " y50 nm -
(
y8 * ySiC M
H( & ) B 1000 +! Q $ ) 1# A( & M 2

% " y$
% , .F0= 10 nN % "" !
.Z! y8 * yGaAs =

;L - 11,2 % K ) .1# A( = Si M 6) ) M 3

W! K( ) =%2 9'( D & P y %2 %% :
. % $(: ` ! %2 %% :
( = Q M C .1# A( = Si M 6) ) M 4

; & T & ; (( % J
# &

y&
T&
H
/ 06 ( & -
$
;2; R! M 5
.
'( & 6 J( 0! ') =
K > &
y
{( 1 @)
=
K >* F C "') T S!" 9, , M 6
) "

) #6 H & -

.# %( '45 Si ( -( , 1 Z! y|) )
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624

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658
VI

Nanoscale Optoelectronics
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2.18
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1.18
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4.18
Energy level engineering in quantum dots
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5.18
Single quantum dot spectroscopy
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.
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4 \, $ #
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# < U- 5 1^# %!/ '* % 7## 4 p-('
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s-(' 4 / \, '6 - %(Biexciton) 4# < & B1 \, V
#
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4 '6 4!# %(X4) 4'6 \,) '6 =#< 2=1 %(X3) \, '6 -
.(X6) '6 4 '6 4 - =#< % 6* .(X5) / 4 #1# 4 #
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681

p-
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14.18
!
& % $ # (contour plot) " !
& + * .)(

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+
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./!0 + (Blue regions) - *
,
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5

5 4 5 mW 50 nW 4 (
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.67,49,47,46. U "
Quantum Dot Devices 6.18
5 0 !# '( "-/* %2<(

'# V6 ! 4 #<) 4# , . #& 5( '#
O ! '* #/G< : #& 5( '# '(
'6 +! % / O6 << %(Low chirp) O6 (<(< %N'
. G , $ G< '< %Na O S/#
(900nm-1.3μm)

.6.18
Near infrared quantum dot lasers (900 nm-1.3 µm)
5" <- 4.18 2<( 57

# 2 & '7 (# ,#< 4
TEM '< 9 * @ P7 2#) 4 <# $ 5</ '(
@" '7 (' '( 9 # 4 .3.18 7
4 " < 5(' $ 8/ .15.18 7 ZXO .p-i-n
$ %7 ; ! '7 (' .n-W 7 !* N' / 5
n-W 4 < 5(' 4 '7 1 '7 (' 5,OL .+6* N' /
.15.18 7 <* N' ''6 ZXO p-W 4 , 5('
$ @/ %6 SJ# ! NX O SJ# ' 7 4 * "A # N '#
.'7 " (' p- 5(' 4 G(1 n-5(' 4 5#&
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,/ E# 4 d# ": \, 4 (Lasing) _"_ \# .5#
4 % ' 6 4 -/ 4 % / SJ# ' 7 4 4 /#
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683
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%10.0 nm ( -O, 4! 5(' 7 4 2# # '
4a %77 K ! dB# 16.18 7 4X .1L N
\, @T#
X 5(' # S# 4 4 .300 K ! ( dB# 17.18 7
_J=# .#, N 0 # 4( " ! "L \,) 6 ,L
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q < ='<) /# ' " ! '( O 5)
.(* G
Jth=15 1 .(Jth) # 1 / O6 5#! N (# 4
%77 K ! %J
Jth=125 (p-(') 1 2 mm P' _ "_ /# A/cm2
_"_ /# 290 K ! .d-(' 1 mm P' _"_ /# A/cm2
%d-(' _"_ $ 430 A/cm2 0 1 #, " 5/ %5 mm P'
13
.f-(' Jth=490 A/cm2
#! 1 mm P'
* /# 4 4
! '( " 4 , 'E# 5(' # @O 4

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) 1 7 4
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686
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5 " ! 4
< ! .(~12 meV 0 )
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* %(B ,) 68 meV * %(A ,) 61 meV 9
! 5 #< 4
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4 #6
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10,11,50
7# N (# 850˚C ! , < /, 4 30 s ,#< '(

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.6 Q" , J
1# 1* #6 5 , 4 6 /" '(
" #6 5 , (s-(') O 5) 4
' N e# J
1
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+6 */ !* 6 Q"
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< 1M 9 1 .(Dislocations) W6 4A# "L! BO B O
O6 #< 1 ! ! 5 / 5<
.(Initial) 10,51,52 X B '( !/
2 ,#< 1.3 μm '( 5" # O * 4

G< # 4 1.3 '( 5" 5 ( %, .InAs/GaAs
1.3 '( 5" 40 %( ( .5)#J #& 5( '#
687
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* '( # U1* ' < 5, # ,#< P ! 8/ (
E / ! 1300 nm \, ! 4 .(Cladding) 'E#
%(2 h 1* 0 @T P0 %4.18 2<( ) 2 & , '7 ,#<
'( 4 G( InGaAs]
" # 5 3B< ,#< %f G<g */
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.
69-76
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.
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(Quenching) $ < # / ( #) * @ \, 0 2Y1 4
5" # X7 5#, X <
2
5 3 .$7 \,J O6
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4 1.3 '( 5" U* 4 ( ( 4
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79-81
B (# 4
X * )0 % 1 ( ( B ! #, -#J 1 U* N
4 %4 1.3 ! \, / 6< 6< %/ /O
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# ;

.6.18
Red-emitting quantum dot lasers
$< / \, ! V-III '( 3B< E# 4
'( 5" " B \, 4 # 8/ %J
1 . / ' 4
12
* \, 5 # ,/ '( ! @/ .
4a .GaAs " N AlGaAs "/ ,) ! InAlAs 3B< ,#<
82,64
7 N' 4 % B- ( 4* %1 < ! %19.18 7
'( 5) 0 ,X 7 :## 4* 4 % /
8 # 1 #! $ 700 nm "C \, _JL %,
12
4 # \,) 5 '( 5" * 3 %kW/cm2
688
P7 /
O6 / ! 10% /6 U -
/ (# -# #< / Q6) 200 mW 4 * quasi-CW #<
. / 5#, X ,# 5#, 4 <# O0 '# !< .(O
24,66,83

' ( % < O 5 % B '( "/ W# ( 3 N,#
[ 1e $/] S/# ; $ "# ( Eb ) ' 7#
Ce− (( E − E 0 ) / Γ )
2
PL(E, T) = (1.18)
1 + αe− ( E b − E ) / kT )
" 0 < (E)
' (T) / PL BO B O 7 $## \
'( 2# 4 <# O0 5< 5!< .(Γ) 9
$X<# @ (E 0 ) $ "#
< 5(# GX<=# 4* 4 \ %(ternary alloys) 1J1 3B< 4 F
84
.S/# ; ,X<# B7,
200 mW =% %4 J'# 3 4 /0 0 I 19.18

.(' , '7 $ $3B# 12 A7 $) 2& / % 7 1 CW-#
∼1.5 μm

.6.18
Quantum dot lasers for ∼1.5 micron emission
* 1 #& 5( '# 4# %*.1.18 2<(

O * (1565 nm 0 1520 nm) C-N' ' < $ %5)#) 5
$ ,# 4 %, 1J1 .(1610 nm 0 1565 nm) L-N'
689
85
InP " .InAs/InP 2 ,#< 5)#) 2- /
InGaAsP 4 "/ $ 4 ., InAs 4 , '( (# 4
26 8886
4 , "/ @T#< %$') InGaAlAs 4 * (Quaternary) !L
\,# -* /
' / '* \, 0 +6 / N' @ IGaAlAs
1 .(894 1.9 !
) Q6 ( < 20.18 7 4a %J
@ %CBE '< X InAs/InGaAsP/InP '( " # 1
TEM O! $'( P< 7 4a 3 .1640 nm ! \,
0 / 3 "# ) . 0 # - '( \ '7 ('
0 < 4 #, / O6 2
! - 2(# N (#
8179
t0 ! InAs/InP 2 4 %GaAs ! B( '( 5"
.InAs/GaAs 2 P SL @ ( SL 2

20.18

QD #$ !" .InAs/InGaAsP/Inp
), # SEM +) * .~1640 nm ) '( %& CBE
.(23 , 1( / /&0 86 * /)
" 5 ,#<# # 5( '# #7 7 (Chirp) (<(< :1=1
5/ '* ' , <# (<(< G<# .7 4O B S<* !
(On and NJ;& Z# 5 ! 5# ! " '6 +! " Q6
690
5#7# Z<# " - G' m * ( O ''6 +! 4
X 0 .off cycles)
5J< 7#) < " 6 (Chromatic disperssion)
(<(< J '( 5" 86* 6 .5)#)
α = - '6 +, E 4 <# ! * %90 5" E*
0 α ] ! 2
4 d# 4* 4 .G< g \ 4π/λ(dn/dN)(dg/dN)-1
5" (Filamentation) ' 6 # – " # %N O ' 7 5" O
91
# M S, %/ ( . ,# 5# (<(< %,< <
P:* %1 " $ / # +6 O6 # 1 ! G< !* N(#
.G< W70 '( # '6 N G<^ G< " % '( 5"
. '( # G< ' / # - E α 2
*
# 1* 5/
'( 5" 4* ( ( O * 2#J 1
.UO $O# G< 4 7#) G ! 1^# 1* 5!,7& 2*
92,93
4 b ## !* _ "_ W,7h O, '( " 5 5-*
G', /#< d## . B "-/* -## # !,7& !/ !
G(1 5#h , $ /# 4 '( ! B( <
(# 4 0 @T %'7 (' '( '< $O#
'( "-/ <- 4 ,/ 3 .,7 ; " 0
"X",# \ %( , 5( '# ,7 5B ,#<J BJ 1*
.-
60 * (# B "-/* # ,7 ; 5 <
'( - # # %2#J 10 1 6 4

X 0 % 6*
.# 2<( -7
< # # / W<# % -7

.6.18
Widely tunable quantum dot lasers
'( 5" V6 2* 4 0 (
'( G< ' 40 .,< # #
- ' 4
X 0 : 1*
56O ! # ( " ! N '#
+ ,
5" 4 # %, .(Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers-SOA)
691
6 !') 5 $ --7# 0 + , -< ' '(
.
' 4 + ! / -#) 1 W70 40 1# /
@ " Ò U1* + , '( G< '< +, !
57! 0 5 N' O ! " 5 \ % ! # 51 !
,#< #6 / '* ! _ "_ ! O * 4 24
.5#
G ( 5# ,7* 5" 4a L %' #6 " /#
! # 21.18 7 ZaO %1 < ! .9J!* 17.18 16.18 4 7
'( 5" O , < /# ' E# P ! 2# %85 nm 8
@ 7# ,#< 4 %_ "_ / ' 2# .InAs/GaAs @
4* %S, O ' 4 4* " Q6 Z '< Q# ./6 /#
# U(#) P # 4 5#i 7L ! 4 ,/ E# G/# / ' 8EL
% # ,/ '( , 1J1 5 ."
5) # (s-(') O 4 , 5) $ / W70 4
# 0 @T '( 5) $ / U 4
X * 4X #
.G '# ('
%300 nm ! " # * 200 nm PO! / ' 4 / ' !
. '(
' 5 #< <- ,# 3
.5 8 7 (85 nm 6 #) * 5 21.18
692
" =(
) (IP) 2< < (; 9 + : " 22.18
IP 1
3 ( TEM +) * ( ) ?>
< @& ( # .(A () InAs/GaAs 50 /
< / / B . +3" /A (
* <, < :< (continuum)
8 C

.(23 , 1( / /&0 =94 * / 5E) D

#$ "
!.6.18
Quantum dot photodetectors
U 5# ,7> BO S/ ''6 %< 0 %22.18 7 4 a
5)(# ! SX<T) (Quantum Dot Infrared Photodetector–QDIP) '( @
S/ $ P7# .( ! 5 #< 4 5)(# %f 7 * %N' 4O
(Quantum well infrared B ' 4 U 5# ,7> BO
'( @ U 5# ,7> BO S/ 4# %photodetector–QWIP)
9496
\! $/ 70 5/ .\! $/ 4 ,# 5(' 4
E7# S<# U1 # # 7 5J 4 "6 -# #
0 '( 5(' 7 5J 60 @/ .NX ' "A # 5#
20 7 5J $ "# !0 , %'( 5(' */ "/ 70 '<
" -/# #6 N' 7& 8#< 'O 2L .(Ef) 8#< 'O
_ , 7 =5J ## \ 8#< # E 7& ''6
' 4 -#< / S<# N (# '( 5) 4 G;
693
'(
' N' ''6 22.18 7 '< a %1 < ! . /
F dB# ., B1 (WL) G '# (' 5) 5# 5(' $* 5
"/ +, -O, 4! # ,/ InAs '( 9*
. '( O6 5(' 4<& ,# -#70 5/ # Ga(Al)As
< '( ! 2/ 'O 4 %(< 2<

Y1Y n*s $ G; S<# / N (# 7& $ 2"J# # 5'< '<
,#< 4 %1 < ! .2#) WO / ' ! S<# U
,#< 4 4 (13.18 7 ) 7 2/ 'O /
5)(#) 4 d# .10,51,92,97 '( 1 2# ,FO , (
:# 5) 0 * ' (' 0 < '( 5) 4
%1 .22.18 7 4X %U 5# ,7> S
m <# (Continuum states)
'( 2/ $ 2"J# -#< %-!# 'O %"/ #6 @/
!" ] TEM O! ,'( 22.18 7 4 4 %J
1 .S<# / #
" ! 30 nm -#< GaAs "/ InAs '( 5 "A
$ O# (Moleular Beam Epitaxy) B "/ " (# ,#< 8/ .(100) GaAs
# ( g !# %T~520˚C ! '( 4 # InAs 4 0.54 nm f
'( 5 U 5# ,7> BO S<# "-/* $ 8/ .60 s
10,28
(Mesa devices) " "-/* $ 8/ . '( (' 50 - 9
'< " # 8/ .GaAs ] @ , @ $ # 5 (# ,#<
$ O# '< < ! 4<J# $bL .G' B #
"-/ G # 8/ % 5< ( U/& . /, W# Ni/Ge/Au
.X E# P# / (/ O6 / U!) (Cryostat) 5#<
(Fourier transform P # ' '< ' ! 8/
7 TEM 4a =# .U 5# ,7> @ $ spectrometer)
8/ # 86 TEM :1L %7, < 5(' 22.18
203 nm 9
'
'( . , 5(' 86* 4* - !

7 ' <<* L 2 :(30 nm 9
!L $
# ) '# 5<
.5(' #6 4
O6 / U ' dB# 23.18 7 4a

(' 50 ,#< $L P7L '( @ U 5# ,7> BO S
b L
694
1& 7 " .("B ,") 30 nm < GaAs 5!L $ InAs '(
'(
' 5 #< 4<0 / # 8/ %kW/cm2 ,O 0 W/cm2 ,O 4
f, d, p, s P7 " # / 5(' J 4# %+6
%58 meV # < & ! 5 #< 4
' !# $ BO B O
1 5) J 4# .3.18 2<(
%G '# (' \,
0 (' 4 # v 0 '( 4
X * ! eO " # /
.1.5 μm 4 /0 < (' 50 4 # %- # # ('
< (; 9 + :< (G 3 < F( < 2 1 23.18
77 K ) (PL) 9 + 9+
) H IG< .InAs/GaAs %& 2<
1( / /&0 94 * /) kW/cm2 (+ / I0 532 nm $
.(23 ,
4 # , BO B O ' ! 1& 57 *.24.18 7 +,
/#<) P#( 4# G '# (' (#) < 2<
' $ B A
7 < '( 5 U 5# ,7> BO S <(L
695
N !* 4 %B A 4 # , InAs/GaAs '( .G.24.18

' .( ~ 4.1 μm ) 4 E* G '# (' s-(' 5# < 0 4
'
3 4 E* , G '# (' 0 s-(' 4 1 5#h (#)
%G(1 5#h 5
' /0 V# PL BO B O 4
5
' "# )* $
# .'( 4#& 5) U 5# ,7 S<# 7 4
47
/#< # %3 ! Uw .5#& 6 3# ! G(1
0 G.24.18 7 '( @ U 5# ,7> BO S
$ *.24.18 7 2< s-(' $ "# 4 E*
' !
4* 0 3 .~280 meV 0 ~140 meV 4
' / $(
*
<<* N '( @ U 5# ,7> BO S /#<) !
5< 8",=# .G '# (' 0 1 p s 5(' ## # 5#& (#
160- (' '( @ U 5# ,7> BO S d /O
0 # ,#
' N .(# @/ V#) 0 220 meV
N # 5) 0 7 '( 5) 4 5)(#) 0 ~500 meV

' $'
F L .22.18 7
' ''6 ZFO GaAs "/
('
' 4 G#( 8#< $ @ 7& 8#< '< O6
Z/ ! G.24.18 7 ~90 meV ! E G %J
1 .G '#
U '( 5#0 #< 4 1* 2" .f-(' B"/ UJ#) 4 d#
%2 ( 9 4
J' .m2\4#0 250 <& 7& " # 4 \ %f-('
$ 3 2UJ# . (# m2\ '( ~60 4
* -^ '( 1 t5X=
10
.9 # '7 1 TEM @#< – / 1
4
X * B ! B( ( QPID "-/ - 6
! M 9/# 4 X . UO S<# -g
" " ! UO B- / 9/# 4 %" !
"-/ 4 . B 5 #< 10 %X21Y 4 %P ) "
." ! ! G'(#< : P @ UO '( S<# 4* QWIP
696
& 2< < (, 9 + I<G D :< 24.18
(C) .WL > A *> (8) .InAs/GaAs
.(23 , 1( / /&0 94 * /) A ( # IP
%& 2< < (, 9 + :I<G # D :< 25.18
.(23 , 1( / /&0 94 * /) 60 K ) InAs/GaAs
697
S<#
' / E# "/ #6 4 %9J!* P 0 7*
6D )
1 25.18 7 4a . '( @ U 5# ,7> BO S
S<# $ ("C ,") '( @ U 5# ,7> BO S !
70 $ Al0.33 Ga0.67 As "/ '( 2
0 8/ % 9 .
$ % , 5
' ' /#<) 5" .n~1x1011 cm-2
O
4 d# (Dip) @
! O * ' @# .(5.0 μm) ~250 meV !
9 4* O# g ." 5< \J1 O * @# P* 4 %@/ V#)
(') ! 8#< 5 0 d p s 5(' 4 5)(# N# \J1 5<
5#h ! 5 #< 4
' !# VJ6#< 4 ! %(J
1 G '#
%80 K ! (Responsivity) /#<) 5<
.ΔEpd ~ 50 meV ΔEsp ~ 42 meV
! ~ 3 V 4 N 0.1 A/W 4 !* 2
! 8/
. λdetection= 5 μm
S<# / '
/#< / '( 5 U 5# ,7> BO 5 BO 5< 2 # ( U 5# ,7 $<*
4* 4 *) , ' # ,/ '( # %, . B 5
! .,) * %4 # * %2/ / # S/# ; $ <# $ (! #
5# ,7> BO 5< # %S/# ; $ <# 0 O& % * 1*
0 @T# 5) "#6 1 4 $<* /#< / '( 5 U
2<# 4* 4 % '( E70 5) ,# %# 5)(#) W#
' +, %( .* S/# $ <# 0 X, 7 (# # S<#
∆λ/ / B S<* ! U 5# ,7> BO S
BO S ∆λ/λ~40% 4 4 % 'E# '( ! λ~20%
%5( '# 4 , .25.18 7 '( @ U 5# ,7>
G/ # %/ ' $ # /#<) $ <# /& /#<) 4#<
4 %P ! ./#<) N' +! $ ' G<# , !* 4# 4*
! << '( 5 U 5# ,7> BO 5<
2# ( 5* 5( '# ! - %O ! /#< 5)/ - %
98100
%G ( 5# B / S<# .\* 5!/ 4 ,
698
V#) 4 #<# 4* 4 BJ n-i-n * p-i-n '( # 4
101
., 5
' 4 # < &
< 3 # # 9 ( 3 > / 26.18
A # =14 / < # 77 K (i) : & )
300 ) ?3 (ii) =(3.18 # TEM # / ) 5.0 nm )
+8 < * 8.5 nm ) A # / < * % (iii) =K
.(SPIE / /&0 48 * /) 300 K ) 1.3 μm / >
/ ! #L <( (Photvoltage) ## 26.18 7 4a

@ @" (ii ) E / ! (i ) O6
/ 5(' 5 .3.18 7 TEM 4F '(
* (PL) BO B O - ! L # dB# -#( 4# " #
1 4# ! V#J <
## ',# .(EL) B- B O
dB# ## ',# %3 ! Uw .5J 4 6 ,

) 2 </ 0 G
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.6.18
Coupled quantum dots and artifical excitonic molecules
'7 (# - ! bL # %2# # ' '( 5#*

+ 6# N ' 4! ( '( Q#& %3.18 7 2 &
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Summary ()' 8.18

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Questions '*

1
7 4 # (Volmer – Weber) – (# # ( ' 5<
4 P* 6# .( '( 5# , B1 @* 4) '(
5) 1 P< 2/ '( $ /) '( 4 !/ #
5# 100 nm ! $O# B '< %2x1010 cm-2
1 %(-<
' '6# 5
' 5 #< /# $O 4* +# . , Z'<
.9*
708
'( 4* GaAs ] -7 E V6 4* +#
! 4#& 5) 1 G< .(# G
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# 5)
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5
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U (i) ] ' 1& 7 X
%G(1 4 B-) 4"6 $ 1.0 ns 4
B N 10 meV # U (ii) , 5) $ /
.[EQW (2) @*] 1
5J , U6#<) (,# 5 M O( +, "/ g

. # 5) 0

2
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.(F, D, P, S) , 5) 4 -
! '( !/ - BO B O \,) 2<

! 5 #< 4 <#
' !# O# !# 5/
G '# (' 5# $(# ! '( (' 4* %50 meV 9
(' N ' 4! 5J * ( O * O# %50 meV (
.G '#
!" # $% 3
7
% < (Intermixing) 6 Q" QL ;
7# < 5 # 4 .7#J (Fick) 3 Q ,#< %18.18
: z 1& ! ' !
X(z) = X0+½
∑ X {erf [(L
i
i
i
z + 2(z − z )) / 4Ld ] +erf [(L − 2(z − z )) / 4Ld ]}
i
0
i
z
i
0
709
" # Xi %7#) ' Ld %"/ < " # X0 \
0 erf[] " z z଴௜ ! "# ௜௭ -O! # i 2
5 ,'( <
' 4 $
(,# , # N' / ' Q##< @/ .^'6
B Ld !# 7# '* ! < " # 2< .X(z) G #
.3.0 nm InAs/GaAs
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Communications: vol. 18 (1997), p. 451.
35. A. Laschewsky, B. Mayer, E. Wisheroff, X. Arys, A. Jonas, M.

Kauranen, and A. Persoons, Angewandte Chemie International Edition:
vol. 36 (1997), p. 2788.
36. J. R. Heflin, C. Figura, D. Marciu, Y. Liu, and R. O. Claus, SPIE

Proceedings: vol. 10 (1997), p. 3147,
747
37. M. J. Roberts, G. A. Lindsay, W. N. Herman, and K. J. Wynne, Journal
of the American Chemical Society: vol. 120 (1998), p. 11202.
38. J. R. Heflin, C. Figura, D. Marciu, Y. Liu, and R. O. Claus, Applied

39. C. Figura, P. J. Neyman, D. Marciu, C. Brands, M. A. Murray, S. Hair;

R. M. Davis, M. B. Miller, and J. R. Heflin, SPIE Proceedings: vol. 3939
(2000), pp. 214-222.
40. K. Van Cott, M. Guzy, P. Neyman, C. Brands, J. R. Heflin, H. W.

Gibson, and R. M. Davis, Angewandte Chemie International Edition: vol.
41 (2002), p. 3236.
748

Photonic Crystals
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Introduction 1.20

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784
VII

Nanobiotechnology
785
786

Biomimetic Nanostructures
(*)
.

: 1.21
Introduction: water, cell inspirations, and copolymers
. 70%

(H2O)

($ )$ *+$ , - "
! # $ "# $& '
5( 2$ 67 (Hydrophobic) 4 2 & $ . 23 ($ 0)
< .90 *900 80 :7 & 2;# 6 8 5 0 2
5=- " 0 < ? (Ribosomes) 5 ( 0 ,- 5=> 7* 80
0 " (Filamentous cytosqueletons) 8A A 2* 2@
& A 5 C- DA !
+
;E "! :7 .BA
. 4 2 & $ # 2;0 (Mithochondria) B 2@
(Lipids) 50 + 5($ " 00 , 0 47 )$ 2;
5 ( 5 " ! (,3C 7F) 5 0
" + ; 08 J
2@ 20 .0 H I
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J
L
* K (Proteins) 5 0 # (Polypeptides) 500 0
. * " 0 - 507 5 ( 2D
D 0G @# @ "
- 08G @ 08 DA ;E# "+ 50 : 2@0
# (Segmented)
! 8
H GN M0 (H-P) # (Hydrophobic-polar)
(*)
Dennis E. Discher, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering,
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.
787
J
2
@# :7 (HHH-PP 2@) (Block)
2 P ( OF 2 -0 # 0G 7 F ; .5 0
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.(Aqueous self-assembly) 7 )$
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# 9

" , ,9
(& SCA "R A 2 & O
0 .* # *$ (Fluidity) -= F (Energetics) G8
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. :

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! –

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EF
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# .& 8 :
G8 Q & B F A )8- 2 8# 0 " 2 # ;
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0 "` $ & 0 G M0 *F .; E 5 "F
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a ; -
= ($ "( 5@M F , 0 .$ 0 0E 2

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; 5 0
5 =
O F $ #0 5070 , ; 5 0 # 2
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0

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(Cell-mimetic) A
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2A # ((Collagen) "$= T# 2@) DA PA * @Y 8A
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"
? "
.*
" 8

2.21
Worm micelles and vesicles from block copolymers
2; ( 8 Y 2

80 2 P (

# &F # 8# "# (1.21 2;) (Time-average molecular shape) ($
7
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(Average 08- ($ 8 ' $ 800 7 ($ 2; 8
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0 e ) (Polyethyleneoxide) "@F 0 # 08G "$ 0
0 @ (Polyethyleneglycol) 2 E "@F
0 # E PEO "# F ,;f $ .(Hydrocarbon) " 0 *
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-
= gG " .

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A PEO 0 2$ = 8 -
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5D&
8
.
5 # 8C
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5 ( 0 # 5DC
- " ! F F T9 2$ :;
D
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*& .(Polymersome)
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F (PEO j 5$# ) 5$ * $ 80
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9 , G
0 9 ,(0 " . " -0 4 $
) "( Q-

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09G 5D7 , )$ k
b
A& $&f !
" 0 * 8- 0 )& ($ "( 0 , -0 L $
U )$ "! "
! F .2;
" :7 PEO j " , 2C& γ 0 ; , G :7 " ] ."

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" - γ 0 ; , G "# ,& 5DC
$ 5G "
0 ,3C 53 " *D- $ F MW ($ "(
9
." 0 *
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2.21
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% & ' (! .
1 -/0 ,ࢌ , ( + )*
2* ' ' 6 !4 5 $$ (PEO) $3 & .* 2
!!= 7 +8 .< = ((!* !') 78! &
!A .($ ! @ ( @0 7 =? ,>0 =10 7
' .C d @ !=/< !B) ( 7 $)*
!3& 5 7 5 7 ! E ,F$5 & 7 7)D + 1
.(Elsevier Science 'H 14 7! ) GF
7@ 8 7,; *E A D ,

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- H * PEO G *D ! *, -D , 1B .- * PEO 1
792
8L' * 4K
,' = 4- J
I .ࢌ '
7 ' * K = ;

! (
; 2 ; 2 *) PEE
2 4
E,
12 +'? 7 * -D! B 1 ࢌ * 9' '
! M$ .PBD (poly butadiene)
4 '' 80 E
I ! B" Cryo-TEM G =M! '@ .80

9$' '' 80 E
= @ - J N, = 4MW∼ 4kDa *7 D
8E 8
,
.~10 nm
(Phase Contrast Microscopy-PCM) 8 "0 *$ *

10
$ 2;# .0 5DC
l -0 2; GD 5 ( 0
,*; 2;# $ em - (#.3.21 2;) S$f 0
0
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'- B "( $ * * n ($ '
Q 20- 5-08 @ ;E (leaflet) 5- B
F 5($
5-08 H @ 0 5DC
47 ?;E# * BA# ,00 .BA -
8 6 )G 5- "0 2 $ ( QG - "# )
2-= *$ " C 9# ?50@ :7 ) ."X
* H8Y # " *&
) E Cryo-Transmission Electron Microscopy (cryo–TEM) 0 f
" @0 0# " "# F 8- 2 = d ;E * * $ ( -08
b
0 " 9# * 3-4 nm 57 0 $ ( 5-08
9
.20 "# ,
:; 0 -08 " =
5 ( 0 *0; 0 5 ( 0 2; 8 "
! # )
" "# )G 67 ,
5$ 2$ "#
9 " "# $ (Liposomes)
(273 K – 373 K # 0 100 6#) ,- 4 2 $ ( 0
"
.8 0
# 6

8# ,@f & b
0 l&= "
12
DA 0 5DC

9 -@ ;3 5$ 5-O@Y
13
4# "!0 . 0 C
;E#
* 80
( 0 6 0 ($ "( (0 ;3
- ( "# )G
SCA C
- C CA 9F SCA "# 4# "0 .d ;3
5 0 ($ "( 0 8A E G - Q B *
.;
793
f M0 2@0 !$ 5D7 C B$ :7
*# .(MW ∼ 4 kg/mol BA# ,) E ; 5 0 47*
4 (Fluorophore) 6 " 8 0 , (Fluorescent labeling) 6 H
* . 30 μm F * 8# 2C ∼ 1 μm *& 5$
C

8G "F .(.3.21 2; 8- ) 6 "
2 8 *8 C0 0= " @0 2G# 6# 10 nm
" 47
" " "
! $ 3 8
BY :7 ) . ~500 & $
14
= 7 . ~ (+ C 2 8 " 3C# 2 8 '- $
15
"
! F 6# 2G# # ~50
2 8 '- $ DNA 0;
,0 0
; b
" @0 - @# 9# DNA . ஽ே஺
.BA 5 " (

0 ( 0 ;E *0; 8G * "# )
7 80= 2
8 .;E 0 -
9 @# 5D7 0
0 " A (# 2 8 57 " T8 F 8

4# 2# $ 0
;
9 5$ "7F . @
G ) $ * & -0 W9 " - " 5 ( 0
gG? T .5 ( 0 - T- ;3 2O; - & γ
.-
= ;3 5$ E " 5$

3.21
Solvent, size, energetic, and fluidity
6$ ( 0 # ( 6#) 9 507 # 2

($ "( 8 0 - * :7 5$ $ 0

16
.2 P ( 29
! &Y
($ ) -= 5D& 0 ; B G
2;& * 2
" 5DC
2O; 50 2C& D@
.(CHCl3 : 2@) * $ ( SA 507 :7 2
794
)C R0
($ "( 0 9# 2D
= 0G Q
. 4 &9 5 0 " ,$ 5DC
"
"'#" 0 DA ,3C 2 5$ ( 50 TA "# "
4 ,; 2D " "@ # ,
6
0E * 08- *(
50
n = 5–10 b
h(–CH2–CH2–)n "@F 5
"
9&A ( 08 2;0 * 2D J0 : " . ; @
17
CCMC ∼exp(- 5D7 P
( 8Y .=
8 @ l ;E#
εh 2@
G8 kBT 2@ b
.C
-= 80 G nεh/kBT)
8- 5DC
2@ 5$ " .2
2$ ) & 2& G8
"@f (
.CCMC " #
8 2 ( "
b
0 εh≈ 1-2kBTbiol(∼4-8 pN nm) " (∼ 300 K)
Tbiol
,
$
" C 57 2 5$ ( 50 2
CCMC Z
,- 5$ " 6# (Picomolar) = 0 F (Micromolar) =
0 9# 5$ "0 2 P ( 20 5= . 2

- (Phospholipids) 50 & & ,( 20 (# ) CCMC )
MWh ($ "( # 57 0 2 5$ ( " ] .50
(Kinetic
AF 50 $7 Q : " @# # I0N 00 #
T; F *9
I 0 47* 2& 5 .-= GV 5$ Quenching)
18
.(2@ 20 εh J&A0) * 0 8; ; 507
1.3.21
Interfacial energy underlies self-assembly

20 MW # n G 0 5 $ 5$ 50$ " @
5? " D
47 B 0 5 @# 0
5G8 $7 0 5 : :7 $0 .2
2$ # (
0 0.5 ଶ
) a
'- H@ " .εூ ε௛ 0
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795
19
Z- ) 0; T&8C0 47 , G "( . * "0 ~70 /
2; 2@ C
40;# $ F 5DC
# " " 5
:7 ) . S- 2@ l B -0 @M , 10DA
6 0$ ,F $$( 0; 5 0 eO80? "# )G
$ 50$= !@H " Q (;= 2
5 6#) 5($
. 0 5DC

"# 9# )G " "( PA Q 5@M b

F " E0
)$
2G -= ($ '- "
o ( ?, G T-
B
A *$f B G "( b
00U - 0 2
"
o
C
(
)
9 839 Y 07$ " 9 7 .07$ @M0 *=
;E O 67
F C
I $
7 & TC C
;E " ]
20
57 80 C

9 , G $ J0 .C

W8 3 80 ($ W8& F 9 '! - 6V R 8G TC
9 ' - G8 γΔa - & O . ;3 )0 Δa J!
21
G8 4πR2 C

2 8 .1/R2 ) -
$ 7 " .R G " - FC ∼γd24πR2×1/R2
' -
$0 @# : 0 2G# Q 8 2
C
$
"#
." , "(
C
5-08 5@ : 4D# - ' - G8 F 9f0
G8 C0 2@ BA 2A ,
, $ W&C , 5DC
:7
.A @# W8 2;0 5!0@ " P ( 8; $ : @ 2&
-08 # - 5($ " Q08 " M; 67 0$ 2&= 6V
22
" 2 $ ( D- 6V .
Q F 5-08 -0 ) ,

?, 47 Y(&\
? DA .2&= A F BA# F -08
# -
23

($ 2- & 9 8 “flipases” (0 5 00
8C= 5 0 " . , ;E 0 2 P (
0
2G# 2D " L 3C L ($ !@H " " ($ "( 5; ,
24
.D-D 9 I @#
796
! " 4.21
Polymersomes from block copolymers in aqueous solution
2
@ ; 0 5DC
)C B$ -
# 0 5DC
)C ,0A " ,! 5 0 :7 *
&3 : 5 0 @ - &
2@ .*&C 5 ( 0
.* A T* JE W80 80 : # 5DC
2A
8 57 ; 5 0 -
= 0 5DC
l # 2
F 9f0 50 ($ "( 8 " T9
0 0# ($ "(
.@0 J# ($ "( )(
PS 40 -poly ( isocyano-L-alanine-L-alanine )m 2 P ( 6
00
25
.7 " 0 8 ; 5
,;0 )$ @ 0 " O0 2@
"= 00 (Moieties) 5? 6
# 0 (Semi-synthetic) 0 TC F
00 7 C -
= ) # ) .08 , $ L-alanine
5 0
08 5-08 "# F ; "# * " " 6 0
" " 2 500 5 "# --
00 W$ ,
47* ;
T 2 :7 ) .
0 0 5 0 " @0 @#
C
)G G 5
( m =30 # m = 20 ' " ) m = 10 D
G 9
58A )
"> , $ 5 5 5; " 8G 57 ,*
.(Chiral superhelices) - 50 F 9f0 "09G 2;
" 0 0 - PEO " @ 0 ; 5 0 20

"@F 0 - PEO P* 0; (#.3.21 2;) PEOm -PBDn

&C ,
$
@# 5DC
)C B$ PEOm -PEEn
26
T #.4.21 2; "+0 . 8 ; 5
"5 ( 0" 0 *F ;
.5 90 0
&C ;E F 9F - 5 ( 0
5DC
:; 0 " 2
"-
9# < :7
5 ; .(Dialysis) ,( 8 0 T&A 2
(F "
5 ( 00 *- " 5& F " 0 G
T3
. 0 G 0 O
Y
,$ C
5f Z-
797

4.21
'
& (% %)

$
## (") .!
' - (,) .ࢊ
+
# .+%
" '*

23 0
1

- 0 '/
" # 1 M 89 7% '3#6 ! "
.45
8& ;%
=% <# (;) .:
89 n.a. ' 89 ' > +%
'#5 ?#"
'* '/ ' +%& BC .(Non-aggregating)

A =
@"
798
6 ' B D1 kDa 5"
" '* '%
5 89
A
$ %& ' A EA %5 . " '% B
'- 6 89
# 5$ 8& .
#/#

& 6 B#
%% .5 '
*3 A B !
# %%

% +5 I%% F* % 89 :6 % %%& B :#= GH"
'J
,+
,- F , $ 4# @# 4D# , 7 @ F
F 4 0 6# 0 & &0 *0; 0 5 ( 0
7 6($ ' "# J& " .9.11௛௬ௗ௥௢௣௛௜௟௜௖ ≈ 33% ± 10% : $F
( f 0G ௛௬ௗ௥௢௣௛௜௟௜௖ 50%
E 8 2;

5($ " + "# )GO " . E
F 0 4 ($

5($ "! "# )G Y "
5D7 ௛௬ௗ௥௢௣௛௜௟௜௖ >45i50%
- 47 5
S!
& r $ .0 - 0 ௛௬ௗ௥௢௣௛௜௟௜௖ 20 25%
Cryo- C 50 :7 , D .D
C
& ($ "( 2D
" ($ "( ( ) B ;E ( 200 nm-100 *G 5DC
TEM
9
5 3 "0 @#
B 0 ;Es .21 F 8
57 5 0 " )
9 Q 7 (#.4.21 2; - $)
,$ C ( 0 ;E 8 :7 .DA 2 ;3
.(MW ($ "( #) d ;3 0 *&C0 ;3 SCA
MW

1.4.21
MW-dependent properties of polymersomes
F (Dextrans) " ") (Encapsulants) 5&<30 &

*;# , " 5 B (W $ (& 2 F (
–40;# (Extrusion) Q@0 5-0 ,9
~100 ( 0 5$) 5 ( 0
W .(.4.21 2;) ~10 GD 5DC

:7 5 ( 0
SA ,
C
2 M0 2C& TC $F ,A
$ ( 0$ (Diffusivity) ;= 2 .P.4.21 2;
799
"( ( ) SG ("D-" " &A) ;3 "# 11,27,28
;3
0 8 2D " @# 5CG " :7 , D .($
" - 25 / γ -
5G * .:0; &
8 0 JIt&? 0 W8 9 "# F ; ($ "(
;3 ( ) 0* -= ( .
7 0
11
0 & & ;E Q( .0- 10 volts F γ 2 C '
u 0 "
F
@# *$ * 3C "
! # F 800 :7 7 " @0 2G#

7 )$ , 6 7 0 W8
( $ 30 . 50- 9
29
– ;E 2A ; 0C :0; 2@ 9F 5D& 2AF $
30
5 ( 0

57& * 2 8 "( 7 *0 T ,
31
G ( 0 ;E# 2DA (Permeation) 233 'G B$ - .,3C
Q
9&A 9&A 2
w - 2
v 0 & & ;EM0 - *#
"( -9 *30 $# 5 ( 0
,0 5- )
;E "# "X
5 "
F @# * 2.50 " ($
7 . T*0 *@# 5$ 2G# -= T*0 *@x#v 5$ G

& 5G A ;E# D @ + 2 0 Q
10
.) +-
" !

2.4.21
Vesicles from muliblock copolymers or bio-degradable blocks
TD# "9 P @D@ ; 5 0 , "
! # 0
8 2G .* B
k V ;3 SCA ?5DA= + - 5 ( 0
“Pluronic” : 0 0 $ 5@D@ " ,

0 0 " 0 ,0 8 57 (PEO5 – PPO68 – PEO5 )
* 0 -G ;E# 57 ,3C 5DC
(PPO) "0 0 #
32
4 W$ 47* ] ' .8- 5 , - d = 3 – 5 nm
5$ 0 W8 )9 T9 PPO 8
௛௬ௗ௥௢௣௛௜௟௜௖ G "
! #
Y 2! F "$ Q& "+0 2&0 .8
- - 2$ )- 5DC
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812

Biomolecular Motors
(*)

.

Introduction 1.22

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Jacob Schmidt and Carlo Montemagno, Department of Bioengineering,
University of California at Los Angeles, CA.
813
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Further Reading % )$
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Mechanics of Motor Proteins and the Cytoskeleton, Jonathon Howard

(Sunderland: Sinauer Associates Inc. 2001)
: / ' +5 $P
Cytoskeletal and Motor Proteins, T. Kreis and R.Vale, (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1999)
: #
Biochemistry, L. Stryer (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1995)
: / * 4
The Molecular Biology of the Cell, B. Alberts, D. Bray, J. Lewis, M. Raff,

K. Roberts, J.D. Watson (NewYork: Garland Publishing, 1994)
847
Questions * +
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852

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886
J XCPIGQ9G [?*
j eTPB;G vvvv w(d4
Clockwise ?f9 Ty G H Q9 t f fG Q hO g9 : G
Amplitude d 9a| , Y9T @G
Telecommunication O g<
o
#f J: 9Z@G
Excitation IQ9 CE
Stress O9 %F E
Stress relaxation A9 LQA S: G O 9 %F E
Normal stress ! %
~c9 O 9 F E
Intrinsic stresses * $(F

? Q JG O 9 %F E
Blend devices ?F hR} G IR F C % } G
State-of-the-art instruments + + ( ( "wA y

? y 9gyG 9 F y G JG P I R %F C
Monodisperse +
B A WA y G j O9 I C
Univalent |p9 wAy G j O9I C
Monochromatic f (zy G j O9I C
Monodispersion *
B A WA y G ? O9 I C
Stiction P (w S c9 wA I G
Standby ,_ 9 + A I G
Amino acids ? +"+| C V9 > C
Ridges O9 +I C
Reduction d GRAL G
Mobile dislocations ? vQ JA | J : ;A L G
Kinetic quenching ? vQ+ A 9? G O E
Quenching *
h QS O Q=@ , O9 * ? E
}}|
High performance liquid {F9Tzy P(y dm9f AGOC
chromatography - HPLC
Aligner a 9 q a YG I G O C
Differentiator { \9qAyG IGO C
Integrator {| 9w@ IG O C
Instrumental ?+@GO C
Adenosine triphosphate - ATP J 9 q S( q y G ,C ; C #* R (" * O C
Adenosine diphosphate - ADP J 9 qS( qy G , F 9 " C #* R (" * O C
Correlation dO 9=A| W 9=@Q G
Entropic recoil , w+ <hQA !G OG O@ Q G
Stripe height b *QW yG Y 9q@Q G
Rare earth IQO 9 ! ? + \Q C
Red-shift Q >} G ? IG R E
Raman shift f 9 | G Q ? IG R E
De-doping ?<9 VE ?y G R E
Devitrifying H FR A y G ? y G R E
Depolarization H 9 a tA S :G h " | hC ?y G R E
Deprotonation f (@h Q< ?yGR E
Base pairs ?+S 9S C L GhR C
Backbone Q 9tp ,j Qt qy G S 9S} G
Fault tolerance z aB G ? !9= A S G
Resolution R+r | ,?!9=ASG
Size-exclusion ~G AG O9 g= A S G
Photo-responsivity ? + F ( \ ? < 9 GA S G
Excimer K 9 D JA S G
Emulsification H ; JA S G
Dislocation relaxation hzB G A9L QA S G
Outlook aG Q WA S G
Folding stability , ay G QG QtA S G
Bi-stable Lh O R| QG QtAS G
}}}
Ellipsometry ]y ? <9a tAS
A( G + G
Projection 9tS W E
Digital light projector-DLP }s, \ 9tS

Q ,F ( W E
Direct write mode QV9 = ?<9A wy zS

I CG G H( C
Nominal }S , G
X-ray proximity ?= Qs ? S ?gV

* +"+ C
EUV ? pQa A ? G Tq = y p ?gV

CG + " G b( C
Occupancy 9j V d G
Interferometric schemes ? zL O@ 9wV

+ G d C
Morphologies ? T 9 ]@ 9 w V
+ *Q d C
Powerstrokes Oty IQV G WG( C
Proximity alignment 9t @ 9q aY
NQ a G
Contact alignment Y @ 9q aY
\+ ( a G
Off-axis illumination (OAI) J

Q( 9L 9\
CG L Q IA E
Responsive phases ? <9G AS _

+ G QG( C
Hidden symmetries yields emission = { Y9 ; C 9 } A | 9 g = 9 _

Iz J + I J K !G a + C
spectra
Recombine 9 : 9f
O ; G O C
Recombination 9 : 9f
O ; G IO E
Reprecipitation > S Q@ 9f
+ IO E
Preparation Of OG G
Setup Of OG E
Distortion 9F f L ( G
Virtual \ QA p
, G G
Hypothetical ? \ QA p + G G
Intercalation 9J s e E
Electron pairing fh Q A wy Qs G fG E
Lower-lying 9g\ {s
k
(E }G
Phase shift mask - PSM Q( a y 9 R ?g s

G M * !G " C
Stiffer RAv RG G
}}~
Actin _A v C
Oxidation I OTv C
Redox Y9 F QE h I OTv C
Silane - oxide f; +S vvvv +

O Tv C
Polyethyleneoxide-PEO #+ z+ A * [( < O + Tv
E C
Affinity ?q yC
Electrode Oh QAw yE
Phased electrodes Q (_ J GP J GOh QAw yE
Bound electron +v
O t| fh QAw yE
Electron shuttling , v(w | fh QAw yE
Optical fibers *
? Q Z < a9 y C +
Coarse approach mechanism "
? W L > Qt@ ? yB * +
Hydration $
? 9| E
Adsorption RGRA |G
Physisorption , 9*R +p
F RGRA |G
Chemisorption , 9+}+ v
F RGRA |G
Uptake U9 Z A | G
Single wall carbon nanotubes- QGO @ ?*

G O9 I } ? *(!9 "y ( <Qwy
G G f G > <9 C+ !
SWNTS
Multiwall carbon nanotubes- mwnts f GQO @ G IO OgA | ? *(!9 "y ( <Qwy
G f G > <9 C+ !
Coextrusion k
9 g | b9 D = G !
Photomultiplier tube PMT , ( \ r f 9 ]| ( = !
F H C
Mass production ,} v L9 A E !
Throughput + !
? F9 A E
Diffusivity *
? Q 9 WA G !
Chemisorptives , 9+ }+v
F a 9 WA G !
Glass transition ) , F9 F R d (; ( H FRA y G d9 tA G !
Excited state transitions IQ 9D| ?y 9 I J :9 tA G !
Transition + !
? y9tA G
}~u
Transport ? +y9tA !G
Transmissivity ?* P 9q! ,? + y 9tA !G
Deflection aGQJ !G
Standard deviation j Q9+ g| a GQJ !G
De-excitation I Q 9 C E d ;J ! G
Radiative decay , f9 g VE d ;J ! G
Pyrolysis j Q G Q I d ;J ! G
Indium Tin Oxide - ITO Q * OZ ty G O + Tv C e (* O !C
Solvation ? +<9*P !G
Microslip j hQ w+ | b :R !G
Phase shift Q (a yG M 9*R !G
Stocks shift Uv ( A S M 9 * R ! G
Anastase R 9AT !C
Laminar flow , t=_ H9+T !G
Metal oxide semiconductor-MOS O + T v C f O g | J; Y ( | a 9 Z ! C
Bacterial expression systems ? *Q+Aw < Q+=g @ ?}d !C
Systems on a chip-SOC ? s 9 s Q y G ^f ? }d ! C
Colloidal systems ? *hQi ?}d !C
Micro-opto-electromechanical ?* QZ < v v v v ?* h Qw + | v v v v ?+ w+ !9 w+ |h Q% v ?}d !C
systems MOEMS
Micro electro mechanical systems- ?* hQ w+ | ? + w+ " w+ |h Q% v ?}d !C
MEMS
Diffraction O( + I ,L G Qg !G
Reflectivity ?+ S 9wg !G
Permeability ? *P9q !E
Torsional [9A q !G
Single O + I h ,j OG Qq !G
Discreteness d 9 Zq ! G
Strain d 9gq !G
Strain profile , =!9F d 9gq !G
}~v
Elastic strain fQ| d 9gq G !
Spin flip *
~ h OA y G H ;t G !
Population inversion P9 w S H ;t G !
Weak inversion +
r g \ H ;t G !
Optical birefringence , 9"CF jQ Z< Q 9 Tw G !
Diffraction pattern O (+A G W9} C !
Interference patterns { LG O @ W 9 } C !
Acoustic modes +(
? @ Y W9} C !
Avalanche Q9 +8 G
Breakdown Q9 +8 G
Avalanche photodiode-APD , (] y , 9" Dy 9+8

F G F G Q G
Analyte species ++
? z z I YG (! C
Microtubules * +
? hQ w | J 9= = + +! C
Forced oscillation *
? QTs IR G RA $ G
Polymersome formers e hRQ } +y( =y G J GOy (|

Inverse opal , Tw f d9< h C
Opals J :9 < h C
Opaline +!
? :9 < h C
Figures of merit IQ GO @ &F

G hC
Metabolic + *
? ] C
Exciton f (A * 9 Tw * E
Initiator A iO 9 <
Precursor r z S ,A iO 9 <
Paradigm *
~j OGQ 9<
Paramagnetic + + "
? T _9 j|GQ 9<
Superparamagnetisn ? tF9q yG ?As | C ?+T +a"j C

G G ,?t F9p + + "
? T a j|GQ 9<
Extrusion u D<
Onset of Inversion H; t ! : ?* O <

G G
Protonation f (@ h Q< ? p 9 \E , ? @ Q < "

Permalloy eQ< +
?w =S , j y9|Q < (
}~w
Proteins # +@ hQ <
Channel proteins ? *( "s J9 "+@ hQ <
Motor proteins ?vQ I J9 "+@ hQ <
Longitudinal - optical - LO [ (_ j QZ <
Optical - electrical - optical - OEO * + %

? QZ < vvvv ? F9<Q v vvvv ? QZ < *
Finger printing ? }Z <
Post-processing ? @ 9gC G Og <
Zero-dimensional jQ q Y Og <
Airy disk i (% |
q o
UQs ,? F + (\ ?*Rv Q| ?g t<
Bacteriorhodopsin _T< hOh Q ( *Q+Aw <
Phagocytic , }g z<
Polymerization IQ} z<
Photonic crystals ? +!( @(p JGQ ( z<

Support structure ~f OyG ? + "<
Heterostructure IQ * 9jA| ?+ "<
Structure +
> v Q@ ,? + "<
Floating gate ?}F 9f ?<G < (
Crucible ?t@ < ( o
Polyethyleneglycol-PEG d ( w+ z F #+ z + D * [( < E
Polypeptides JGO + A==+y( <

Sulfonated polysterene - SPS #q zT| # * QA T+ y ( <
Conjugated polymers ?t pGQA | J GQ } y < +(
Homopolymers )? zC9} A|( ? 6 9 WA | JGQ } +y( <
Copolymers ?v Q9W | J GQ } y < +(
Segmented polymers ?g at | J G Q } y < +(
Prepolymer eO tA| + +(
Q } y <
Quantum bits +(
? | } v J9 A < +
Thermal pixels *
? Q G QI J ; Tw < +
Inter # }\ # +< ,
Interdigitated h=Z AyG ? +" +<
}~x
Stochastic effect , (W f Q+C z@
FG
Quantum mechanical effect ,w + ! 9 w + | ( }v Q+ C z @

e
Hall effect d ($ Q+C z@

Single electron charging effects OQq "C G fhQ Awy G #J V JGQ +C z@
Sparkling uy @ z
Focusing +
Q 8 =@
Permutations dO9 =@
Exchange splitting , s9tW ! G dO9 =@
Contrast *
Q 9j@, #* 9 = @
Pulsed laser vaporization- PLV ,] = " y G QR +zy 9< Q+M =@
Backscattering C
O@Q G QDg=A yG
Backscattered +
? qz L IQ9 aAS G ,O@ Q| QDg =@
Scattering IQ9a AS G , QDg =@
Crystallinity Q ( z=Ay G ?F QO , Q z =@ (
Flexural a 9ag G , ! ," D @ q
Empirically k
+* :
9 = Q
Partition ?FR :
Self-assembly O GP + :
h }
Self-Assemled Monolayers (SAMS) *

? O 9 IC J 9 t= ay O GP + :
h }
Aqueous self-assembly , 9| O F GP + :
h }
Cavity r *(:
Lumen r *(:
Scale - up A9t@Q G
Scaling U + +t@ ,~ + G;
Constant-field scaling B<9DyG d 9G G ~ G C + ;
Generalized scaling e9f ~ G + ;
Fractal scaling jQ ( Tv ~ + G;
Motility ? vQ+ ;
Sensing UT ;
}~y
Realizations J9t+t;
Dimensional control j Og < ~w;
Proportional controller "
> S9 A | ~w ;
Pyrolytic j QG Q I {z;
Factorization {| G (f ] E {+ z;
Hydrolysis A 9 C 9 < { + z JA y G
Micromachined chemical analysis k9*hQw+| {jv W| ,F9+}+v {+z;
Factoring algorithms { | G ( f ] E J9 + | R Q G ( B G { * ( ;
Fourier transform &+ *Q( p { *(;

Reverse bias U v9 g| R +;
Forward biased ,| 9 | C R + + ;
Damping <
O|9
Magnetostriction w
, T + a " j | Q Z<
Constrictions JGQZw <
Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering- aQ ZC 9 < EJ A T C G R F 9 AG ^ + q <
DIBL
Hysteretic q
, qz<
Hysteresis + <
? qz
w
Percolation {z<
Passivation +
? = zTy G H 9T vE ,{ + }<
Boundary e(<
Laser ablation Q R+zy 9< ?*(<
Ablation d 9Z 8 A SG , ?* (<
Optical interferometry ? * Q Z< ? + z LG O @
Shielding h *QO @
Lamellar flow ,J + q Y up O @
Tangential flow , S9 F upO @
Spin-polarized >a t A T | v v ~ *hO @
Vibration HP vGQ @
Coherent superposition x S 9}A| > vGQ @
Aggregates J9g } : , J9 } v G Q @
Double-gate field effect transistor- C (

? Fh OR G ? < G = y G h P d9 G G Q C @ Q A S R G Q @ C +z ( !
DG FET
Single electron transistors-SET O Qq "C G f hQA wy G JG Q (AS R! Q @ G
Field effect transistors-FET d9G G C Q+C z@ JG Q (AS R! Q @ G
Carbon nanotube field effect ?vvvv *( !9 ! >+ < 9 ! # |

vvvv vvvv vvvv vvvv C vvvv d9vvvvG G C Q + Cz @
vvvv vvvv vvvv JGQ ( A SR ! Q @
vvvv vvvv vvvv G vvvv
transistors-CNFET ?+ !(<Q v
Tripod ) ,C ;C {| 9 I (= * Q @ ( O G
Quadratic +!
? 9C ?F QO ,? g <Q @ ++
Fundamental frequency , S9 S C OOQ @
Cross over frequency >y9Z AyG OOQ @
Cutoff frequency ha tyG OOQ @
Pulsed laser deposition-PLD ,] = " y G QR + zy 9 < > SQ @

Chemical vapor deposition-CVD + + +
? F9 } wy G I QM < } G +
> SQ @
Metallo-organic chemical vapor ? *(] gy ? +!Og C ?+ 9+} +wy

G G F G I QM < } G +
> SQ @
deposition-MOCVD
Magnetron sputter deposited fhQ A + " j| ? VQ V Q +
> SQ @
Vapor phase deposition jQ 9 M< Q (_ > + SQ @

Physical vapor deposition-PVD Q 9 M= z y , 9 * R+ p > + SQ @
F
Electrodeposition , 9 < Q %v > + SQ @

F
Codeposition upG QA | > SQ @ +

Leverage ?gp G Q {g p ,~f O@ ,h pO @ , hpQ @
Synthetic antiferromagnetic-SAF + + "C

? T a j G O 9 ]| , =+vQ @
Photosynthetic +(
? F \ ? = vQ @ ++
Intrinsic carriers concentration J ; | 9 J z y jQ $(F R+vQ @
Repair +
K z Z@ , ~ | Q @ +
}~{
Tritium e ( +A*QA y G
Defect-tolerant +
> g yG vvvv K |9T @
Vacuum sublimation ,i Qp G e9T @
Covalent
m
,G 9 T @
Thermally-assisted recording C
? tpGQ G I QGQ A 9 < { + GT @
Perpendicular recording jO ( }f { + GT @
Leakage H QT @
Hierarchy ,| Q$ { Tz T @
Sublimated , }T @ q
Entanglement x < 9 WA y G
Quantum entanglement , }v x <9W @

Dispersion BAW @
Chromatic disperssion P (zy G B A WA y G
Aqueous dispersion , 9| B+AW @

F
Trim > P * 7 > *PW @

Actuating +
{ jW @
Bulk micromachining ,}+ TF j hQ w +| , "w| { +jW @

Surface micromachining ,J aS j hQ w +| , "w| { +jW @
Micromachining j hQ w +| { +jW @
w
Configuration +
{ w W@ ,{ wW @
Local deformations +!
? 9 w | J9 $ (W @
Cross over , =y9Z@
Optical proximity correction - opc j QZ =yG H Q9tA y9< +
K JZ @
Free-draining QI vvvv r QZ @ *
Lamination +
K qZ @
Microfabrication j hQ w +| h +"Z@
Coulomb damping ((
> | y v d D9] @
Viscous damping L Ry dh D9] @
Parametric amplification j QA|G Q9< +

~ M] @
Modulation r y @ ,+ ( _ }] @
}~|
Nanoconstriction ? *(! 9! J9 t ++]@
Application specific integrated ?z| 9wA | I QGO y , f( ! u +=a @
circuit-ASIC
Site-directed mutagenesis &F (| vvvv ( +
hs | Q qa @
Exposure q
VQg @
Definition O O * ; ,r *Q g@
Delay z
QL @ ,b g@ (q
Feedback ? gF GQ ? Pj @ *
Plating +
? Wj @
Permeation { jzj @
Dipping U }j @ +
Tolerance +
? I 9} S ,J h9q @
Dichotomy , 9"CF YQq @
Milling Q qI , R Qq @ *
Discharging "
? JW y G k Qq @ *
Proximity ? ?9A| ,H Q9t @
Optical proximity jQ Z< H Q 9 t @
Convergence A9t AyG ,H Q9t @
Technology + ( ("w @ ?!9t @

? F y ,
Shadow evaporation techniques +

Q M= A y G { c J 9 9 t @ +!
Advance eOt @
Coarse approach # WL > * Qt @

Wavelength division multiplexing- C \ < 9 t A y ,F (C (ay ~ + Tt @
O OgA G G G d G
WDM
Canonical partition ,T " wy ~ + Tt @ G
Peeling +
Q Wt @
Stripping +
Q Wt @
Photo-bleaching j QZ < +
Q Zt @
Absolute fluctuations ?t za| J 9=zt @
Conventional jO +zt @
}~}
Technic ? +"t @
Epitaxy *( + "
? Q z=y G ? } Ay G , { t @ +
Epitaxial \+wt@
Molecular beam epitaxy-MBE +* @
? 8 R G ? |R A ?+z+t @
G
Proportional-integration - PI "
>S 9 A | { | 9 w @
Refluxing h FG Q r D w @
Calcination +
U zw @
Complementary \ +}w @
Micro systems technology-MST *
? h Qw +C G ?}d ! } 9 + F( y (" w @
G
RET !
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Nanotechnology ? * (! 9 ! 9 + F( y (" w @
Conformation { v9W @ , , q++w @
Electroluminescence + % + +
? F9< Q v ? F9 \ , , 9<Q% v |y~ @
F
Luminescence , (\
F Y 9gV E , ? F 9 + +\ |y~ @ ,
Flocculation O= z@
Annealing #* O z@
Spontaneous j ( qf , 9t z@ , F
Symmetry {C 9 E
Contact S9 E
Coherence x S9 E
Mutually coherent [ O9=@ x S9 E
Saturation magnetization ,f 9 = V b" j E E
Singularities JGO Q q@
w
R+ E,J G
Quadrupole symmetry , f9 < Q Qc9 @ "

Annular symmetry , tzI Qc9 "@
Analog j Qc9 "@
Self-organization O GP + "
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Fine-tuning +
u sO ~ j @ +"
Tune +(
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Docking e9J AyG ,[ +t "@
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Nucleation j ( "@
Convolution AG (A y G
Spherical harmonics *
? h Q v J9 t p G @ + (
Surface tension , Ja S Q@ ( @
Tensile stresses O9 %F G J GQ@ (@
Exfoliating u Q @*(
Conduction { Y @ + (
Combination JGO9 ; G , J9t +p( @
Toluene # *(y( @
Second harmonic generation - SHG P9 C , t + p ( @ O+ y ( @
Tuning r y @ +(
Off-current ,= ! 9 F 9 + @ Q
Photocurrent , ( \ 9 +@ F Q
Supercurrent u F9p Q9 @ +
Current in plane-CIP j (A T | ,p 9 + @ Q
Tubilin # +z+<( +@
Sampling time constant P9 + A f: #|R y G G B< 9 C
Trigonal Q c9 A yG ? C; C " +
Notch ~ zC
Diblock +
? zAw yG , 9 "C
F
Dielectrophoresis - DEP + %
? F9<Q wy G I QG yG % , 9 "C F
Biexciton f (A * 9 Tw * , 9 " C E F
Photodiode , (\ , 9" C
F F e 9}Y
Organic light-emitting diodes - OLED A ( ]z y ? D f 9 < ? * ( ] f ? + 9 " CF J 9| 9}Y
Birefringent Q9T w ! : ?+ 9 "C

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Binary , 9" C ?+ 9 "C

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Merit A GOC ,I QGOF
Graphene _ p QF G
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Quantum bell ,|( }v SQF
Drift n
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Volume fraction , }G I ARF
Chiral molecule ) dG Q +v ( fGh GQ| Aj RF
Biomolecules ? *(+A G J9 8 *R@ G
Analyte molecules ++
? z z I J 98 RF *
Intramolecular \ L , 8*RF GO
Many-body O OgA | ~ TF
Floating-body ~F 9 f v v v v ~ TF
Bulky ~ TF+ n
Particulate ,} + TF q o
Nanoparticulate ? * ( ! 9 ! ?+ } + TF
Hydrogel , 9 | {F
F
Genus U F "
Charge-coupled device CCD "
? JW y G fG Q s E R9 F %
Power supply *
? PjA yG R9 F %
Superconducting quantum + (
{ Y A y G uF 9 p ,|( }v { L O @ 9 %F G R
interference device (squidÂ

Position sensitive detector-PSD hs (C # f r Ww zy
G S 9 TI R9 %F
Belly a (F
Intrinsic jQ $(F
Deflector a Q9I
Stringent OO WA | , eR9 I
Stimuli J GRp9I
Quantum states +(
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Excited states I Q 9 D | J :9 I
State ?y9I
Steady-state QG Q tA S: G ?y9I
Quiescent state )? "v9 S (wT y

( f G ?y9I
State - filling A {| v v v v ?y9I
~uv
Majority carriers + }
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Minority carriers + }
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Carrier ? z|9I
Photo-carrier screening *
?=F 9I ? QZ < ? z|9I
Grains J9= +=I

Charge screening "
? J V > GI
Entropic trapping N QA ! h C RGI
Term +
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q
Abbe term N B OI
Extreme ? OI *
q
Antiferromagnetic IO 9] G C ?+T +_9" jC ?*O *OA G G
Thermogravimetric +!
? Rh ? QGQI *
Critical LQI
Incineration bQI
Stochastic motion +(
? F G Wf ? vQI
Kinetics J9 +vQI
Mobility +
? vQI
Carrier mobility ?z| 9 A ? +vQI

G
Fib C
I R v Q G J9 !(*} G ?|RI
Chemcial beam epitary - CBE + + + +

q
? F9 } w yG { tA yG ?|RI
Gasket ? WI+
q
Confinement Q ZI
Quantum confinement ,| ( } v Q ZI
Pyramidal pits ? |Q + $ QqI
Pit IQqI
Double helix L hO R| P h RzI
v
Analyte ?zz I IO9| ){ F; A G( ?z z +A G
Analyte-permeable IP q "| vvvv ?z zI +

Chromosomal DNA ,j = Z y G jh ( "y G ^} A G
Viral DNA ,S Q+ p
h jh ( ! ^>
~uw
Computation ?= S(I
Quantum computation ?+ |( }v ?= S(I
Vesicles J ;Z * (I
Biomolecular j (+ I , 8 * R F ,? + 8 * RF (+ I
International Technology Roadmap a9v Zv !C 9v +v F(v y(v "v wv Av y ?+yhOv yG uv *Qv av yG ?v _Q9v L
of Semiconductors-ITRS J ; Y( C G
Free radical polymerization q
uV IQ}z< #| dm9L
Digits J9!9L
Magnetic beads ?+ T + a" j| J G RQL
Ceramic , pRL
Optoelectronic properties ? * Q Z < ? + ! h Q A w y E [ F 9 ZL
Line booster R * R g A y G bL
Meridian d(a y G bL
Diagonal jQ a s bL
Coplanar transmission lines j (A T CG IOJ A CG { t" y G W (aL
Fuel cell O (s ( y G 9 * ;L
Thermopiles ? * Q G Q I 9 * ;L
Melt mixing jQ 9 %Z ! G bz L
Defective H( + g | , { z L
Dislocations Y (zL
Cell-mimetic ?+v9I v v ?* (+zL
Algorithms J 9+|R QG(L
Quantum algorithms ? +|(} v J 9+|R QG(L
Filamentous , a+ L
Filamentation ? + a+ L
Filament b++L
Nanofilamentary ? * (!9! ?+ a+ + L
Intra # }\ ,, p { L G O
MTF _} ]@ d 9 t A ! G J : G O
Work function {j Wy G ?y G O
~ux
Thresholding function +
? =Af ?y GO
Lorentzian function * ! (
? RA G Q y ?y GO
Wavefunction + (
? F | ?y GO
Daltons J9 !(Ay GO
Molasses U< O
Extrinsic { LO +
Transition temperature d 9tA !: G hC d ( JA y G I QGQI ?FQ O
Glass transition temperature HF RA y G I QG QI ? FQ O
Notations J9 A *("@ !
, J9 h O | , J :: O
Guiding { yO +
Waveguide , F( | {+ y O
Endohedral &F } h G { LG h O
Endofullerenes J9 "*Q+y (qy G { LG h O
Eigenfunctions #K E dG h O
Vortices (vortex) ) ?|Gh O( J9|Gh O
On and off cycles b; iE h K Ap J GQh O
Periodicity *
? Qh O
Subthreshold ?=A gyG fh O
Submicron *
? hQw | fh O +
Aromatic diamine j Qaf _ |9* O
Dialysis IRz O *
Thermodynamic *
? QGQ I ? w |9+ + "* O
Random access memory-RAM , (W gy (Y (y

FG G )d G h C( P 9q "y Qv G I GP
Magnetoresistive random acces ,T + a" j C 9 tC , (W gy

G eh G FG G d ( Y( y Q v G I GP
memory-MRAM
Interstitial atoms +
? FQ p J G Q P
Serif aQ A ^ f & < ,% " * bL ? < 9 !

G C
o
: P
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Resin H"+@ GQ
Tip SC Q
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Quaternary o
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h G Q
Quadrant (quadrants) )J 9+g< ?+g< Q( Q
Order ?=@ Q
Third order ? Dy9C ?=@ Q
Resilient !
? hQ| , ,f (F
q o n
Q
Sputtering *
P PQ @ ,?V QV Q
Wafer QpGh , ?s9s Q
Figure of merit IQGO @ &F

G h ,b 9 tJ A S :G ~s Q
Digital , }s Q
Corner stone *
? h G Ry G Q GI , #v Q
Substrate S9S C I O9| , IR +v Q
Nuclear magnetic resonance-NMR jh ( ! ,T + _9 " j| #+ ! Q
Dangling bonds ? +yOA| b < Gh Q
Rhodopsin _ T< hOh Q
Stencil ~ Sh Q
Brillouin f9 hQ*
Ribosomes J9|h R (=* Q
Overglass OFGR L 9F R
Glass passivation , =zS L 9F R
Crawling rIR
Momentum ~L R
Spin momentum ) [ Ri , }*
( , hO @ ~L R
Angular momentum jh G R ~L R
Spin angular momentum ,| h O jh G R ~L R
Orbital angular momentum j Q G O | jh G R ~L R
Superhalo implant $ (p? y9 b YQ R
Nanomechanical paddle ?* (!9! ?+ w+!9w +| r !9f R
Fin "
?q f R
~uz
Torsional paddle + ! "
? y9Aq G ?t f R
Time - multiplexing OO gA| \ < 9 t@ #| vvvv R
Relaxation time A9 LQ A S: G #| R
Capture time a9tAy: G #| R
Switching time *
{ O =AyG #| R
Settling time QG Q t A S ;y eR : #| R
Aberration PhP V ,H G Q a\ G ,k R *
Static # v9S
Ternary alloys +
? C ;C x F 9 = S
Heptagon Y ;\ } , f9=S
G
Precession u =T yG
Plug flow u pO @ I OGOS
Platter QOS
Magnetic platter , T+ _9 " j | QOS
Group velocity h} @ G ? fQS
Rapid reversal H ;t G ! ? g QS *
Imaging focal plane jQ (Y jQ | < K aS
Air-bearing -surface ABS AG (% y G vvvv {} I K aS
Meniscus {F 9 Tzy [ ;$ K aS
Capacity ?gS
Capacitance microscopy *% C
? Q G G ?gS
Scaffold ?y9tS
Chirp ?t TtS
Low chirp ?] qM | ?t TtS "

Population f 9wS
Silicon on insulator- SOI dR 9f b

m
(p ( w+zS
f
Doped silicon H9W | f ( w+zS

Synchrotron ) , "| R @
G Y QT |( fh Q@hQ w "S
Eutectic Q9 %Z !: ?z%S G
Hard drive > z Zy G ? s G S (
~u{
Hard disk drive ! ( } & s (S
? = z Zy G ? G a S G G
Disadvantage ?=zD | ,r g\ ?at , ?8 S ! +

Processive Q
v
9+S
Poling process H 9 a tA S :G I Q hQ +S
Planar process ? * (A T| IQ hQ +S
Tapping mode operation " +
Qt yG ? g\ h IQ hQ S +
Feedback control IO@Q G C ?*P jAy9< IQ a +S
Shallow hydrogenic Impurity ?zJ \ ? + "+F h QO + $ ?= 9V F
Generic { |9V
Long Haul networks ?z * (_ ?p 9 TC ?+ @ (= w " f J 9w=V
Jelly network + $ ?w=V

? |;
Lattice +
? w =V , ?w=V
Pseudocrystalline
q
jQ (z< &=V
Quasiparticle ~ TF+ &=V
Pseseudo gap I ( Gp & = V
Quasi-discrete ? zZq | " &=V
Dendrimer > gW A y G j QGV
Charging # JW y G
Transient charges IQ< 9f J 9 " JV

Transient charges IQ< 9f J 9 " JV
Intensity )O OV( , IOV
x
Boundary condition C
? | 9 M A G WQ V ,j OI W QV
Indium - flush e (*O ! C v v vv r aV
Capillarity j Qg V ,? *QgV
Superlattice ?tF9p ? QgV *
v
Flanges &qW | > +vQ@
o
, g9qV
Motif ,S 9 S C { wV
Allotropic \ Y5 @ { wV
Profile A9} + S , =!9F { wV
,
Gaussian form ,S h9i { wV
~u|
Dopants >FG V (
Stringer ?| Q9Y
Spin casti [R i > Y , | , hO >Y
Sheet ?J qY +
Array ) r F 9 q Y( +
? q qY
Dilute array ? qq J ? q+qY

Hardness ? < ;Y
Rigidity ? < ;Y
Spin valve *
~ hOAy G e 9}Y
Sonication "(
? @ Y
Image IQ (Y
Outline [M z| ,? y9 + = E IQ (Y
Profile ,S CQ +
ha t| , A9} S ,? = 9F I Q Y +! (
Micrograph ? Q* %H (Y IQ
Sol gel ){ F vvvv d (Y ,| ;$ (Y

( d
Focus control IQ |=y G b<9\
Intrinsic quantum noise jQ $ (F , |( }v H + G\

Electrokinetic pumping ,v QI Q% v N\ h
Gon hz\
Interband b 9a "y # }\
G
Photovoltaic , ( ]A y ( p ? + ( ] A y ( p
F , F
Photo luminescence +(
? F \ ? ty @ + z
Ground state +
? \ QC ?s9_
Activation energy + "

b W AyG ?s9_
Energy band bending b 9a "y 9"J!

G A C ?s9_
Strain energy d9g q G ! ?s9_
Gibbs free energy IQ A G U= F ? s 9 _
Free energy IQ I ?s9_
Energetic ?s9 ayG ~z f ,j s9_ (

Nanotransfer Printing j (!9 "y G d9t A ! :9 < ? f9 = _
~u}
Micro contact printing jhQ w +C G U | ;A y 9 < ? f9 = _
Cladding layers +
? aj@ J 9t=_
Specular layers +
? @BQ| J 9t=_
Monolayer *
? O9I C ?t=_
Inversion layer H ;t !: G "

? t a | , H; t : G ? t = _ !
Seed layer *
? Q P< ?t=_
Epitaxial layer k
*( "
9 Q z< I9} | ?t=_ , ? z t@ ?t=_ ++
Layer-by-layer LBL ?t=_ ( z@ ?t=_
Wet layer-WL ?=_ Q ?t=_
Hole transport layer-HTL H ( tDy G { t ?t=_ !

Single Buried sacrificial layer IQ ( }a| ? +!9<Q s O+I I h ?t=_
Nanolayered ? *(! 9! ?+t=_

Heads or tails ?W t hC IQ_ !
Lead a Q_
Interferometry {L G OA y G bQ_
Plane wave expansion method - PWEM ? * (AT C G ?F (C G OO E ? t*Q_

Weak phase object approximation , =*QtA y G +
r g] yG ~ T @ (_ G Q
WPOA
Interphase , "+< (_ Q
Microphase j hQw +| (_ Q
Persistent length j QGQ }AS G d (_

Coherence length xS 9 } A y G d _ (
Transmission spectrum d9 tA !: G r _ +
Layered clay ,t = _ __
Phenomenological + $
? @G Q 9c
Drawback uF 9 f
Steric hindrance ,i Qp u 9 f
G F ,j R +I u 9f F
Transient Q<9 f
Beam ?\ Q9 f
Stretching beam IO A F ?\ Q9 f
~u~
Dielectric , 9<Q% v
F dR9 f
Bragg reflectors Z G Q < J9 T v 9 f
Reduction factor +
^ q MA y G {|9 f
Heat-capacity convolution factor + ( "y

? f G IQG Q A G a9qA yG {|9 f
Surfactant ,J aT y Q@ (A y G G {|9 f
Quality factor IO (@ G {|9 f
Fill factor-FF A{ G C {|9 f
Threshold ?=A f
Percolation threshold
q
{z < ?=A f
Optical lever *
? QZ < ?zA f
Coulter counter ,C QI G OGO f
Stoichiometric number |p9w Ay G OO f
Principal quantum number ,S 9 S , |(} vC OO f
pH , "+F hQO +$ OO f
Scalar j OO f
Uncertainty _t + y G eO f
Non volatile *
Q 9 a@ eO f
Decoherence xS9 E eO f
Aggressive P GhO f
Liquid crystal display-LCD jQ ( z=y G {F 9 Ty G VQ f
Trackwidth xzT G VQ f C
Bandwidth b 9a "y G VQ f
Linewidth b L VQ f
Full-width at Half-Maximum-FWHM )Z s } OAG G ! "

rZ O f { |9v VQ f
Torque *
Q hO AyG eR f
Magnetic moment )? +T +_9 "jC G eh Rgy G( ,T + _9 " j| eR f
Icosahedron & F } ," * QW f

h G
Stochastic ? FG Wf +(
Polymer latexes * + ( +"= y
? Q} y < ? JGQ 9Zf
Inertially k
9 y9a f +
~vu
Aromatic *
? Qa f
Ferroelectric , 9 <Q%w y
F G H 9 atA S: G ? *(q f
Coulomb blockade >| y v ?=t f((
One decade OI Gh Ot f
Turbidity IQw f
Counterclockwise ? f9T yG H Q9tf f GQh O g9 : G Uwf
Reversible ?S w f (
Sign ? |; f
Interferometric , (] y
F G +
{L G OA y 9 < S 9 ty G ~z f
Calorimetry * C
? Qg T G , IQGQ A G dO 9=@ ~z f
Energetics ?s9a yG e z f (
Nanoscience ? *(! 9! (z fe
Crossbar architecture C
?= y9Z A G ?\ Q9gy G I Q9} f
Lifetime Q} f
Fatigue time >g A y G Q } f
Lapping process +
{ tZ yG IQh Q S , > vGQA yG ? z} f +
Lasing QR +z y ? +z} f
G
Chemical mechanical process-CMP + +! + + + + +

? w 9w | ? F 9 } v ? z} f
Distort L (f
Factoring ? z| f (
Defects H (+ f
Gas chromatography P (y R9 i
Molecular sieving +*
? 8 RF ?z<Q i
Colloidal P GhQ i ,j hQ i
Spin d hR i ,J 9|Gh O , ,| hO , dR i
Blended film W (zJ A9W i
Amorphous jQ ( z<: , jQ (z< Q+ i

Irrelevant ?zY j P Q i +
Irreversible S ( wf Q+ i
Achiral [ Q+v Q+ i
G
~vv
Unoccupied d ( $z| Q+ i
Nonmagnetic ,T + _9 " j| Q+ i
Spacer Of 9=| ,{ Y 9p
Radioactive +
? f 9gV E ? zf 9p +
Numerical aperture *
? O Ogy G ? JA q y G
Stop band IO9Y I (G p

Spectroscopic gap + +
? p9 a | I G p (
Voids J 9iGQ p
Lobe [p
Separation of variables JG Q +jA C G {Z p
Separation by Implantation of _ GT v} G YQR < {Z p
oxygen -SIMOX
Back action , qzB G {gq y G
Untangling xp
Decoded +
Q qW AyG xp
Optical fluorescence *
? QZ < IQ z p (
Fluorescence + +
? F9 \ ,? Q z p *(
Phosphosilicate glass-PSG +
? F9 F R J 9 w z S qS p + ( (
Disordered ? * ( \( p
Deep UV +
u }g yG ,G Tq " = y ( p G b
Supramolecular + * @ (p
? 8 R G b
Hall voltage d ( $ ?+Ay( p

Fullerenes J9 " *Q+y( p
Incar-fullerenes I R F9 I J 9 " *Q+y( p
Phonon f ( !(q y G
Longitudinal acoustic phonons +( +(

? y _ ? @ Y J9 !(!( p
In-plane j ( A TC , p G
Empirical j Q9=AL G , , =*Q: , ? < Q GA y G ^f ~ 9s F
Miscible L GRA|; y {< 9 s
Crosslinkable +
x = W A zy {< 9 s
~vw
Tractable > JT z y {< 9 s
Ductile ++
? z a | ,> JT z y {< 9 s
Thermoplastic # vvF GOvvy ,jQGQvvI xvvAvvS;vv< ,IQGQvv A 9 < #+ z A z y ? z < 9 s

vv vv vv vv vv vv vv
?* QI QG
Reconfigurable +
{ wW AyG IO9 fE ? z< 9s +
Tunability r y AyG ? z< 9s +( +
Solubility f 9<hP yG +
? z< 9s
Adressability ? !("g y ?+z< 9s G
Tunability spectra a9 + _} G +( +
r y @ ? z< 9s
Rigid +
? S 9s
Bottom-up ^f C v vv v Y 9 s
Isolated pentagon rule - IPR d hRg G C ,S 9 }B G IOf 9s
Rule of thumb + B
S9vvvvv vvvvvs , IQvvvvv=vvvvv G hC C ^f?}
?vvvvvSQ9vvvvv} G vvvvv vvvvv vvvvvF9vvvvvs IOvvvvvf 9vvvvvs
, =*Qt @
String of bits J9A + < # | ?zp 9s
Template >y 9 s
Matrix (
? p q Z| , >y 9 s
Canonical P (! 9s
Geodesic domes + * (+F
? T O H9 = s
Cap ?g =s
Hydrophobic functionalities +
? F9 | : ? q ch J GQO s ++
Thermopower *
? QGQ I IQO s
Ballistic +
? pP s
Sacrificial ?< G hP ,? 9<Q s +!

Iridescent color fG (y } ? + IR s
G
Flake IQ +W s
Pellicle +
?t sQ I Q W s +
Undercut \q S C [s
Inertia ?y 9af , O GP Q (Z s
Polarity +
? =a s
~vx
Dual hydropholic - polar (h-p) A9} zy $
? Q 9v ?F hOR | ? =a s +
Metropolitan segment of telecom. *
? Q \9 A G Og < #f J :9 Z @ : G ?ga s
Potential segment f ( }w y G ?ga s
Segmented , ga s
Parabolas ? 8p9w | Y a s (
Thermal hopping jQ G Q I Rq s
Inverter , Tw f ( I d ,H ; s
Pilot pen \+y O ~z s
Oligo (" +
?z s ,U t | Q jY { z s +
Top-down { qS C vvvv ?} s
Vertices ~} s
Mask Y9 "s
Photomask , ( \ 9 "s
F Y
Coercivity *%
? Q s
Restoring force I O 9 gA S :G I (s
Shear force [tyG I s (
Osmotic force +
? J\ 9 @ I s " (
Drag force QF I s (
Sinusoidal driving force ++
? = F IR p9I I s (
Electromotive force-e.m.f + %
? F9< Q v ?g pGO I s (
Electromotive force + %
? F9<Q v ?v Q I (s I
Electric arc , 9<Q%v

F S (s
Shell ?gs s (
Solvation forces H hGP AyG i (s
Dispersion forces +
E AW AyG i s (
Steric forces J GQP yG > @ Q@ i s + (
Stoichiometry j QZ " gy 9 ;:
G O G S9 +s
Analytical mass spectrometry \ +zJ Ay \ Awy G G r a y G S9 s+ +
Electrospray mass spectrometry jP G P Q | hQ % wy \ Awy
G G r a y G S9 s+ +
Contour plot measuring + C
b J G ~ S Q S9 s +
~vy
Inertial measurement +
? y 9 a f J 9 S9 s +
Eigenvalues # K ~ +s E
Gylcocalyx j QwS S zv
Detector U I r V9 v
Hot embossing Q9I U= v
Cryptographic *
? QTy G ? < 9 A w y G
Write Xt , ?<9A v!
Spintronic +!
x h QAyR i ,?| G hO J 9 h QAw yG +!
Organic optoelectronic ? * ( ]f ? * Q Z < ? + ! h QAw yG
Block ~ T
p
+
F , \A v
Areal storage density +
? I9 T G C # *RM Ay G ?p9D v
Latex spheres +
? _ 9a| J 9 Q v *
Stiffness IA9T F , IRGR v
Differentiate gain \\ 9 q @ > T v

Broadband gain b9 a "y G VQf >Tv
Proportional gain "

>S 9 A | > T v
Polar fraction-f ,= a s QT v
Average polar fraction +
? = atyG b S A| QT v (
Break-junction (
?zY yG vvvv QT v
Moiety IQT v
Efficiency IA9q v
Luminous efficiency + z
? ty AyG hC ? F9 ] yG IA9q v+ +
Confinement potential QZ A (} v
G f
Streaming potential , tp (} v
O f
Electroosmosis , 9 < Q%v K \ 9 " @ , J\ 9 " @ Q% v

F , h
Piezoelectric ,a j\ Q% v h
Electrochemically , 9 +}+v Q% v
F h
Microlecttromechanical-MEMS j hQ w +| , w+!9 w+| Q% v h
Nanoelectromechanical j (!9! , w+!9 w+| Q% v h
Bio-MEMS ? *(+I ?* vvvv h Qw +| ? +w+!9 w+| Q% v

vvvv h
~vz
Electroactive b V9 hQ v ! %
Electromigration IQ G $ Q% v
h
Collagen _ F :( v
Stack ?| v (
Cubits J9 A +<(+ v
Anisotropy Q ( JC G a ;A L9 < U G ( B #* 9 = @ , I9 " @ :
G ,
Nonlinear , aL :
Anisotropic UG (B #* 9 = @
G ,UG ( B ,I 9 " A | :
G
Noncovalent ? + G 9 T@ :
Corollary ? |R:
Derivatization b9 t A V:
Opacity +
? p9 qV:
Label ~ Sh , ? s 9 a < ,u Y:
Electroless , 9<Q %v:

F
Infinite , 98:F
Bond pads b <QyG J GO9 =y

q
Building blocks A9 "< J9 " =y

Synthons "
? z Z q | J9 = y "
Latex ) QGW y G #= y ) D y
( ,
Plasticity
o
!
? GO y
Scrolls rF9q y
Desorption C (C
IR A} G OG G eq y
Hydrolytic biodegradation , 9C ( +A
F G j G { z JA y G
Technological platform )? + F( y (" w @ ?+ ! 9 t@ ?I( y

(
Microhotplate * +
? h Qw | IQ9I ?I y (
Chiral superhelices + +
? y GQ v ? tF9p J9 =y y + (
Chromatic P( y
Liposomes J9|h R (= +y
Stealth liposomes + !
? y; T G J9|h R = y (+
Lipids f ($ O ,J GO += +y
~v{
Dip-pen lithography C
U }j G ~zt yG 9 pGQ i D y + (+
Scanning probe lithography C
K S9 G U G G 9 pG Q i D y C + (+
Lithography ,9 +p Q i(D +y
G
Excimer laser K 9 D J A SG QR +y
Diode laser , 9"C R +y
F Q
Vertical cavity surface emitting +( (

? y s 9 W y G I G q z y E f9 = y G Ka Ty G J G QR y +
lasers-VCSELS
Light-emitting diodes - LEDS A ( ]z y ? D f 9 < J GQR +y
Distributed Bragg reflector-DBR U v9gy G Z GQ< YR | J GQR y ( +
Hydrophilic A9 }zy > I hC A9 }zy rz@ | |
Metastable C &=V
QtA T G ,QG QtAS G ?As | |
Transconductance ? zY+ (C G AGQh 9|
Microfluidics *
? hQw | J 9 gF9 | + +
Microfluidic *
? h Qw | ? gF9 | + +
Nanofluidic ? *(! 9! ?+g 9 | F
Fluidity ?f (+| ?+g 9 |

, F
Resist )? +s Gh( ?g 9 !F IO9 |
Scanning tunneling ,tq ! K S9 |

Macrocyclic *
? Q hOh Qv9 |
Donors _ J! 9 |
Occupied d ($z |
Confocal b QJ }A| , QF9= |
Truncated Q (A= |
Pauli exclusion principle [ h 9 < O9 g= A SG C O= |
Switch d GO= |
Heat sinks *
? QG Q I J :O= |
Fast switches *
?g Q S J :O= |
Protonate # @Q= |
x
Optical susceptilbilities *
? QZ < J 9 *QCzA |
x
Susceptibility +
? S9 T I ,? fG _ , + ( ? *QCzA |
~v|
Allotrope { Y5 A |
Durability ? 9A | !
Yield strength HA "C ?!9A |
G
Reciprocal d O9=A |
Scattered Q Dg=A |
Residual u= A |
m
Enatiomers I O 9 ] | JG Q (z=A |
Vector { |9 I , GA | & n n o
Wavevector , F( | & GA |
Coaxial Q (J C G OJA |
Quad-psds +
? f 9<Q h s ( C # f r W w z y UT J A |
G
Solvated H hGPA |
Inequality ? " *9=A| , ? JF G QA |
Conjugated ? tpGQA |
Collinear B |9 TA |
Isotherm I QGQ A G ? F Q O jh 9 TA |
Continuum { ZA |
Polyelectrolyte +
B yhQA wy G O OgA |
Polyhedron ) &F }
h G JG O O g A | ( &F } h G O OgA |
Multilayer J9 t = a y G O O g A |
Polycyclic J GQ hOyG IO OgA |
Multi-faceted J9 %+F (y G IO OgA |
Multivalent |p9 wAy G hO OgA |
Heterostructured ? +"=y G IQ *9jA |

Lumpy { AwA |
Coherent xS 9 } A |
Assembly counterpart + : ~}A |

h }
Isotropic , I9 " A |
Sophisticated ?s ("A |
Parallel RG
m
(A |
~v}
Antiparallel-AP )j RG (A y G O9] |( O9] | j RG (A |
Simultaneous BsG A | (
Average molecular shape , 8*R@ G {w Wy G b S A | (
Mean free path Q A G Q9T G C bS A| (
Gravimetric [9 tD |
Gravimetric [9 tD |
Thermal desorption j QG QI H|
Field d9 H
Bright field h_ 9 Ty G d 9 G G C
Coercive field jQ %s 9H d
x
Pinning field B =D| d9 H
v
Fringing field HO % | 9H d
Shear fields [ ty G J :9 H
Stray fields I OQ 9 V J :9 H
Scanned-probe K S9 | U H
Batch processing J9 @9g C G {} H
Amino groups ? +"+| C J9f (}H
Carbon clusters ? +!(<Q v ?* ( t"f O J9f (}H
Hydroxyl groups ++
? z T vhQ O +$ J9f (}H
Cluster *("
? O t f ?f } ( H
Lateral force microscope + ! @ ( ty Q%H
? = 9 G I G
Atomic force microscope AFM jQ Py G I ( ty Q%H G
Scanning force microscope SFM , JT C ( t y Q%H

G I G
Scanning probe microscope- SPM C

K S9 G U G G Q C %H
Near field scanning optical *
> Qt y G {tJ zy , (] y
F G KT G Q C %H
microscope-nsom (SNOM)
Scanning tunneling microscope-STM , tq "y G KT G Q C %H
Transmission electron microscope-tem P hQ Awy G d9t A !: ? *Q%H
G
Atomic force microscopy * (

? QP yG I ty G ? Q * %H
Scanning electron microscopy - SEM +!
? hQ AwyE K T G ? Q C * %H
~v~
Cryo-transmission electron microscopy- C
O Q= G f hQAw y G d 9tA G ! ? *Q%H
cryo-TEM
Phase contrast Microscopy - PCM Q (a y Q*9j @ ? *Q%H
G
Scannig tunneling microscopy - STM C + ! * %H

?J S9 G ? tq ? Q
Biomimetic ? * (+ I ? T* 9 t| ?* (+A , 9v9I G I
Synthetic mimics ? +=+vQ @ 9v9I I
Electroneutrality ?+ 9 <Q%v O*9I F I
Electrophilic 9! QAw y
J ?=I
h
Nucleophilic ( "zy ?=I IG
Step motor ( aL
JG QI hP c
Biological motors ?+F (y( +< 9vQI J
Biomotors ?*(+ I 9vQI J
x
Diffraction grating (+A RI O G IR
Bragg grating Q< RI ZG Rh
Arrayed waveguide gratings-AWG ~ d" | , F( | {+ y RI O Rh
x
Force amplified biological sensor-FABS ( s ~ M ]| ( + I UI
I j
Quantum dot infrared ?+| (}v ? at! Q } A B; ? g V ~ y , ( \ UI

AG G F
photodetector - QDIP
Fingerprint biometric ? *(+A G h=Y } G ?t =_ J9T I
Inductive sensors ?D I J9T I
Decomposed
q
?zz I
Analytical solution \ +z; (zI d
Free solution d9L d (zI

Contour disk UQt yG b+ I
Issues L Q9M G C
Media scaling issues W 9 Sh } ~ + G;
G LQ 9J
Holey J ?|Q
Nanocone (!9! QJ
j Wh
Chelator O; + v ,= z J ,
Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital- d ( $z C Q + i )! } , 8 * R@

G O G G QGO G C
LUMO
~wu
HuÈ ckel molecular orbital- HMO , 8*R@ G {v ($ QGO |
Highest occupied molecular orbitals - ?y ( $zC ^ f} ? +8*R @

G G G J GQGO G C
HOMO's
Unoccupied molecular orbitals -LUMO's ?y ( $z| Q+ i ?+8*R F J GQGO |
Entry { LO |
Mesoscopic b S A | iO |(
Harmonic oscillator ,tp (@ G H P P| *
Worm micelle j Oh O { P|*
Correlated %
^g =yG 9 ] g=< ?a =@Q G C
Anchors J G R w@Q |
Filter KV
p
Q|
o
Optical notch filters *

? QZ < ? }zD | J 9 J VQ |
Interdgitated k
+
9 zL GO ~sQ |
Quantum dot composite-QDC ~wy G ? at > vQ | !

Multiexciton complexes # A*9T w* G OOg A| J 9=vQ |
Ligands &
, v v< 9v vV *
9v v| hC J9v v8v v Rv vF ,J9v v !( *
v v C IOv vtv vgv v| J9v v=v vv Qv v|
JG O !9j +y
Nanocomposites ? *( !9! J 9=vQ |
Stress-concentrators O9 %F G J GRvQ |
Resonator f9 !Q |
Mechanical resonators + +! +
? w 9w | J9 9 Q | !!
Thermoelastic *
? QGQI ? hQ | !
Viscoelastic ?FR y ? hQ | !
Intermixing \L G O LR |
Amphiphilic ++
x z q |C ,d (+C G L hOR |
Amphilies ?qy } G 9F hOR |

x
Lubricant ?tyR |
Areal +
? I 9T |
Assisted tunneling , tq! O f9T |
~wv
Parity IG h9T |
Probe +
{ | ,U H ,Q 9=T |
Optical lever readout *

? QZ = y G ?z A g y G LQM A T |
Tapering b OAT |
Sensor QgW AT |
Recovered O9 gAT |
Biological receptors ? *( +I J; =tAT |
Planar Ka T| , A T | (
Acceptor level C (
{= tA G i A T |
Intersublevel- VISL , " + < ,f Qp (A T | i
Discrete levels ? g a t A | J9 * (AT |

Blank ZGQp j Q9f , r +d! , KT |
Track xzT |
Cross-track h _9t @ v v v v x zT |
Retrograde-doped I Qt %t @ ?<9W |
Grating gratings C
x< 9 W G ? w = W |
Organosilane precursors j ( ]f f; +S J9tAW |
Human Genome project j QW =yG e (" +@ G Yh QW |
x
Actuator { jW |
Mechanical actuators + +! +
? w 9w | J ; jW |
Encoded I QqW |
Focus lamp jQ |< M 9=Z|
Mercury arc lamp ,t = ,S (s

FR M 9=Z|
Source Q OZ |
Liquid metal ion source - LMIS {F 9 S fO g| J 9 !(* C Q OZ |
Drain a QZ |
Lightly doped drain LDD ?qq J ?<9V E hP a QZ |
Identity matrix ? t<9a A| ?p qZ | (

Compliant matrix (
? tpG A| ?p qZ | (
Heavy-duty IO9 }Z |
~ww
Counterions IO9] | J9 !(* C , J9 !(*} G JG O 9 ] |
Anti-static A9<Q % wzy IO 9]|
Photomultiplier , ( \ rf 9 ] |
F
Frequency doubling OOQ AyG ?qf 9] |
Electron pump !
J 9 hQ AwyE ?M ] |
Optically-pumped *
? Q Z< ? M ] |
Lock-in amplifier e9 w IE ~M ] |
Erbium doped. Fiber amplifier-EDFA H9W G C r zy e + ( +< QE ~M ] |
Pre-amp eO tA| ~M ] |
Proportional amplifier "

> S 9 A| ~M ] |
Semiconductor optical Amplifiers - SOA ( ! *

? z Y | rZ ? Q Z< J 9 } M ] |
Mathematical identities + *
? \9 Q J9 t < 9 a |
Elastomer , =+vQ @ W9a |
Spectroscopy + +
? p9 a |
Fluorescence correlation jQ ( zqy C

G d O9 = A G W 9 = @ Q:G + +
? p9 a |
spectroscopy-FCS
Photoemission spectroscopy , ( ]y
F G K9g = !: ?+ p9+a |
G
Scanning tunneling spectroscopy STS ,t q" y G C + +

K T G ? p9 a |
Calorimetric spectroscopy *
? Qg T G ? p9 a |C + +
Calorimetric spectroscopy jQ G Q I d O 9 = @ + +
? p9 a |
Raman spectroscopy f 9|GQ + +

? p9 a |
Tunneling spectroscopy + ! + +
? tq ? p9 a |
Shaded { zd |
Continuity equations *
? Q G Q } A S : G J: O 9 g |
Transition metals + !
? y9tA G f O9g |
Processor Hy9g |
Microprocessors *
? Q j Y J9 @9 g |
Processing ? @9 g |
Transmission coefficient * "
? P 9q yG { |9g| , d9t A : G { |9g | !
Ductility coefficient ++ C
? z a G { | 9 g | , >J T y G { | 9 g |
~wx
Impedance ? sh9g |
Titration IQ *9g |
Nanotitration ? *(!9 ! Q*9g |
I
Inspection ? "*9g |
Relaxation rates A 9 L Q A S G J: O g |
Complex Otg |
Suspensions J9tzg |
Parameter s' l, , QA| GQ< ,? }zg |
Standard j Q9 +g |
Permanent magnets ?}FGO b 9j | !
Encapsulants J9qzj |
Vesicle encapsulators + *( I
? zZ J9qzj |
Ferromagnetic + + " q
+ * *
? T _ 9 j| hQ p , ? O OI ? T _9 j | + + "
Ferromagnet jO *OI U +a"j |
Magnetostatic P( wS , T + a" j |
Magnetomotive +
? vQI ? T a j | + + "
Bohr magnetron Q (< f hQ a +"j |
Exchange interaction +
? yO9=@ { f9q | +
Hall-effect d ($ (gq |
d
Expansion c (wq |
Asymptotically ? <Q9t |
Complex conjugate I Otg | !

? Q9t |
Clearing * +"
u h Q @ ,? t @ ,? Y9 t |
Photoresistive doped silicon ,a j\ eh9t |
Piezoresistive ,a j\ eh9t |
Magnetoresistive , T+ _ 9 " j | eh9t |
Giant magnetoresistive b; }f , T+ a" j | eh9t |
Tunneling magnetoresistance read ?F Q9tyG ShD QyG , p ,tq ! , T+ a" j | eh9t |
heads
Wear resistance ^= y G ? |h9t |
~wy
Shunting resistance QZ tyG ? |h9t |
Ballistic magnetoresistance-BMR )? + A T+ y 9 = y ?+ p Pty ?+ T+ a " jC

G( G G ?| h9t G C
Magnetoresistance + + "
? T _ 9 j| ? |h9t |
Giant magnetic resistance-GMR + + "

?s; }f ? T _ 9 j| ? |h9t |
Anisotropic magnetoresistance-AMR + " + + "

? I9 A | : ? T _ 9 j| ? |h9 t |
Colossal magnetoresistance- cmr IQ 9=F + + "

? T a j| ? |h9t |
Enormous magnetoresistance - EMR ? zF9 $ ? + T+ a " j| ? | h9t |
Photoresistivity +
? aj \ ? |h9t | +
Bulk resistivity +
? zAv ? |h9t | +
Bulk resistivity +
? zAv ? |h9t | +
Resistivity ? f + (! ?| h9t | ,? +|
q
h9t |
Swap *
?] 9t |
Convective accelerometers jQ G Q A G {} A G YQ 9 T@ U +*9t |

Intercalants J 9 } Jt |
Yoke fQt |
Bolometer * A ?+f 9gV

? QGQ G G ?s 9ayG S 9 t | +
Quadrupole mass spectrometer-QMS H9a s } , f9 < Q y \A w y
G G G +
r ayG S 9 t | +
Ellipsometric - measure "
[s9 yG h atyG S 9 t | +
Elastometer ! C
? h Q G S9 t | +
Discrete accelerometer "
{ Z q | YQ 9 T@ S 9 t | +
Small scale integration SSI +
Q j Y {| 9 w@ S 9 t | +
Mesoscopic , aS (A| S9 +t |
Nanoscale j (!9! S9 +t |
Criterion Q9 +g| ,b <9\ ,S 9 +t |
Photodetector , (\ rV 9v , (\
F , F a 9 Ww |
Body-centered cubic-bcc ~T @ G jR v Q | > gw |
Face-centered cubic-FCC & F( y G jR v Q | > gw |
Cubic-close-packed + (
> \ AyG { qt| > gw |
Machine "
? w|
Key components + +
? T F Q J9 !(w |
~wz
v
Annealed fOz |
Pipette
n
F q
[ p
Bare region QH u _9" |

IO
Perspectives O$9W | Q +c9" | ,
Enzyme - linked immunosorbent-ELISE b= @ Q| ~* R ! } RA|: ?f9" |

RG G
Enzyme - linked immunosorbent-ELISE b= @ Q| ~* R ! } RA|: ?f9" |

RG G
Manipulator "|Qh9
Nanomanipulator j (! 9! 9" |
Qh
Platform "
Q= |
Degenerate { J" |
Single-degenerate !
j OGQ q G vvvv {J | " o
Mastercurve ,T + ) " J" |

FQ
Transfer curve (vI )"J"|

d
x
Bisector r Z" |
Brillouin zone fG (*Q < ? ta" |

Depletion region H (] ! ? ta" |
x
Heart pacemeaker >z t y G JG (aL ~d" |
Ink jet Q=I Eq" |
Discrete ? z Zq |"
Oligonucleotide + (+zv (+!
O @ ,O +A*( "y G U (t" |
Excited Q9D| , H +% |
Chemisorbs C ?+ 9+}+w y
IRA } G F G OG (C G
Charge-offset ? " JW y G vvvv f RG (|

Offset ! (
? RG |
To offset ?! (|
RG
Evanescent waves , V; A y G J 9 F( |
Surface evanescent waves " * 9 F( |

k
Ka Ty G O f 9 g QS ? z F G R J
Traveling waves ? |Ot A| J 9 F( |
Standing waves (( (
?p s | J9F | , ?qs A| J ( 9 F( |
Traveling - wave dielectrophoresis- + % % , 9"D y ? p(s( |

? F9<Q wyG IQ G y G F J9F (|
TWDEP
~w{
Plane wave ? * ( A T | ? F( |
Uniform ~d A | ,O I |" (
Gene ?CQ | (
Conductance + (
? zY |
Conductivity + (
? zY |
Superconductivity ?t F9p ? z Y | + (
Magnetoconductance + + "
? T a j| ? z Y | + (
Rest position P (wS hs( |
Monomers JGQ +| (!( |
Variable optical Attenuators-VOA I
x
Q+jA | ?*QZ < J9 "$( |
p
Mithochondria 9 QO* !( v(A+ |

Mesas J9T +|
Microelectronics +!
? hQA wyGh Qw | +
Steep subthreshold slope ? =AgyG f hO j QGOJ G { | ! +
Cantilever d (<9w y G ,A )@ 9 " y G
Region chemistry A9 + }+v ?+I 9!vvvv
Partially depleted-PD k
+
9 F RF >\ 9 !
Hydrophobic A 9}zy g Q9v hC A9 }zy Qp 9 !
Oligomeric J9 } + T s ? Zs 9 !
Tone !
~j ,IQ = !
Delineate +
? a L YR !
Filling ratio A{ G C ?=T !
Aspect ratio $ (
? 9F yG ?=T ,? f 9< ?=T ! + !
Rectification ratio ~ *( t@ ?=T !
Uniformly OI | uT ( !
Radius of gyration + *
? } h OAy G ? vQ A G Qas r Z !
Bohr radius Q $( < Qas r Z !
Semi log ,} A * Q 9i (y rZ !
Semiconductor {Y | r Z ( !
N-type semiconductor n vvvv Y (! {Y (| r Z !
~w|
Luminance Y (Z !
Ostwald ripening (
O y G A ShG L ] ( !
Flip-flop H ;s , W9 a !
Valence band-VB A ( p9w Ay G b9 a !
Conduction band-CB + (
{ Y A y G b9 a !
Parabolic band approximation ,= * Q tA y r p 9 wC
G G hat y G b9 a !
Band offset ! (C
? RG G b9 a !
Bandgap I (G p b9 a !
Electronic bands +!
? hQA wyE J 9s9a !
Micro total anaylsis system-MTAS j hQw +C G +
{| 9 wy G { zJ A y G e9 d !
Global positioning navigation hs (C O* OJA y ? I; C
G G e9d !
system-GPNS
Nanoelectromechanical system-NEMS j (!9 ! , w+ !9w+ | Q %v h e9d !
Orthodox theory + (
? Tv P C Q C ? Qd * !
Transmittance * "
? P9q yG
Electric susceptibility + % * !
? F 9<Q v ? P9 q
Tunneling ,t q!
Sequential tunneling +
? g <9A@ ? t q + !
Coherent tunneling +
? wS 9 E ?+t q!
Co-tunneling ? vQ9W | ? t q + !
Imprint Xt !
Direct writing by electron beam-DWEB !
J 9 hQ Awy G ?|R I ?a SG < QV9 = | X t ( !
Nanoimprint j ( !9! Xt!
Transition point d 9tA !: G ?a t !
Quiescent point "
? v9 S ?a t !
Point defects H ( +f ?a t!
Quantum dot +(
? | } v ?a t !
Point , at ! , ?a t !
Etch X}
q
"* , X}
q
!
Quadratic growth ,g + < Q@ (} !
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Reptation model P 9=gC LP (} !
Finite , 98
F
Byproduct ? * (! 9 C H@ ( ! G
Novasomes J 9|h R9p (!

Nucleons J9 *(" y G
Migration IQ G %y G
Electrophoresis, electrophoretic , 9<Q %v

F + %v
f; IQ , ? F 9 < Q I QG $
Brittle X
q
$
Gel , |; $
Halogenations " $
? Gz
Filamentous cytosqueletons + +
? a L ? * (zL { v9+ $
Hydrocarbon f (< Qv h QO +$
Cytosqueletons j (zL { w+ $
Tags J9 } S G h
Transduce { *(; h
Exohedral ,F Q9 L &F h
Dimeric units * *
? Q} O J GOI h
Subunits +
? f Qp J GOI h
Monolithic ?Y GQA| I OI h
Unitary *
? OI h
Leaflet *
?t Q h
Airbags + ($
? FG JG O 9 S h
Mid-block ? zAw yG b S h
Catalytic R 9qI , ,a + S h
Metal via f Og G C ? z+S h
Junction ? zYh
Salt bridge junction ? A9 | Q TF ? z Y h
Bulk heterojunction + + *
? } T F IQ 9jA| ? zY h
Double tunnel junction ?F hOR | ? tq ? zY h+ !

Hydrophilic functionalities C
A9 G | ++
h| ?q z@ | ? q c h
~w~
Nucleate i (" A* ,IG ( ! {wV PL z *
Unrolled bT = *
Coalesce { Aw A *
Impinge ~ a@Q *
Recover +
O gAT *
Decant u qZ *
Overcompensate x
IO 9 *R< V (g *
Epitomize [M z *
v
Anneal fO z *
Fluidize + *
h }
Buckle Hg= "*
~xu
J XCPIGQ9G [?*
w(d4 vvvv j eTPB;E
Abbe term N B OI
Aberration PhP V ,H G Q a\ G ,k R *
Ablation d 9 Z 8 A SG , ? *(<
Absolute fluctuations ?t za| J 9=zt @
Acceptor level C (
{= tA G i A T |
Achiral [ Q+v Q+ i
G
Acoustic modes +(
? @ Y W9} C !
Actin _A v C
Activation energy + "

b W AyG ?s9_
Actuating +
{ jW @
x
Actuator { jW |
Adenosine diphosphate - ADP J9 q S ( qy , 9 " C #* (" *

G F R OC
Adenosine triphosphate - ATP J9q S ( qy ,C ; C #* (" *

G R OC
Adressability ? !("g y ?+z< 9s

G
Adsorption RGRA |G
Advance eOt @
Affinity ?q yC
Aggregates J9g } : , J9 } v G Q @
Aggressive P GhO f
Airbags + ($
? FG JG O 9 S h
Air-bearing -surface ABS AG (% y G vvvv {} I K aS

Airy disk +(
? F \ ? Rv Q| ?g t< *
~xv
Algorithms J9 +| (L R QG
Aligner a 9 q a YG I G O C
Allotrope { Y5 A |
Allotropic \ Y5 @ { wV
Amino acids ? +"+| C V9 > C
Amino groups ? +"+| C J9f (}H

Amorphous jQ ( z<: , jQ (z< Q+ i
Amphilies ?qy } G 9F hOR |
Amphiphilic ++
x z q |C ,d (+C G L hOR |
Amplitude d 9a| , Y9T @G
Analog j Qc9 "@

v
Analyte ?zz I IO9| ){ F; A G( ?z z +A G
Analyte molecules ++
? z z I J 98 RF *
Analyte species ++
? z z I YG (! C
Analyte-permeable IP q "| vvvv +

?z zI
Analytical mass spectrometry \ +zJ Ay \ AwyG G +

r a y G S9 s +
Analytical solution \ +z; (zI d
Anastase R 9AT C !
Anchors J G R w@Q |
Angular momentum jh G R ~L R
Anisotropic UG (B #* 9 = @
G ,UG ( B ,I 9 " A | :
G
Anisotropic magnetoresistance- + " + + "

? I9 A | : ? T _ 9 j| ? |h9 t |
AMR
Anisotropy Q ( JC G a ;A L9 < U G ( B #* 9 = @ , I9 " @ :
G ,
v
Anneal O z* f
v
Annealed fOz |
Annealing #* O z@
Annular symmetry , tzI Qc9 "@
Antiferromagnetic IO 9] G C ?+T +_9" jC ?*O *OA G G
Antiparallel-AP )j RG (A y G O9] |( O9] | j RG (A |
~xw
Anti-static A9<Q % wzy IO 9]|
Application specific integrated ?z| 9wA | I QGO y , f( ! u +=a @

circuit-ASIC
Aqueous dispersion , 9| B+AW @
F
Aqueous self-assembly , 9| O
F GP h } + :
Areal +
? I 9T |
Areal storage density +

? I9 T G C # *RM Ay G ?p9D v
Aromatic *
? Qa f
Aromatic diamine j Qaf _ |9* O
Array ) r F 9 q Y( ? q qY +
Arrayed waveguide gratings-AWG " , F( | {+ y
~d | O R hR I
Aspect ratio $ ( ! +
? 9F yG ?=T ,? f 9< ?=T !
Assembly counterpart + : ~}A |
h }
Assisted tunneling , tq! O f9T |

Asymptotically ? <Q9t |
Atomic force microscope AFM jQ Py G I ( ty Q%H G
Atomic force microscopy *

? QP yG I ty G ? Q( * %H
Avalanche Q9 +8 G
Avalanche photodiode-APD , (] y , 9" Dy 9+8

F G F G Q G
Average molecular shape , 8*R@ G {w Wy G b S A | (

Average polar fraction +
? = atyG b S A| QT v (
Back action , qzB G {gq y G
Backbone Q 9tp ,j Qt qyG S 9S } G
Backscattered +
? qz L IQ9 aAS G ,O@ Q| QDg =@
Backscattering C
O@Q G QDg=A yG
Bacterial expression systems *+ +

? Q Aw < Q =g @ ?}d C !
Bacteriorhodopsin _T< hOh Q ( *Q+Aw <
Ballistic +
? pP s
Ballistic magnetoresistance-BMR )? + A T+ y 9 = y ?+ p Pty ?+ T+ a " jC

G( G G ?| h9t G C
Band offset ! (C
? RG G b9 a !
~xx
Bandgap I (G p b9 a !
Bandwidth b 9a "y G VQ f
Bare region I OQ H u _9" |

Base pairs +
? S 9S C L GhR C
Batch processing J9 @9g C G {} H

Beam ?\ Q9 f
Belly a (F
Biexciton f (A * 9 Tw * , 9 " C E F
Binary , 9" C ?+ 9 "C

F , F
Biological motors + ( ( +<

? F y J 9vQ I
Biological receptors ? *( +I J; =tAT |
Bio-MEMS ? *(+I ?*vvvv h Qw +| ? +w+!9 w+| Q% v

vvvv h
Biomimetic ? * (+ I ? T* 9 t| ?* (+ A , G I9v9 I
Biomolecular j (+I , 8*R F ? +8*RF (+I
,
Biomolecules ? *(+A G J9 8 *R@ G
Biomotors ? *(+ I J 9vQ I

Birefringent Q9T w ! : ?+ 9 "C
G F
x
Bisector r Z" |
Bi-stable Lh OR| QG QtA S G
Blank ZGQp j Q9f , r +d! , KT |
Blend devices ?F hR} G IR F C % } G
Blended film W (zJ A9W i
Block +
~ TF ,
p
\A v
Body-centered cubic-bcc ~T @ G jR v Q | > gw |
Bohr magnetron Q (< f hQ a +"j |

Bohr radius Q $( < Qas r Z !
Bolometer * A ?+f 9gV
? QGQ G G ?s 9ayG S 9 t | +
Bond pads b <QyG J GO9 =y
q
Bonding b< G Q @
Bottom-up ^f C v vv v Y 9 s
~xy
Bound electron +v
O t| fh QAw yE
Boundary e (<
x
Boundary condition C
? | 9 M A G WQ V ,j OI W QV
Bragg grating ZGQ < R hR I

Bragg reflectors Z G Q < J9 T v 9 f
Breakdown Q9 +8 G
Break-junction (
?zY yG vvvv QT v
Bright field h_ 9 Ty G d 9 G G C
Brillouin f9 hQ *
Brillouin zone fG (*Q < ? ta" |
Brittle X
q
$
Broadband gain b9 a "y G VQf >Tv
Buckle Hg= "*

Building blocks A9 "< J9 " =y
Bulk heterojunction + + *
? } T F IQ 9jA| ? zY h
Bulk micromachining ,}+ TF j hQ w +| , "w| { +jW @

Bulk resistivity +
? zAv ? |h9t | +
Bulky ,} + TF
Byproduct ? * (! 9 C H@ ( ! G
Calcination U zw @ +
Calorimetric spectroscopy jQ G Q I d O 9 = @ + +
? p9 a |
Calorimetric spectroscopy * C + +
? Qg T G ? p9 a |
Calorimetry * C
? Qg T G , IQGQ A G dO 9=@ ~z f
Canonical P (! 9s
Canonical partition ,T " wy ~ + Tt @ G
Cantilever d (<9w y G ,A )@ 9 " y G
Cap ?g =s
Capacitance microscopy *% C
? Q G G ?gS
Capacity ?gS
~xz
Capillarity j Qg V ,? *QgV
Capture time a9tAy: G #| R
Carbon clusters ? +!(<Q v ?* ( t"f O J9f (}H

Carbon nanotube field effect ?vvvv *( !9 ! >+ < 9 ! # |
vvvv vvvv vvvv vvvv C vvvv C Q + Cz @
d9vvvvG G vvvv vvvv vvvv JGQ ( A SR ! Q @
transistors-CNFET ?+ !(<Q v
Carrier ? z|9I
Carrier mobility ?z| 9 A ? +vQIG
Catalytic R 9qI , ,a + S h
Cavity r *(:
Cell-mimetic + I ?* (+zL
? v9 vvvv
Ceramic , pRL
Channel proteins ? *( "s J9 "+@ hQ <
Charge screening "

? J V > GI
Charge-coupled device CCD "

? JW y G fG Q s E R9 F %
Charge-offset "
? JW y G v v v v f RG | (
Charging # JW y G
Chelator O; + v ,= z J ,
Chemcial beam epitary - CBE + + +

? F9 } w yG { tA yG ?|RI +
q
Chemical mechanical process-CMP + +! + + + + +

? w 9w | ? F 9 } v ? z} f
Chemical vapor deposition-CVD + + +

? F9 } wy G I QM < } G +
> SQ @
Chemisorbs IRA } G C ?+ 9+}+w y ( C F G OG G
Chemisorption , 9+}+ v F RGRA |G
Chemisorptives , 9+ }+v
F a 9 WA G !
Chiral molecule ) dG Q +v ( fGh GQ| Aj RF
Chiral superhelices + +
? y GQ v ? tF9p J9 =y y + (
Chirp ?t TtS
Chromatic P( y
Chromatic disperssion P (zy G B A WA y G
Chromosomal DNA ,j = Z y G jh ( "y G ^} A G
Cladding layers +
? aj@ J 9t=_
~x{
Clearing * +"
u h Q @ ,? t @ ,? Y9 t |
Clockwise ?f9 Ty G H Q9 t f fG Q hO g9 : G
Cluster *("
? O t f ?f } ( H
Coalesce { Aw A *
Coarse approach # WL > * Qt @
Coarse approach mechanism "
? W L > Qt@ ? yB * +
Coaxial Q (I OJA |
Codeposition upG QA | > SQ @ +
Coercive field jQ %s 9H d
Coercivity ? Q s*%
Coextrusion k
9 g | b9 D = G !
Coherence x S9 E
Coherence length xS 9 } A y G d _ (
Coherent xS 9 } A |
Coherent superposition x S 9}A| > vGQ @
Coherent tunneling +
? wS 9 E ?+t q!
Collagen _ F :( v
Collinear B |9 TA |
Colloidal j hQ i
Colloidal systems *
? hQi ?}d C !
Colossal magnetoresistance- cmr IQ 9=F + + "
? T a j| ? |h9t |
Combination JGO9 ; G , J9t +p( @

Complementary \ +}w @
Complex Otg |
Complex conjugate I Otg | !

? Q9t |
Compliant matrix (
? tpG A| ?p qZ | (
Computation ?= S I (
Conductance + (
? zY |
Conduction { Y @+ (
Conduction band-CB + (
{ Y A y G b9 a !
~x|
Conductivity + (
? zY |
w
Configuration +
{ w W@ ,{ wW @
Confinement Q ZI
Confinement potential QZ A (} v
G f
Confocal b QJ }A| , QF9= |
Conformation { v9W @ , , q++w @

Conjugated ? tpGQA |
Conjugated polymers ?t pGQA | J GQ } y < +(

Constant-field scaling B<9DyG d 9G G ~ G C + ;
Constrictions JG
w
Q Z<
Contact S9 E
Contact alignment \+ Y( @ a 9q aY G
Continuity equations *
? Q G Q } A S : G J: O 9 g |
Continuum { ZA |
Contour disk UQt yG b +I

Contour plot measuring + C
b J G ~ S Q S9 s +
Contrast *
Q 9j@, #* 9 = @
Convective accelerometers jQ G Q A G {} A G YQ 9 T@ U +*9t |
Conventional jO +zt @
Convergence A9t AyG ,H Q9t @
Convolution AG (A y G
Coordinating solvent + "

u T @ > P| *
Coplanar transmission lines j (AT C G IOJ A G C "
{ t yG W aL (
Copolymers ?v Q9W | J GQ } y < +(
Corner stone *
? h G Ry G Q GI , #v Q
Corollary ? |R:
Correlated %
^g =yG 9 ] g=< ?a =@Q G C
Correlation d O9=A| W 9=@Q G
Co-tunneling ? vQ9W | ? t q + !
Coulomb blockade ((
>| y v ?=t f
~x}
Coulomb damping ((
> | y v d D9] @
Coulter counter ,C QI G OGO f
Counterclockwise ? f9T yG H Q9tf f GQh O g9 : G Uwf
Counterions IO9] | J9 !(* C , J9 !(*} G JG O 9 ] |
Covalent ,G 9 T @
Crawling rIR
Criterion Q9 +g| ,b <9\ ,S 9 +t |

Critical LQI
Cross over , =y9Z@

Cross over frequency >y9Z AyG OOQ @
Crossbar architecture C
?= y9Z A G ?\ Q9gy G I Q9} f
Crosslinkable +
x = W A zy {< 9 s
Cross-track h _9t @ v v v v x zT |
Crucible ?t@ < ( o
Cryo-transmission electron C
O Q= G f hQAw y G d 9tA G ! ? *Q%H
microscopy - cryo-TEM
Cryptographic *
? QTy G ? < 9 A w y G
Crystallinity Q ( z=Ay G ?F QO , Q z =@ (
Cubic-close-packed + (
> \ AyG { qt| > gw |
Cubits J9 A +<(+ v
Current in plane-CIP j (A T | ,p 9 + @ Q
Cutoff frequency ha tyG OOQ @
Cytosqueletons j (zL { w+ $
Daltons J9 !(Ay GO
Damping O|9 <

Dangling bonds +
? yOA| b <Gh Q
Dative bonding Q hQ H b< Q @ G
Decant u qZ *
Decoded +
Q qW AyG xp
Decoherence xS9 E eO f
~x~
Decomposed
q
?zz I
De-doping ?< 9 VE ?y G R E
Deep UV +
u }g yG ,G Tq " = y ( p G b
De-excitation I Q9 C E d ;J G !
Defective H ( +g| , {zL
Defects H (+ f
Defect-tolerant +
> g yG vvvv K |9T @
Definition O O* ; ,r *Q g@
Deflection a GQJ G !
Deflector a Q9I
Degenerate {J | "
Delay QL @ ,b g@z (q
Delineate +
? a L YR !
Dendrimer > gW A y G j QGV
Depletion region H (] ! ? ta" |

Depolarization H9 a t A S :G "
h | hC ?yGR E
Deprotonation f (@ h Q< ?yGR E
Derivatization b 9tAV G
Desorption C (C
IR A} G OG G eq y
Detector U I r V9 v
Devitrifying H FR A y G ?y G R E
Diagonal jQ a s bL
Dialysis IRz O *
Diblock +
? zAw yG , 9 "C
F
Dichotomy , 9"CF YQq @
Dielectric , 9<Q% v
F dR9 f
Dielectrophoresis - DEP + %
? F9<Q wy G I QG yG % , 9 "C F
Differentiate gain \\ 9 q @ > T v

Differentiator { \ 9qAyG IGO C
Diffraction O ( +I ,L GQg G !
~yu
x
Diffraction grating O (+A G IRR I
Diffraction pattern O (+A G W9} C !
Diffusivity *
? Q 9 WA G !
Digital , }s Q
Digital light projector-DLP ,} s , (\

Q F W 9tS E
Digits J9 !9L
Dilute array ? qq J ? q+qY
Dimensional control j Og < ~w ;
Dimeric units * *
? Q} O J GOI h
Diode laser , 9"C R +y

F Q
Dip-pen lithography C
U }j G ~zt yG 9 pGQ i D y + (+
Dipping U }j @ +
Direct write mode C
I QV9 = G ?<9A wyG H zS C (
Direct writing by electron beam- !
J 9 hQ Awy G (
?|R I ?a SG < QV9 = | X t !
DWEB
Disadvantage ?=zD | ,r g\ ?at , ?8 S ! +
Discharging "
? JW y G k Qq @ *
Discrete ? z Zq | "
Discrete accelerometer "
{ Z q | YQ 9 T@ S 9 t | +
Discrete levels ? g a t A | J9 * (AT |
Discreteness d 9 Zq G !
Dislocation relaxation hz B G A9L QAS G
Dislocations (zL
Y
Disordered ? * ( \( p
Dispersion BAW @
Dispersion forces +
E AW AyG i s (
Distort L (f
Distortion L9 F (f G
Distributed Bragg reflector-DBR U v9gy G Z GQ< YR | J GQ ( R +y
Docking e9J AyG ,[ +t "@
~yv
Donors _ J! 9 |
Dopants >FG V (
Doped silicon H9W | f ( w+zS
Double helix L hO R| P RzI h
Double tunnel junction + !

?F hOR | ? tq ? zY h
Double-gate field effect transistor- C (

? Fh OR G ? < G = y G h P d 9G C Q+Cz @ (AS R! Q @
G Q G
DG FET
Drag force K= v h C QF I s (
Drain a QZ |
Drain-Induced barrier lowering-DIBL aQ Z C 9 < EJ A T C G RF 9 A G ^ q +<

Drawback uF 9 f
Drift n
a GQG G ,a QF !
Dual hydropholic - polar (h-p) A9} zy $
? Q 9v ?F hOR | ? =a s +
Ductile ++
? z a | ,> JT z y {< 9 s
Ductility coefficient ++ C
? z a G { | 9 g | , >J T y G { | 9 g |
Durability !
? 9A |
Efficiency IA9q v
Eigenfunctions #K E dG h O
Eigenvalues # K ~ +s
E
Elastic strain fQ| d 9gq G !

Elastomer , =+vQ @ W9a |
Elastometer ! C
? h Q G S9 t | +
Electric arc , 9<Q%v
F S (s
Electric susceptibility + % * !
? F 9<Q v ? P9 q
Electroactive b V9 hQ v ! %
Electrochemically , 9 +}+v Q% v
F h
Electrode Oh QAw yE
Electrodeposition , 9 < Q %v > + SQ @

F
Electrokinetic pumping ,v QI Q% v N\ h
Electroless , 9<Q %v:

F
~yw
Electroluminescence + % ++
? F9< Q v ? F9 \ , , % |~F9<Q v y @
Electromigration $ % IQ G hQ v
Electromotive force + % I(
? F9<Q v ?v Q I s
Electromotive force-EMF + % (
? F9< Q v ?g pGO I s
Electron pairing f hQ A wy G fGQ sE
Electron pump ! J 9 hQ A wy E ?M ] |
Electron shuttling ,( v w | fh QAw yE
Electroneutrality + %
? F9 <Q v I O 9 *I
Electronic bands +! ? hQA wy E J 9s9a !
Electroosmosis , % " ,
F9 <Q v K \9 @ , " %
J\ 9 @ hQ v
Electrophilic ! J9 h QAw y I?=
Electrophoresis, electrophoretic + % $
? F9 <Q v I QG
Electrospray mass spectrometry % \

jP G P Q| hQ wy G +
A w y G r a y G S9 s +
Ellipsometric - measure " [s9 y G h aty G S 9 t | +
Ellipsometry ( A +
]yG ? <9a tAS G
Empirical ,* :
j Q9=AL G , = Q , ? < Q GA y G ^ f ~F 9s
Empirically +* :
k
9 = Q
Emulsification H ; JA S G
Enatiomers I O 9 ] | JG Q ( z=A |
Encapsulants J9qzj |
Encoded I QqW |
Endofullerenes J9 "* + (
Q y q y G { LG h O
Endohedral & }
Fh G { LG h O
Energetic ?s9 ay G ~z f ,j s9_ (

Energetics ?s9a yG e z f (
Energy band bending " " !
b 9a yG A9 J G ?s9_
Enormous magnetoresistance - EMR ? zF9 $ + + "

? T a j| ? |h9t |
Entanglement x <9WA y G
Entropic recoil , + !
w <hQA E OGO@Q G
Entropic trapping N ! hQ A E R GI
~yx
Entry { LO |
Enzyme - linked immunosorbent - ELISE b= @ Q | ~* R ! } RG RA |: G ?f9" |
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent-ELISE b= @ Q | ~* R ! } RG RA |: G ?f9" |
Epitaxial w
\+ t @
Epitaxial layer
k
9*Q( z< I9}" | ?t=_ ? z t@ ?t=_
, + +
Epitaxy ?* Q (z= y G ? + }" A y G , {+ t @
Epitomize [M z*
Erbium doped. Fiber amplifier-EDFA H 9W CG r+zy e( + QE < ~M ] |
Etch X}"*
q
, X} !
q
Eutectic 9 Z !: G ?z%S
Q %
EUV ? pQa A CG ?+ G Tq " = y G b( p ?gV C
Evanescent waves , V; A y G J 9 F( |
Exchange interaction ?+ y O9= @ { + f9q |
Exchange splitting , s 9 tW ! G dO9 = @
Excimer K 9 D JA S G
Excimer laser K 9D J A SG QR + y
Excitation IQ 9 CE
Excited Q 9D| , H+ % |
Excited state transitions IQ 9D| ?y9 I J :9 tA !G
Excited states IQ 9D| J :9 I
Exciton f( * A 9 Tw * E
Exfoliating u *Q( @
Exohedral , FQ 9 L & F h
Expansion c( wq |
Exposure V
q
Qg @
Extreme q
?*OI
Extrinsic {+L O
Extrusion uD<
Face-centered cubic-FCC & F( y G jR v Q | > gw |
Factoring ? z|( f
~yy
Factoring ? z| f (
Factoring algorithms {| G f( ] E J9 + | (B { *(;
RQ G G
Factorization {| G f ( ] {+ z; E
Fast switches *
?g Q S J :O= |
Fatigue time >g A y G Q } f
Fault tolerance z aB ? !9=AS

G G
Feedback ? gF GQ ? Pj @ *
Feedback control C ?*P jAy9<
IO@Q G IQ a +S
Ferroelectric , 9 <Q%w y
F G H 9 atA S: G ? *(q f
Ferromagnet jO *OI U +a"j |
Ferromagnetic + + " q
+ * *
? T _ 9 j| hQ p , ? O OI ? T _9 j | + + "
Fib C
I R v Q G J9 !(*} G ?|RI
Field d9 H
Field effect transistors-FET d9G G C Q+C z@ JG Q (AS R! Q @ G
Figure of merit IQGO @ &F

G h ,b 9 tJ A S :G ~s Q
Figures of merit IQ GO @ &F G hC
Filament b ++L
Filamentation + +
? a L
Filamentous , a+L
Filamentous cytosqueletons + +
? a L ? * (zL { v9+ $
Fill factor-FF A{ G C {|9 f
Filling ratio A{ G C ?=T !

Filter K VQ |
p
o
Fin "
?q f R
Fine-tuning +
u sO ~ j @ +"
Finger printing ? }Z <
Fingerprint biometric ? *(+A G h=Y } G ?t =_ J9T I

Finite , 98 F
Flake IQ +W s
Flanges g9qV
~yz
Flexural a 9ag G , q ! )" D @
Flip-flop H ;s , W9 a !
Floating gate ?}F 9f ?<G < (
Floating-body ~F 9 f v v v v ~ TF
Flocculation O= z@
Fluidity ?f (+| ?+g 9 |

, F
Fluidize h } + *
Fluorescence + +
? F9 \ ,? Q z p *(
Fluorescence correlation jQ ( zqy C
G d O9 = A G W 9 = @ Q:G + +
? p9 a |
spectroscopy-FCS
Focus control IQ |=y G b<9\
Focus lamp jQ |< M 9=Z|
Focusing +
Q 8 =@
Folding stability , ay G QG QtAS G
x
Force amplified biological sensor - FABS I ( s ~ M ]| ( + I UI
j
Forced oscillation *
? QTs IR G RA $ G
Forward biased ,| 9 | R+ + ; C
Fourier transform &+ * ( p { *(;

Q
Fractal scaling jQ ( Tv ~ + G;
Fracture strength Q9T w !: G IOV
Free energy IQ I ?s9_
Free radical polymerization q

uV I Q}z < #| d9L
m
Free solution d9L d (zI

Free-draining QI vvvv r QZ @ *
Frequency doubling OOQ AyG ?qf 9] |
v
Fringing field HO % | 9H d
Fuel cell O (s ( y 9 * ;L
G
Fullerenes J9 " *Q+y( p

Full-width at Half-Maximum- )Z s } OA
G G ! "
rZ O f { |9v VQ f
FWHM
~y{
Fundamental frequency , S9 S C OOQ @
Gas chromatography P (y R9 i
Gasket +
q
? WI
Gaussian form ,S h9i { wV
Gel , |; $
Gene ?CQ | (
Generalized scaling e9f + ;
~ G
Generic { |9V
Genus U F "
Geodesic domes + * (+F
? T O H9 = s
Giant magnetic resistance-GMR + + "

?s; }f ? T _ 9 j| ? |h9t |
Giant magnetoresistive b; }f , T+ a" j | eh9t |
Gibbs free energy IQ A G U= F ? s 9 _
Glass passivation , =zS L 9F R
Glass transition ) , F9 F R d (; ( H FRA y G d9 tA G !

Glass transition temperature HF RA y G I QG QI ? FQ O
Global positioning navigation hs (C O* OJA y ? I; C

G G e9d !
system-GPNS
Gon hz\
Grains J9= +=I

Graphene _ p QF G
Grating gratings C
x< 9 W G ? w = W |
Gravimetric [9 tD |
Gravimetric [9 tD |
Ground state +
? \ QC ?s9_
Group velocity h} @ G ? fQS
Guiding { yO +
Gylcocalyx j QwS S zv
Hall effect d ($ Q+C z@
Hall voltage d ( $ ?+Ay( p
~y|
Hall-effect d ($ (gq | d
Halogenations ? Gz" $
Hard disk drive !( }
? = z Zy G ? G a S G ? sG S(
Hard drive > z Zy G ? s G S (
Hardness ? < ;Y
Harmonic oscillator ,tp (@ G H Pz t y G JG a L ~ d | ( "
Heat sinks *
? QG Q I J :O= |
Heat-capacity convolution factor + ( "y

? f G IQG Q A G a9qA yG {|9 f
Heavy-duty IO9 }Z |
Heptagon Y ;\ } , f9=S
G
Heterostructure IQ * 9jA| ?+ "<

Heterostructured ? +"=y G IQ *9jA |
Hidden symmetries yields emission I z = J { + Y9 I J; C 9 } A | K 9 g = G a 9 ! +_ C
spectra
Hierarchy ,| Q$ { Tz T @
High performance liquid { F9T zy P( y d 9f AGO C
m
chromatography - hplc.
Highest occupied molecular orbitals - ?y ( $zC ^ f} ?+8*R F
G G J GQGO |
HOMO's
Hole transport layer-HTL H ( tDy G { t ?t=_ !
Holey ?|Q J
Homopolymers )? zC9} A|( ? 6 9 WA | JGQ } +y( <
Hot embossing Q9I U= v
HuÈ ckel molecular orbital- HMO , 8*R@ G {v ($ QGO |
Human Genome project j QW =yG e (" +@ G Yh QW |
Hydration $
? 9| E
Hydrocarbon f (< Qv h QO +$
Hydrogel , 9 | {F
F
~y}
Hydrolysis A9 C 9 < { + z JA y G
Hydrolytic biodegradation , 9C ( +A
F G j G { z JA y G
Hydrophilic A9 }zy > I hC A9 }zy rz@ | |

Hydrophilic functionalities A9 G C | ++
h| ?q z@ | ? q c h
Hydrophobic A 9}zy g Q9v hC A9 }zy Qp 9 !

Hydrophobic functionalities +
? F9 | : ? q ch J GQO s ++
Hydroxyl groups ++
? z T vhQ O +$ J9f (}H
Hypothetical +
? \ GQA pG
Hysteresis ? qz+ <

Hysteretic , qz<
q
Icosahedron & F } ," * QW f

h G
Identity matrix ? t<9a A| ?p qZ | (

Image IQ (Y
Imaging focal plane jQ (Y jQ | < K aS
Impedance ? sh9g |
Impinge ~ a@Q *
Imprint Xt !
Incar-fullerenes I R F9 I J 9 " *Q+y( p
Incineration bQI
Indium - flush e (*O ! C v v vv r aV
Indium Tin oxide - ITO *

Q OZ ty G O Tv C e + (*O ! C
Inductive sensors ?D I J9T I

Inequality ? " *9=A| , ? JF G QA |
Inertia ?y 9af , O GP Q (Z s
Inertial measurement +
? y 9 a f J 9 S9 s +
Inertially k
+
9 y9a f
Infinite , 98: F
Initiator A iO 9 <
Ink jet Q=I Eq | "

In-plane j ( A TC , p G
~y~
Inspection ? "*9g |
Instrumental +
? @GO C
Integrator {| 9 w@ IG O C
Intensity )O OV( , IOV
Inter # }\ # +< ,
Interband b 9a "y # }\
G
Intercalants J 9 } Jt |
Intercalation e9J sE
Interconnects ? +"+< J 9a<GQ @
Interdgitated k
+
9 zL GO ~sQ |
Interdigitated h=Z AyG ? +" +<

Interference patterns { LG O @ W 9 } C !
Interferometric , (] y
F G {L G OA y 9 < S 9 ty G ~z f +
Interferometric schemes +
? zL GO@ d 9wV C
Interferometry {L G OA y G bQ_
Intermixing \L G O LR |
International Technology Roadmap ! 9 + F( y ( " w A y ? + y

a9vvvvZvvvv C vvvv vvvv vvvv vvvv vvvv vvvv vvvv hOvvvvyG *
uvvvv QvvvvavvvvyG ?vvvv_Q9vvvvL
of Semiconductors-ITRS J;Y (C G
Interphase ," + < (_ Q
Interstitial atoms +
? FQ p J G Q P
Intersublevel- VISL , " + < ,f Qp (A T | i
Intra # }\ , p { L , GO
Intramolecular \ L , 8*RF GO
Intrinsic jQ $(F
Intrinsic carriers concentration J ; | 9 J z y jQ $(F R+vQ @
Intrinsic quantum noise jQ $ (F , |( }v H + G\
Intrinsic stresses * $(F
? Q JG O 9 %F E
Inverse opal , Tw f d9< h C
Inversion layer H ;t !: G "

? t a | , H; t : G ? t = _ !
Inverter , Tw f ( I d ,H ; s
~zu
Iridescent color fG (y } ? + IR s
G
Irrelevant ?zY j P Q i +
Irreversible S ( wf Q+ i
Isolated pentagon rule - IPR d hRg G C ,S 9 }B G IOf 9s
Isotherm I QGQ A G ? F Q O jh 9 TA |
Isotropic , I9 " A |
Issues L Q9M G C
Jelly network + $ ?w=V
? |;
Junction ? zYh
Key components + +
? T F Q J9 !(w |
Kinetic quenching + A 9?
? vQ G O E
Kinetics J9 +vQI
Label ~ Sh , ? s 9 a < ,u Y:
Lamellar flow ,J + qY up O @
Laminar flow , t=_ H9 +T ! G
Lamination K qZ @ +
Lapping process +
{ tZ yG IQh Q S , > vGQA yG ? z} f +
Laser ablation QR +zy 9< ?*(<
Lasing QR +z y ? +z} f
G
Lateral force microscope + ! @ ( ty Q%H

? = 9 G I G
Latex ) QGW y G #= y ) D y
( ,
Latex spheres +
? _ 9a| J 9 Q v *
Lattice +
? w =V , ?w=V
Layer-by-layer LBL ?t=_ ( z@ ?t=_

Layered clay ,t = _ __
Lead a Q_
Leaflet ?t Q h *
Leakage H QT @
Leaky ?J VG Q
Leverage ?gp G Q {g p ,~f O@ ,h pO @ , hpQ @
~zv
Lifetime Q} f
Ligands &
, v v< 9v vV *
9v v| hC J9v v8v v Rv vF ,J9v v !( *v v C IOv vtv vgv v| J9v v=v vv Qv v|
JG O !9j +y
Light-emitting diodes - LEDS A ( ]z y ? D f 9 < J GQR +y
Lightly doped drain LDD ?qq J ?<9V E hP a QZ |
Line booster *
R Rg A y G bL
Linewidth b L VQ f
Lipids f ($ O ,J GO += +y
Liposomes J9|h R (= +y
Liquid crystal display-LCD jQ ( z=y G {F 9 Ty G VQ f
Liquid metal ion source - LMIS {F 9 S fO g| J 9 !(* C Q OZ |
Lithography ,9 +p Q i(D +y
G
Lobe [p
Local deformations +!
? 9 w | J9 $ (W @
Lock-in amplifier e9 w IE ~M ] |
Long Haul networks ?z * (_ ?p 9 TC ?+ @ (= w " f J 9w=V
Longitudinal - optical - LO [ (_ j QZ <
Longitudinal acoustic phonons +( +(

? y _ ? @ Y J9 !(!( p
Lorentzian function * ! (
? RA G Q y ?y GO
Low chirp ?] qM | ?t TtS "

Lower-lying ( E {s}
k
9g\ G
Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital f (w TC Q + i )! } , 8 * R@ O C

G O G G QG G
- LUMO
x
Lubricant ?tyR |
Lumen r *(:
Luminance Y (Z !
Luminescence , (\ F Y 9gV E , ? F 9 + +\ |y~ @ ,
Luminous efficiency + +
? F9 ] yG IA9q v
Lumpy { AwA |
Machine "
? w|
~zw
Macrocyclic *
? Q hOh Qv9 |
Magnetic beads + + "

? T a j| J GRQL
Magnetic moment )? +T +_9 "jC G eh RgyG( ,T + _9 " j| eR f
Magnetic platter , T+ _9 " j | QOS
Magnetoconductance + + "
? T a j| ? z Y | + (
Magnetomotive +
? vQI ? T a j | + + "
Magnetoresistance + + "
? T _ 9 j| ? |h9t |
Magnetoresistive , T+ _ 9 " j | eh9t |
Magnetoresistive random acces ,T + a" j C C , ( W g y ( Y( y

G eh9 t G FG G d G IQv GP
memory-MRAM
Magnetostatic P( wS , T + a" j |
Magnetostriction ,T+a"j| QZw <
Magnetron sputter deposited fhQ A " + j| ? VQ V Q > SQ @ +
Majority carriers + }
? = zi G J; | 9 I
Manipulator Qh9 "|

Many-body O OgA | ~ TF
Mask Y9 "s
Mass production ,} v L9 A E !
Mastercurve ,T + ) " J" |
FQ
Mathematical identities + *
? \9 Q J9 t < 9 a |
Matrix (
? p q Z| , >y 9 s
Mean free path Q A G Q9T G C bS A| (

Mechanical actuators + +! +
? w 9w | J ; jW |
Mechanical resonators + +! +
? w 9w | J9 9 Q | !!
Media scaling issues W 9 Sh } ~ + G;
G L Q9 J
Melt mixing jQ 9 %Z ! G bz L
Meniscus {F 9 Tzy [ ;$ K aS
Mercury arc lamp ,t = ,S (s
FR M 9=Z|
Meridian d (a y G bL
Merit A GOC ,I QGOF
~zx
Mesas J9T +|
Mesoscopic (
b S A | iO |
Mesoscopic , aS (A| S9 +t |
Metabolic + *
? ] C
Metal oxide semiconductor-MOS +

O T v C f O g | J; Y | a 9 Z C ( !
Metal via f Og G C ? z+S h
Metallo-organic chemical vapor ? *(] gy ? +!Og C ?+ 9+} +wy

G G F G I QM < } G +
> SQ @
deposition-MOCVD
Metastable C &=V
QtA T G ,QG QtAS G ?As ||
Metropolitan segment of telecom. ? * Q \9 A O g < # f G J :9 Z @ : G ?ga s
Micro contact printing (mcp) jhQ w +C G U | ;A y 9 < ? f9 = _
Micro electro mechanical systems- *

? hQ w | ? w + + +" w+| Q% v ?}d ! h C
MEMS
Micro systems technology-MST *
? h Qw +C G ?}d ! } 9 + F( y (" w @
G
Micro total anaylsis system-MTAS j hQw +C G {| 9 wy G { zJ A y G e9 d + !

Microelectronics +!
? hQA wyGh Qw | +
Microfabrication j hQ w +| h +"Z@
Microfluidic * + +
? h Qw | ? gF9 |
Microfluidics *
? hQw | J 9 gF9 | + +
Micrograph ? Q * %H (Y IQ
Microhotplate *
? h Qw | IQ9I ?I y + (
Microlecttromechanical-MEMS j hQ w +| , w+!9 w+| Q% v h
v
Micromachined chemical analysis k
*
9 h Qw | {j W| + , 9 + }+ v {+ z;
F
Micromachining j hQ w +| { +jW @
Micro-opto-electromechanical * * + + +! +
? QZ < v v v v ? h Qw | v v v v ? w 9 w |h Q v ?}d C % !
systems MOEMS
Microphase j hQw +| (_
Q
Microprocessors *
? Q j Y J9 @9 g |
Microslip j hQ w +| b :R G !
Microtubules *
? hQ w | J 9= = + + +! C
~zy
Mid-block ? zAw yG b S h
Migration I Q G% y G
Milling Q qI , R*Qq @
Minority carriers ? + z s } G J; | 9 I
Miscible L G RA |; y {< 9s
Mithochondria 9*Q O!( v(A+ |
Mobile dislocations ? v Q JA | J : ;A L G
Mobility ? +vQI
Modulation r + y ( @ ,_ }] @
Moiety IQT v
Molasses U< O
Molecular beam epitaxy-MBE ?+8 *R@ G ? |RA G ?+z+t @
Molecular beam epithaxy-MBE ?+8*R@G ?|RAG ?+q ztA< ?+}"@
Molecular sieving ? +8*RF ?z<Q i
Momentum ~L R
Monochromatic f (zyG j O9I C
Monodisperse B + A WA y G j O9I C
Monodispersion B A WA y G ? * O9I C
Monolayer ?*O9I C ?t=_
Monolithic ?Y GQA| I OI h
Monomers J GQ+| (!( |
Morphologies ? + T * Q 9 ]@ d 9 w V C
Motif ,S 9 S C { wV
Motility ? +vQ;
Motor proteins ? v Q I J9 " + @ h Q <
MTF _} ]@ d 9 t A ! G J : G O
Multiexciton complexes # A * 9T w* G OOg A | J 9= vQ |
Multi-faceted J 9%+F (yG IO OgA |

Multilayer J9 t = a y G O O g A |
Multivalent |p9 wA y G hO OgA |
~zz
Multiwall carbon nanotubes- mwnts f GQO @ G IO OgA | ? *(!9 "y ( <Qwy
G f G > <9 C + !
Mutually coherent [ O9=@ x S9 E
Nanocomposites ? *( !9! J 9=vQ |
Nanocone j (!9! W hQ J
Nanoconstriction ? *(! 9! J9 t ++]@
Nanoelectromechanical j (!9! , w+!9 w+| Q% v h
Nanoelectromechanical system-NEMS j (!9 ! , w+ !9w+ | Q %v h e9d !

Nanofilamentary ? *(!9! ?+ a++L
Nanofluidic ? *(! 9! ?+g 9 | F
Nanoimprint j ( !9! Xt!

Nanolayered ? *(! 9! ?+t=_
Nanomanipulator j (! 9! Qh9 "|
Nanomechanical paddle ? * (!9! ?+ w+!9w +| r !9f R
Nanoparticulate ? * ( ! 9 ! ?+ } + TF
Nanoporous ? *(!9 ! e 9 T| h P
Nanoscale j (!9! S9 +t |
Nanoscience ? *(! 9! (z f e
Nanotechnology ? * (! 9 ! 9 + F( y (" w @
Nanotitration ? *(!9 ! Q*9g | I
Nanotransfer Printing (NTP) j (!9 "y G d9t A ! :9 < ? f9 = _

Near field scanning optical *
> Qt y G {tJ zy , (] y
F G KT G Q C %H
microscope-nsom (SNOM)
Nominal , }S G
Non volatile *
Q 9 a@ eO f
Noncovalent ? + G 9 T@ :
Nonlinear , aL :
Nonmagnetic ,T + _9 " j| Q+ i
Normal stress ~c9 O 9 F E ! %
Notations J9 A *("@ !
, J9 h O | , J :: O
Notch ~ zC
~z{
Novasomes J 9|h R9p (!
N-type semiconductor n vvvv Y (! {Y (| r Z !
Nuclear magnetic resonance-NMR jh ( ! ,T + _9 " j| #+ ! Q
Nucleate i (" A* ,IG ( ! {wV PL z *

Nucleation j ( "@
Nucleons J9 *(" y G
Nucleophilic IG ( "zy ?=I

Numerical aperture NA *
? O Ogy G ? JA q y G
Occupancy d9j V G
Occupied d ($z |
Off-axis illumination (OAI) Q ( JC G L Q9L I A9\ E
Off-current ,= ! 9 F 9 + @ Q
Offset ! (
? RG |
Oligo (" +
?z s ,U t | Q jY { z s +
Oligomeric J9 } + T s ? Zs 9 !
Oligonucleotide + (+zv (+!
O @ ,O +A*( "y G U (t" |
On and off cycles b; iE h K Ap J GQh O
One decade OI Gh Ot f
Onset of Inversion H; t ! : ?* O <

G G
Opacity +
? p9 qV:
Opal d9< h C
Opaline +!
? :9 < h C
Opals J :9 < h C
Optical - electrical - optical - OEO * + %

? QZ < vvvv ? F9<Q v vvvv ? QZ < *
Optical birefringence , 9"C
F jQ Z< Q 9 Tw G !
Optical fibers *
? Q Z < a9 y C +
Optical fluorescence *
? QZ < IQ z p (
Optical interferometry *
? Q Z< ? z LG O @ +
Optical lever *
? QZ < ?zA f
Optical lever readout *

? QZ = y G ?z A g y G LQM A T |
~z|
Optical notch filters *
? QZ < ? }zD | J 9 J VQ |
Optical proximity jQ Z< H Q 9 t @
Optical proximity correction - opc j QZ =yG H Q9tA y9< +

K JZ @
x
Optical susceptilbilities *
? Q Z < J9 Q C A | * z
Optically-pumped k
*
? Q Z< ? M ] |
Optoelectronic properties * +!
? Q Z < ? h Q A wy E [ F 9 ZL
Orbital angular momentum j Q G O | jh G R ~L R
Order ?=@ Q
Organic light-emitting diodes-OLED A (] zy ?Df 9< ?*(] f J9 F9 + "C

Organic optoelectronic ? * ( ]f ? * Q Z < ? + ! h QAw yE
Organosilane precursors j ( ]f f; +S J9tAW |
Orthodox theory +
? Tv O C Q C ? Qd( * !
Osmotic force +
? J\ 9 @ I s " (
Ostwald ripening (
O y G A ShG L ] ( !
Outline [M z| ,? y9 + = E IQ (Y
Outlook a G Q WA S G
Overcompensate x
IO 9 *R< V (g *
Overglass OFGR L 9F R
Oxidation I OTv C
Parabolas ? 8p9w | Y a s (
Parabolic band approximation ,= * Q tA y r p 9 wC
G G hat y G b9 a !
Paradigm *
~j OGQ 9<
Parallel j RG (A |
Paramagnetic + + "
? T _9 j|GQ 9<
Parameter s' l, , QA| GQ< ,? }zg |
Parametric amplification j QA|G Q9< +

~ M] @
Parity IG h9T |
Partially depleted-PD k
+
9 F RF >\ 9 !
Particulate ,} + TF
Partition ?FR :
~z}
Passivation ?+ = zTy G H 9T vE ,{ + }<
Pauli exclusion principle [h 9< O9g= A SG CO= |
Peeling Q+ Wt @
Pellicle ?t+sQ I Q+W s
w
Percolation {z<
q
Percolation threshold { z< ?=A f
Periodicity ?*Qh O
Permalloy eQ< ? w + = S , j( y 9 | Q <
Permanent magnets ?}FGO b !9j |
Permeability ? *P9q !E
Permeation { jzj @
Permutations dO9 = @
Perpendicular recording j O ( }f { + GT @
Persistent length j QG Q }A S G d(_
Perspectives Q + c9" |
PH , "+F hQO +$ OO f
Phagocytic , }g z<
Phase contrast Microscopy - PCM Q (a yG Q*9j @ ? *Q%H
Phase shift Q (a yG M 9*R !G
Phase shift mask - PSM Q (a y G M9 * R ! G ? g" s C
Phased electrodes Q(_ J GP J GOh QAw yE
Phenomenological ?+@G Q$9c
Phonon f( !(q yG
Phosphosilicate glass-PSG ? + F9 F R J 9 w+ z S( q S( p
Photo luminescence-PL ?+F (\ ? +F9+\
Photo-bleaching j Q Z < Q + Zt @
Photo-carrier screening ?=F 9I ?* QZ< ? z|9I
Photocurrent ,F ( \ Q 9 + @
Photodetector , F(\ r V 9v ,, F(\ a 9Ww |
Photodiode , F (\ ,F 9 " C
~z~
Photoemission spectroscopy , ( ]y
F G K9g = !: ?+ p9+a |
G
Photoluminescence +(
? F \ ? F9 \ + +
Photomask , ( \ 9 "s
F Y
Photomultiplier , ( \ rf 9 ] |
F
Photomultiplier tube PMT , ( \ r f 9 ]| ( = !

F H C
Photonic crystals ? +!( @(p JGQ ( z<

Photoresistive doped silicon ,a j\ eh9t |
Photoresistivity +
? aj \ ? |h9t | +
Photo-responsivity +(
? F \ ? < 9 GA S G
Photosynthetic +(
? F \ ? = vQ @ ++
Photovoltaic +( (
? F ]Ay p , ? F9a y p A \ + ( (
Physical vapor deposition-PVD Q 9 M= z y , 9 * R+ p > + SQ @
F
Physisorption , 9*R +pF RGRA |G
Piezoelectric ,a j\ Q% v h
Piezoresistive ,a j\ eh9t |
Pilot pen \+y O ~z s
x
Pinning field B =D| d9 H
Pipette q
? Y9 |
Pit IQqI
Planar Ka T| , A T | (
Planar process ? * (A T| IQ hQ +S
Plane wave ? * ( A T | ? F( |
Plane wave expansion method - ? * (AT C G ?F (C G OO E ? t*Q_
PWEM
w
Plasticity !
? GO y
Platform Q= | "
Plating +
? Wj @
Platter QOS
Plug flow u pO @ I OGOS
Point , at ! , ?a t !
~{u
Point defects H ( +f ?a t!
Polar fraction-f ,= a s QT v
Polarity +
? =a s
Poling process H 9 a tA S :G I Q hQ +S
Polycyclic J GQ hOyG IO OgA |
Polyelectrolyte +
B yhQA wy G O OgA |
Polyethyleneglycol-PEG d ( w+ z F #+ z + D * [( < E
Polyethyleneoxide-PEO #+ z+ A * [( < O + Tv
E C
Polyhedron ) &F }
h G JG O O g A | ( &F } h G O OgA |
Polymer latexes * + ( +"= y

? Q} y < ? JGQ 9Zf
Polymerization IQ} z<
Polymersome formers e hRQ } +y( =y G J GOy (|

Polypeptides JGO + A==+y( <
Population f 9wS
Population inversion P9 w S H ;t G !
Position sensitive detector-PSD hs (C # f r Ww zy
G S 9 TI R9 %F
Post-processing ? @ 9gC G Og <
Potential segment f ( }w y G ?ga s
Power supply *
? PjA yG R9 F %
Powerstrokes IQ OtyG W G (V C
Pre-amp eO tA| ~M ] |
Precession u =T yG
Precursor r z S ,A iO 9 <
Preparation OGO f G
Prepolymer eO tA| + +(
Q } y <
Principal quantum number ,S 9 S , |(} v

C OO f
Probe +
{ | ,U H ,Q 9=T |
Processing ? @9 g |
Processive v
9+SQ
Processor Hy9g |
~{v
Profile ,S CQ +
ha t| , A9} S ,? = 9F I Q Y +! (
Profile , =!9F { wV
Projection W 9tS E
Proportional amplifier > S 9 A| ~M ] |"

Proportional controller > S9 A | ~w " ;
Proportional gain "
>S 9 A | > T v
Proportional-integration - PI "
>S 9 A | { | 9 w @
Proteins # +@ hQ <
Protonate # @Q= |
Protonation f (@ h Q< ? p 9 \E , ? @ Q < "
Proximity ? ?9A| ,H Q9t @
Proximity alignment N Q9t @ a 9q aY G
Pseseudo gap I ( Gp & = V

Pseudocrystalline
q
jQ (z< &=V
Pulsed laser deposition-PLD "
^= y G QR zy 9 < > SQ @+
Pulsed laser vaporization- PLV ,] = " y G QR +zy 9< Q+M =@
Pyramidal pits ? |Q+ $ QqI
Pyrolysis j QG QI d ;J G !
Pyrolytic j QGQ I {z ;
Quad-psds +
? f 9<Q h s ( C # f r W w z y UT J A |
G
Quadrant (quadrants) )J9 +g< Q( +

? g< Q
Quadratic +!
? 9C ?F QO ,? g <Q @ ++
Quadratic growth ,g + < Q@ (} !
Quadrupole mass spectrometer - H9a s } , f9 < Q y \A w y
G G G +
r ayG S 9 t | +
QMS
Quadrupole symmetry , f9< Q Q \9 @ "
Quality factor IO (@ G {|9 f
Quantum algorithms +(
? | } v J 9 |R QG L + (
Quantum bell ,|( }v SQF
Quantum bits +(
? | } v J9 A < +
~{w
Quantum computation +(
? | }v ?= S I (
Quantum confinement ,| ( } v Q ZI
Quantum dot +(
? | } v ?a t !
Quantum dot composite-QDC ~wy G ? at > vQ | !
Quantum dot infrared photodetector +( !
? | }v ? at A GQ} A G B ; ? g V ~ y , ( \ UI F
- QDIP
Quantum entanglement , }v x <9W @
Quantum mechanical effect ,w + ! 9 w + | ( }v Q+ C z @
e
Quantum states +(
? | }v J :9 I
Quasi-discrete ? zZq | " &=V

Quasiparticle ~ TF + &=V
Quaternary o
Y9< Q
Quenching *
h QS O Q=@ , O9 * ? E
Quiescent point "

? v9 S ?a t !
Quiescent state )? "v9 S (wT y
( f G ?y9I
Radiative decay , f9g V E d ;J G !

Radioactive +
? f 9gV E ? zf 9p +
Radius of gyration + *
? } h OAy G ? vQ A G Qas r Z !
Raman shift f9|G Q ?IG R E
Raman spectroscopy f 9|GQ + +

? p9 a |
Random access memory-RAM , (W gy

FG G )d (Y (y G h C( P9q "y G IQv GP
Rapid reversal H ;t G ! ? g QS *
Rare earth IQO9 ! ? +\ QC
Reactive ion etching - RIE { f9q A G f C ( * }9 < X + } " @

Realizations J9t +t;
Reciprocal d O9=A |
Recombination O9 ;: G IO9f E
Recombine O9 ;: G O9f C
Reconfigurable +
{ wW AyG IO9 fE ? z< 9s +
Recover +
O gAT *
~{x
Recovered O9 gAT |
Rectification ratio ~* ( t@ ?= T !
Redox Y9F QEh I OTv C
Red-shift Q >} G ? IG R E
Reduction d GRAL G
Reduction factor ^+ q M A y G { | 9 f
Reflectivity ?+ S 9wg !G
Refluxing h FG Q r D w @
Region chemistry A9+ }+v v v ?+I 9!
Relaxation rates A 9 L Q A S E J: O g |
Relaxation time A 9 LQ A S: G # |R
Repair K+ z Z@ , ~ + | Q @
Reprecipitation >+S Q@ IO9f E
Reptation model P 9=gC L P(} !
Residual u= A |
m
Resilient q o n
? ! hQ | , ,f (F Q
Resin H"+@G Q
Resist )?+s Gh( ?g !9F IO9 |
Resistivity q
? + f( ! ? |h9t | ,?+ |h9t |
Resolution r
R + | ,? !9= A S G
Resonator f9!Q |
Responsive phases ?+<9G AS G QG(_ C
Rest position P( wS hs( |
Restoring force I O 9 gA S :G I ( s
RET ? !9 = A S :G _ T; 9 + F( y (" w @
Retrograde-doped k
I Qt%t @ ?<9W |
Reverse bias U v9 g| R+;
Reversible ?S (w f
Rhodopsin _ T< hOh Q
Ribosomes J 9|h R(=* Q
~{y
Ridges O9 +I C
Rigid +
? S 9s
Rigidity ? < ;Y
Rule of thumb ,* +
= Qt@ S9 s ,IQ= B G hC ? SQ 9 } G C ^ f ? } 9s F I Of 9 s
Sacrificial ?< G hP ,? 9<Q s +!

Salt bridge junction ? A9 | Q TF ? z Y h
Sampling time constant P9 + A f: #|R y G G B< 9 C
Saturation magnetization ,f 9 = V b" j E E
Scaffold ?y9tS
Scalar j OO f
Scale - up ~ G + ;
Scaling ~ G + ;
Scanned-probe K S9 | U H
Scannig tunneling microscopy - STM ?J S9 G ? tq ? QC + ! * %H
Scanning electron microscopy - SEM +!
? hQ AwyE K T G ? Q C * %H
Scanning force microscope SFM , JT C ( t y Q%H G I G
Scanning probe lithography C

K S9 G U G G 9 pG Q i D y C + (+
Scanning probe microscope- SPM C
K S9 G U G G Q C %H
Scanning tunneling ,tq ! K S9 |
Scanning tunneling microscope-STM , tq "y G KT G Q C %H
Scanning tunneling spectroscopy STS ,t q" y G C + +
K T G ? p9 a |
Scattered Q Dg=A |
Scattering IQ9a AS G , QDg =@
Scrolls rF9q y
Second harmonic generation - SHG P9 C , t + p ( @ O+ y ( @

Seed layer *
? Q P< ?t=_
Segmented , ga s
Segmented polymers ?g at | J G Q } y < +(
Self-assembly O GP h } + :
Self-Assemled Monolayers (SAMS) *
? O 9 IC J 9 t= ay O GP h } + :
~{z
Self-organization O ~+d "@ GP
Semi log ,} A * 9 i(y r Z ! Q
Semiconductor {Y (| r Z !
Semiconductor optical Amplifiers- ? z Y( | rZ ! ? * Q Z< 9}M ] | J
SOA
Sensing UT ;
x
Sensor I U
o
, QgW AT |
Separation by Implantation of _ GT v} G YQR < {Z p
oxygen -SIMOX
Separation of variables + jA C {Z p
JG Q G
Sequential tunneling ?+g <9A@ ?+t q!
Serif a Q A ^ f & < ,% " * bL

G C ?<9!
o
: P
Settling time QG Q t A S ;y eR : #| R
Setup OGOf E
Shaded { zd |
Shadow evaporation techniques +

Q M= A y G { c J 9 9 t @ +!
Shallow hydrogenic Impurity ?zJ \ ? + "+F h QO + $ ?= 9V F
Shear fields [ ty G J :9 H
Shear force [tyG I s (
Sheet ?J qY +
Shell ?gs s (
Shielding *
h QO @
Shunting resistance QZ tyG ? |h9t |
Sign ? |; f
Silane - oxide + S O + Tv
f; vvvv C
Silicon on insulator- SOI 9f

dR
m
(p ( w+zS
b f
Simultaneous B s (A | G
Single O +I Qq ! h ,j OG G
Single Buried sacrificial layer IQ ( }a| ? +!9<Q s O+I ?t=_ I h
Single electron charging effects OQq "C G fhQ Awy G #J V JGQ +C z@

Single electron transistors-SET O Qq "C G f hQA wy G JG Q (AS R! Q @ G
~{{
Single wall carbon nanotubes-SWNTS QGO @ ?*
G O9 I } ? *(!9 "y ( <Qwy
G G f G + !
> <9 C
Single-degenerate j OGQ q G vvvv ! {J | " o
Singularities J G OQ q@ ,J G
w
R+ E
Sinusoidal driving force ++

? = F IR p9I I s (
Site-directed mutagenesis &F (| vvvv ( +
hs | Q qa @
Size-exclusion ~G A G O9 g=AS G
Small scale integration SSI +

Q j Y {| 9 w@ S 9 t | +
Sol gel ){ F vvvv d (Y ,| ;$ (Y
( d
Solubility f 9<hP yG +
? z< 9s
Solvated H hGPA |
Solvation + * !
? <9 P G
Solvation forces H hGP AyG i (s

Sonication "(
? @ Y
Sophisticated ?s ("A |
Source Q OZ |
Spacer Of 9=| ,{ Y 9p
Sparkling uy @ z
Spectroscopic gap + +
? p9 a | I G p (
Spectroscopy + +
? p9 a |
Specular layers +
? @BQ| J 9t=_
Spherical harmonics *
? h Q v J9 t p G @ + (
Spin d hR i ,J 9|Gh O , ,| hO , dR i
Spin angular momentum ,| h O jh G R ~L R
Spin casti [R i > Y , | , hO >Y
Spin flip *
~ h OA y G H ;t G !
Spin momentum ) [ Ri , }*
( , hO @ ~L R
Spin valve *
~ hOAy G e 9}Y
Spin-polarized >a t A T | v v v v ~ h O @ *
Spintronic +!
x h QAyR i ,?| G hO J 9 h QAw yE +!
Spontaneous j ( qf , 9t z@
, F
~{|
Sputtering *
P PQ @ ,?V QV Q
Stack (
?| v
Standard j Q9 +g |
Standard deviation j Q9 + g| a GQJ G !
Standby ,_ 9 + A I G
Standing waves (( (
?p s | J9F | , ?qs A| J9F | ( (
State ?y9I
State - filling A {| v v v v ?y9I
State-of-the-art instruments + + ( ( "wA y

? y 9gyG 9 F y G JG P I R %F C
Static # v9S
Steady-state QG Q tA S: G ?y9I
Stealth liposomes + !
? y; T G J9|h R = y (+
Steep subthreshold slope ? =AgyG f hO j QGOJ G { | ! +
Stencil ~ Sh Q
Step motor JG ( aL h P cQ I
Steric forces J GQP yG +
> @ Q@ i s (
Steric hindrance ,i Qp u 9 f
G F ,j R +I u 9f F
Stiction P (w S c9 wA I G
Stiffer RGRAv G
Stiffness IRGR v
Stimuli J GRp9I
Stochastic +(
? FG Wf
Stochastic effect , (W f Q+C z@

FG
Stochastic motion +(
? F G Wf ? vQI
Stocks shift (
Uv A S M 9 R G *!
Stoichiometric number |p9w Ay G OO f
Stoichiometry j QZ " gy 9 ;:
G O G S9 +s
Stop band IO9Y I (G p
Strain d 9gq G !
Strain energy d9g q G ! ?s9_
~{}
Strain profile , =!9F d 9gq G !
Stray fields I OQ 9 V J :9 H
Streaming potential , tp (} v O f
Stress O9 %F E
Stress relaxation A9 LQA S: G O 9 %F E
Stress-concentrators O9 %F G J GRvQ |
Stretching beam IO A F ?\ Q9 f
String of bits J9A + < # | ?zp 9s

Stringent OO WA | , eR9 I
Stringer ?| Q9Y
Stripe height *
b QW yG Y 9q@Q G
Stripping +
Q Wt @
Structure +
> v Q@ ,? + "<
Sublimated , }T @
q
Submicron *
? hQw | fh O +
Substrate S9S C I O9| , IR +v Q
Subthreshold ?=A gyG fh O
Subunits +
? f Qp J GOI h
Sulfonated polysterene - SPS #q zT| # * QA T+ y ( <

Superconducting quantum + (
{ Y A y G uF 9 p ,|( }v { L O @ 9 %F G R
interference device (squid)

Superconductivity ?t F9p ? z Y | + (
Supercurrent u F9p Q9 @ +
Superhalo implant ? y9 $ (p
b YQ R
Superlattice ?tF9p ? QgV *

Superparamagnetisn ? tF9q yG ?As | C ?+T +a"j C
G G ,?t F9p + + "
? T a j|GQ 9<
Superposition )J 9=v GQ@( > vGQ @
Support structure ~f OyG ? + "<

Supramolecular + * @ (p
? 8 R G b
Surface evanescent waves "

k
*
Ka Ty G O f 9 g QS ? z F G R J 9 F | (
~{~
Surface micromachining ,J aS j hQ w +| , "w| { +jW @
Surface tension , Ja S Q@ ( @
Surfactant ,J aT y Q@ (A y G G {|9 f
x
Susceptibility + + (
? S9 T I ,? fG _ ,? QC A | * z
Suspensions J9tzg |
Swap ?] 9t | *
Switch M9 A q| ,d G O= |
Switching time *
{ O =AyG #| R
Symmetry {C 9 E
Synchrotron ) , "| R @
G Y QT |( fh Q@hQ w "S
Synthetic antiferromagnetic-SAF + + "C
? T a j G O 9 ]| , =+vQ @
Synthetic mimics ++
? = vQ @ I9v9 I
Synthons ? z Z q | J9 = y " "
Systems on a chip-SOC ?s9s QyG ^f ? }d ! C
Tags J9 } S G h
Tangential flow , S9 F upO @

Tapering b OAT |
Tapping mode operation " +

Qt yG ? g\ h IQ hQ S +
Technic ? +"t @
Technological platform )? + F( y (" w @ ?+ ! 9 t@ ?I( y
(
Technology + ( ("w @ ?!9t @

? F y ,
Telecommunication O g<
o
#f J: 9Z@G
Template >y 9 s
Tensile stresses O9 %F G J GQ@ (@

Term +
Q =g @ ,OI
q
Ternary alloys +
? C ;C x F 9 = S
Tetrahedron &F } , f9<

h G Q
Thermal desorption j QG QI H|
Thermal hopping jQ G Q I Rq s
Thermal pixels *
? Q G QI J ; Tw < +
~|u
Thermally-assisted recording C
? tpGQ G I QGQ A 9 < { + GT @
Thermodynamic *
? QGQ I ? w |9 + + "* O
Thermoelastic *
? QGQI ? hQ | !
Thermogravimetric +!
? Rh ? QGQI *
Thermopiles *
? QG QI 9 ;L *
Thermoplastic #
vvF GOvvy ,jQGQvvI xvvAvvS;vv< ,IQGQvv A 9 < #+ z A z y ? z < 9 s
vv vv vv vv vv vv vv
?* QI QG
Thermopower *
? QGQ I IQO s
Third order ? Dy9C ?=@ Q
Threshold ?=A f
Thresholding function +
? =Af ?y GO
Throughput + !
? F9 A G
Time - multiplexing OO gA| \ < 9 t@ #| vvvv R
Tip SC Q
Titration IQ *9g |
To offset ! (
? RG |
Tolerance +
? I 9} S ,J h9q @
Toluene # *(y( @
Tone !
~j ,IQ = !
Top-down { qS C vvvv ?} s
Torque *
Q hO AyG eR f
Torsional [9 A q ! G
Torsional paddle + ! "

? y9Aq G ?t f R
Track xzT |
Trackwidth xzT G VQ f C
Tractable > JT z y {< 9 s
Transconductance ? zY+ (C G AGQh 9|
Transduce { *(; h
Transfer curve d
v(I )"J"|
Transient Q<9 f
~|v
Transient charges I Q < 9 f J 9 JV "
Transient charges I Q < 9 f J 9 JV "
Transition ? y9tA G + !
Transition metals ? y9tA G f O9g |

+ !
Transition point d 9tA : G ?a t ! !
Transition temperature d 9 t A : G hC d JA y G I Q G Q I ? FQ O
! (
Transmission coefficient ? P 9 q y G { |9 g| , d9 t A : G { |9 g |
* " !
Transmission electron microscope - P hQ A wy G d9 t A : G ? Q ! * %H
TEM
Transmission spectrum d9 tA : G r _ ! +
Transmissivity ? P 9q ,? y 9tA G
* ! + !
Transmittance ? P9q yG * "
Transport ? y9tA G + !
Traveling - wave dielectrophoresis - ? F9<Q wy G IQ G y G F9 D y ? p s | J 9F |

+ % % , " ( ( (
TWDEP
Traveling waves ? |Ot A| J9F | (
Trigonal Q c9 A y G ? C ; C " +
Trim > P > PW @ * 7 *
Tripod ) C ;C {| 9 I( O = G Q @
, ( *
Tritium e A QA yG (+ *
Truncated Q A= | (
Tubilin z< @ #+ + (+
Tunability r y AyG ? z< 9s + ( +
Tunability r y AyG ? z< 9s + ( +
Tunability spectra a9 _ G r y @ ? z < 9 s

+ } + ( +
Tune r y @ ,~ j @ + ( + "
Tuning ry @ + (
Tunneling tq , !
Tunneling magnetoresistance read ?F Q9tyG S hD QyG p tq T a j | eh9t |

, , ! , + "
heads
Tunneling spectroscopy ? tq ? p9 a |
+ ! + +
~|w
Turbidity IQ ( wf , IQw f
Uncertainty _t + y G eO f
Undercut \q S C [s
Uniform "
~d A | ,O I | (
Uniformly (
OI | uT !
Unitary *
? OI h
Univalent |p9 wAy G j O9I C
Unoccupied d ( $z| Q+ i
Unoccupied molecular orbitals - ?y ( $z| Q+ i ?+8*R F J GQGO |
LUMO's
Unrolled bT = *
Untangling xp
Uptake U9 Z A | G
Vacuum sublimation ,i Qp G e9T @
Valence band-VB
m
A ( p9w Ay G b9 a !
Vapor phase deposition jQ 9 M< Q(_ > + SQ @
Variable optical Attenuators-VOA I
xQ+jA| ?*QZ< 9"$(| J
p
Vector & GA |
Vertical cavity surface emitting +( (
? y s 9 W y G I G q z y E f9 = y G Ka Ty G J G QR y +
lasers-VCSELS
Vertices ~} s
Vesicle encapsulators + *( I
? zZ J9qzj |
Vesicles J ;Z *(I
Vibration H P
Virtual ,\ QA p G G
Viscoelastic ?FR y ? hQ | !
Viscous damping L Ry dh D9] @
Voids J 9iGQ p
Volume fraction , }G I ARF
~|x
Vortices (vortex) ) ?|Gh O( J9|Gh O
Wafer QpGh , ?s9s Q
Wavefunction + (
? F | ?y GO
Waveguide , F( | {+ y O
Wavelength division multiplexing- C \ < 9 t A y ,F (C (ay ~ + Tt @

O OgA G G G d G
WDM
Wavevector , F( | & GA |
Weak inversion +
r g \ H ;t G !
Weak phase object approximation , =*QtA y G +
r g] yG ~ T @ (_ G Q
WPOA
Wear resistance ^= y G ? |h9t |
Wet layer-WL ?=_ Q ?t=_
Work function {j Wy G ?y G O
Worm micelle j Oh O { P| *
Write Xt , ?<9A v!
X-ray proximity *
?= Qs ? +"+S ?gV C
Yield strength HA "C ?!9A |G
Yoke fQt |
Zero-dimensional jQ q Y Og <
o
~|y
S dvvvvvvvvvS6
261 : ,} GJy G O 9 g= A S : G vvvvv C vvvvv
+
34 :? F9 ]qyG !
? 9= AS: G
325 :fG hQhC AG (Ay G J9 +y B
612 :J9 f; M !: G ?v Q I Q= f A9 L Q AS: G

455 ,454 :r +* O! Q C S9 wg G ! ?+ y B
612 : J9 = += Jy G ?v Q I Q= f A9 L Q AS: G
143 ,142 ,138 : #W My G *
> QtA yG ? yB +
+ "
:?vv vvavvtvv vvyG H (+gy vv vv vv G ?vvvQvvI Qvv=vvf A 9vvLQvvAvvS:G 258 :Q @ (wS ?+ y B
612
646 :d ( ! 9D * ( A< 9v Q +|
E I QM < C
196 :KaS } G
183 :? O 9 g< * } G
332 :? *( ! 9"y G c; S } G
+ +
?vvvvvAvvvvvJvvvvv=vvvvvyG A9vvvvv vvvvv}vvvvv vvvvvwvvvvvzvvvvvy , @:9 J y 9 J @:
vvvvv vvvvv vvvvv G O vvvvv vvvvv G
50 ,35 :? +" +Ty G ?gV } G 227 : ? +t+=a Ay Gh
35 :IO + g = y ? + G T q " = y (p ? g V}
G G b G 830 :IO9 ]}y G e9 TF } G
827 :? +! ( y( ty 9+W *Q +V
G G 410 :? +! hQ Awy G IR %F} G
p- #+ +"+ , (
v vzv v v v p vy v=v zv y J9v tv=v avy G IO OvgvAv| +
?v vWviC 616 :? +| ( }wy ?+! G hQ Awy G IR %F} G
108 ,107 : #+z +" *9p 869 :? +g 9 |F hQw +}y G IR %F} G
123 :? +| 9T }y ?+W i}G G

873 ,869 :? + g 9 | ( !9 " y
F G IR %F} G
276 e9Js G 663 :? F + (] y 9+ % ! : G Q G J GO (* O IR %F C
47 ,45 :Q (ay G M9 *R ! G "

?g sC 830 : ? +@9 q+y} ?+ "+| } G G V9 }I } G
125 :? * ( !9 " y ? + p Q i (D + z y
G G G ?g s"} G 274 :TQ +< dG RA L G
875 :? + g 9 | (! 9 " y ? + " s }

F G G 269 :f9| GQ ?I G RE
261 :IOT v } G 618 :?vQJ| + + "

? T a j | ?I G RE
~|z
:fGQ OvvGvvyG IO OvvgvvAvv| BN *( ! " ?vv vv 9vv vvyG >vv vv<9vv + !} G 262 :? F9 + +} +wy G IOT v } G
234
837 : jQt= yG { Z}yG #+|(=y C
197 :? +=+ v QAy ?*( ! 9 "y G G > <9 + !} G

377 :IQ 9 JyG J9 hQ Awy ! G
+
:Bv v Av Wv Av yG jO 9v IC Qv av s JGP ?v * ( !9 ! > + < 9 !
v v v v v C
356 :? vQ JA} yG J9 hQ Awy ! G
231
409 :? +8* RG y G J9 +! hQ A w y G
291 :IQ Dg=}y G ? *(!9 "y G > <9 + !} G
+ *
:)?vvv vvv}vvv hOvvv AvvvyG ( +"+
?vvv vvv vvv vvv=vvvTvvvyG J9vvv vvv hQvvvAvvvwvvvy +! G
233 :?z Aw}y G ? *(!9 "y G > <9 + !} G

499
*( !9 " y ( <Q w y + !}
! rZ! ?+"+=S +!
-227 ,189 :?vv vv vv vv G f vv vv vv G >vv vv<9vv G
,533 :?v zv s9v v v v v v v v J9v v hQv Av wv y G
,265 ,251 ,244 ,236 ,229

534
398 ,296 ,278 ,276 ,274 ,273
466 :? +T +a"j}y G J9 +! hQ A w y G
:Q GOvGvy G *
?v O9vIC ?v *( !9 " y ( <Q w y
v v v G f v v v G >v v<9v + !} G
,238 ,237 ,235 -233 ,231 -229

439 :IO Q q "}y G J9 +! hQ A w y G
281 ,262 ,257 ,256 ,248 ,240 426 : DNA vvv yG J9 +! hQ AwyE
IO OvvvvvgvvvvvAvvvvv| ?vvvvv *( !9 " y ( <Q w y

vvvvv vvvvv vvvvv G f vvvvv vvvvv vvvvv G + !}
>vvvvv vvvvv<9vvvvv G 345 :? hQ w * +}y G J9 +! hQ A w y G
,257 ,256 ,233 ,229 :fGQ OvvvvvGvvvvvyG

662 :? *Q Z=y G a9 +y} G
295 ,281 ,279

279 :RG RA |: G
231 :? +A +y Q+w y Q +i >+< 9! }

G G G
276 : ,J aTy G RG RA |: G
245 ,231 :? +A+y Q +wy G G > <9 + !} G
276 : , 9 *R +qy F G RG RA |: G
275 :IQ ( zq }y G > <9 + !} G
,258 ,96 ,86 : , 9+}+wy

vvvvvF vvvvv vvvvv vvvvv vvvvv vvvvv G RG RvvvvvAvvvvv|: G
466 : ,}* h OA yG d9 tA !: G
722 ,630
171 + !
? y9 tA : G
285 :U9ZA |: G
208 :j QG QJyG d; J !: G
279 :jQ GQ JyG H} yG
494 :B *9! 9 *R !
( t| >+ < 9!
M G
197 :?| C
358 ,355 :J;Y ( }y G a 9Z C !

+ + !}
k
232 :9 FR F ?s R} }yG > < 9 G
838 :? +g +=ay ?+<9 J T!: G G ?}d !} G

,194 ,191 ,187 : ?vvvvv *( !9 " y vvvvv vvvvv vvvvv G + !}
>vvvvv vvvvv<9vvvvv G
661 :? +! hQ Awy G *
? Q Z=y G ?}d !} G
,288 ,286 ,285 ,283 ,250
854 :jhQ w +}y G { |9 w y G { z J A y G ? }d C + ! 410 ,294 -291 ,289
~|{
229 : ( + | (S , 9} +G* E 817 :? +| ( CQG y Q+ =g Ay G G ?}d C!
589 :f9 q +AS ,j (q* E *
84 :? hQv9 }yG J98 * RG y G ?}d C!
vvvvv H vvvvv
53 :? +S h9i ?| R I ?}d C !
629 :? hQjy G * ?}d !} G
488 ,485 :? +| ( }wy G J9 A = y G
* +
:?v hQv wv v }v yG - + +! +
?v v wv v 9v wv v |hQv v wv yG ?v }v dv % !} G
365 :S 9w g !: ?* O< G G
815 ,814
"+ @
* + + +! + % !}
203 :J9 h Q= yG
- ?v hQvwv v}vyG - ?v vwv v 9vwv v|hQv vwv yG ?v }vdv G
735 : ? +a M y Q+i G J9 * QZ = y G
627 :? * QZ = y G
111 :Q } +y(=y G J 98 *RF IQ Dg< -589 :?v *( !9 " y ? + w + !9 w + | Q % w y

v v v G v v v v v v v h v v v G ?v}vdv !} G
228 : # * Q+ y( pQ AT "}w < 814 ,625 ,608 ,591
+ *R G y
:?vvv vvv8vvv vvv vvv G +
?vvv|RvvvJvvvy9vvv< ?vvv vvvtvvv=vvvavvvyG JGQ vvvzvvv=vvvyG ( 66 :9 +p Q i( D+z y
G G ?}d C!
328 69 :j (!9 C ,!(* ,zAv C a9 +a| ?}d! C
,760 ,750 ,749 :?vvv vvv + !( @ ( q y vvv vvv vvv G JG Q (z=yvvv vvv vvv G 171 :? + S 9 w g! : G
776
502 :?yO 9= }yG #f ~ F9" y G e 9Zq !: G
+ ( + !( @( q y
hvvv vvv}vvvGvvvAvvvyG ?vvvavvvSG vvv< ?vvv vvv vvv vvv vvv G JG Q (z=yvvv vvv vvv G
362 :fQ }yG d9gq !: G
759 : ,@ PyG G
504 :~ hOA yG H; t G * !
(
?v zv <9v tv yG UG v Mv yG JGP ?v v + !( @ ( q y v v v G J GQ (z=y v v v G
, 9 "D y G j Q Z =yG Q9 Tw !:
+y(Azy
42 : F G
772 :r
, f9 g Wy "
Uq A y G W9 } C !
* + * ( !9 " y (z=y
246 : G
?vvv O9vvvIC ?vvvgvvv vvv=vvvavvvyG JGP ?vvv vvv vvv vvv G JGQ vvv vvv vvv G
308 :B AWA yG
245 :? +@(Zy G W 9} !} G
489 :B < (+ w y 9 " < G A

245 :? F + (]y G W 9} !} G
198 :?| QM} yG f ( < Qw y ) "< G

246 :d; J !: G ? F h OR | W9 } C !
869 :? + g 9 } ! ( !9 " y ) " <
F G
760 :J:9 <hC
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vvvv vvvv vvvv vvvv
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مدخل الى علم النانويات وتقانتها

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