Consider an open ended tube or duct through which flows a constant stream of gas. The mass flow rate through the duct will be a constant value at any point (this assumes the gas is travelling with a fixed density and velocity) ‘The mass flow per second (mass flow rate) of the gas flowing through the duct will depend on its density (mass per unit volume - kg/m’) and its volume {cubic metres - m3) The volume flow of gas = the cross sectional area of the duct (m2) x the distance travelled divided by the time (4/,). But, the distance travelled per second = the velocity (ev) Therefore: MASS FLOW DENSITY x AREA x VELOCITY = pxAxv where p = density in kg/m? (pronounced “rho”) A = cross sectional area in m2 v velocity in m/s This is known as the CONTINUITY EQUATION and is true for any steady flow system regardless of cross-sectional area of the duct. If an incompressible fluid flows through a duct (see figure 2), consisting of a parallel section which changes shape to a divergent section, then as the fluid enters the divergent duct it will take up the new shape and the initial volume will now occupy less length. Therefore, in a given time less distance is travelled and the velocity has reduced. So if the mass flow is to remain constant, as it must, an increase in duct area, (divergent duct) causes a decrease in flow velocity, and a decrease in duct area (convergent duct} causes an increase in flow velocity. Of course, in a gas turbine engine the medium used is air, which is not incompressible. There must, therefore, be a relationship between the pressure and the velocity of a gas flowing through a duct or a gas turbine engine, This relationship is stated in Bernoulli's theorem. The theorem states that : The total energy per unit mass of gas is constant for a fluid moving inside a duct, and that the total energy consists mainly of pressure energy and kinetic energy (provided there are no losses) As an equation is it written as: P + pgh + ¥/gpV2 cwhere P = Pressure energy in Pa (Pascals) p = Density in kg/m8 (air about 1.2 kg/m2} g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s?) h = Height from some datum in m V = Velocity in m/s C = Aconstant ceincutar over ruuo FLow — cenctiay ma Fig. 2. FLUID FLOW THROUGH A DUCT ‘The first term is the pressure energy (P) or Ram Pressure. The second term is the positional energy or potential energy (gh) and the third term is the kinetic energy (!/2pV2) or dynamic pressure energy. Pressure Energy In a gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is called the static pressure and would be the pressure experienced by a body submerged in the fluid flow and moving with it at the same velocity. See figure 3. Kinetic Energy This energy is called dynamic pressure energy and is created by the extra pressure caused by the movement of the fluid flow and is proportional to 1/2 density x velocity? (1/2 pv2), See figure 3. Consider a duct which is filled with an incompressible fluid and pressurised from one end by an external force. The other end of the duct is sealed by a valve which can be opened or closed. A pressure gauge is fitted to indicate static pressure (With the valve closed, static pressure energy and total energy are the same. When the valve is opened, however, static pressure energy + dynamic pressure energy equals total energy. Therefore an increase in velocity results in a dynamic pressure increase and a static pressure decrease, total energy remaining the same. Q © rnesure ower it of ” i 0 {7 PRESSURE ENERGY KINETIC ENERGY Fig. 3 ENERGIES Total Energy This energy can be measured as a ram pressure and is usually called the total head or Pitot pressure (P,) (Henri Pitot, French physicist 1695 - 1771). It is measured by placing a ram tube (Pitot tube) in the fluid flow which is parallel to the flow and the open end facing the flow. A gauge connected to this tube always displays the total head or Pitot pressure regardless of the rate of flow. Where there is no fluid flow the static pressure (Ps) and the total head pressure (P) will be the same, When there is fluid flow the static pressure (P,) drops while the total head pressure (P;) will remain the same. See figure 4 As previously s‘ated a gas can be compressed, and as such, flow at subsonic speeds causes a change in density as it passes through the various ducts in the engine By referring to figure 5 it can be seen that air entering the parallel section consists of air at pressure P; and velocity V;. As the air enters the divergent. duct it will spread out to occupy the increased area and will slow down to V2 (continuity equation). The static pressure (P,) will increase to P) (Bernoulli) and as air is compressible the density will rise