Glosario:

Dummy subject:

Dummy subject is a construction in which an empty pronoun, that is, without meaning, fulfills the
grammatical function of the subject since the real subject is presented later in the clause. To
understand this, it is important to take into account that in English the preverbal subject in finite
clauses is almost a requirement. In that sense, the dummy pronoun (it or there) just holds the
subject position until the real subject comes along.

- There is a dog in my house.

- It is important to take into account that in English the preverbal subject in finite clauses is
almost a requirement.

In both examples, we have two subjects: the dummy subject (in red), which takes part in syntactic
operation characteristics of subjects. For example, if we convert the previous declarative clauses
into interrogative clauses, the finite will go before the respective pronoun:

- Is there a dog in my house?

- Is it important to take into account that in English the preverbal subject in finite clauses is
almost a requirement?

The second one is the postponed subject (in green), the real subject, which agrees with the verb in
number and person.

Dummy subject with it:

In this construction, the dummy subject is performed by the pronoun ‘it’ and the postponed
subject, by a finite or a non-finite clause:

- It is common in Colombia to vote for incompetent candidates.

- It is obvious that the elected president is a puppet.
- It would be interesting to travel abroad the next year.

In addition, it is used to talk about weather, distance or time:

- It´s raining!
- It’s a long way to Mexico.
- It is time for a break, isn’t it?

Dummy subject with there:

Also called existential construction, the dummy subject is performed by the pronoun there and the
postponed subject has indefinite reference:

- There were a lot of people waiting for you now.

- There are several countries to visit the next year.
- Listen, there is a place where we could be alone.
A postmodifier is the part of the nominal group which limits or qualifies the noun it follows. This
modifier tends to be longer than premodifiers and is more common in writing than in
conversational contexts.

- This comfortable family-run old farmhouse on the unspoilt southern shore of Ullswater
has been a long-time favourite of Guide readers, particularly walkers and climbers.
- In a farm-house in Sussex are preserved two skulls from Hastings Priory.

There are four types of postmodifiers:

- Prepositional phrase:
o In a farm-house in Sussex are preserved two skulls from Hastings Priory.
o The girl on the table is so beautiful.
- Non-finite clauses:
- They are divided into PARTICIPLE CLAUSES (-ING AND -ED FORMS) and INFINITIVE CLAUSES
(TO FORMS)
o Participle clauses:
 A letter written by a member of the public attracted my attention.
 Young families attending the local clinic need to take a rest now.
o Infinitive clauses:
 I haven’t got friends to beat him up through.
 I had a little bit to eat.
 There is no time to go.
- Dependent clauses introduced by relative pronouns:
o The child who is sitting in the corner has been very naughty.
o I am lending you a book which was bought by my grandfather.
o Every person who bought a ticket is welcome.
- Adjectives and adjective groups:
o We created a plan less ambitious than we expected.
o We talked to people concerned about the situation.
o I will buy a car faster than yours.

References:

Lock, G. (1996). Functional English Grammar: An introduction for second language teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nordquist, R. (2017). Postmodifier (grammar). Retrieved from:

https://www.thoughtco.com/postmodifier-grammar-1691519

Thompson, G. (1996). Introducing Functional Grammar. London and New York: Routledge.

Subject identification:

Reference:
When it comes to cohesion, English offers a variety of cohesive devices that permit to create links
between elements, clauses and sentences in order to have a joined text or discourse. One of them
is the reference, a device by which the language user enables a listener or a reader to identify a
preceding or a following element in the text.

Let’s look at these examples:

- He was one of the best guitar players of our generation.

- Jimmy Hendrix died due to an overdose. He was one of the best guitar players of our
generation.

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), there are two types of reference: exophoric (pointing
outwards) and endophoric (pointing inwards).

Exophoric reference links the language to the external context. The listener or the reader need to
look outside to identify what is being referred to (Brown and Yule, 1983). In the first example, it is
not possible to identify what are the referents of the personal pronoun ‘he’ and the possessive
pronoun ‘our’. To get this information, it is necessary to look outside the text.

Endophoric reference links an element to another presented previously or later. In the second
example, the personal pronoun he is referring to Jimmy Hendrix. In that sense, one is also
referring to this element. To find what an endophoric reference is being referred to, it is necessary
to look inside the text, the textual context.

As I said before, endophora refers to a preceding or a following element. In the first case, we talk
about anaphoric reference, in which the meaning that is being repeated has been mentioned
previously in the text. Anaphora could be:

(pointing backwards):

Andrés went to Jardín Botánico. He enjoyed it.

Andrés went to Jardín Botánico. Her girlfriend bought the tickets.

Andrés lost his ticket. He had to buy a new one.

In those examples, the antecedent, that is, the object or person to which anaphor refers, is
presented before the use of the reference.

The second type of endophora is the cataphoric reference, which points forwards to a referent
that has not been introduced.

If they are late again, the employees will probably be reprimanded by the director.

This section of the book will follow the same format as the previous one.

Halliday, M. and Matthiessen, C. (2004). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Hodder

Arnold.

Hassina, B. & Zineb, B. (2017). Anaphoric and Cataphoric References in Writing Business Cover
Letter. Kasdi Merbah University-Ouargla.
Thompson, G. (1996). Introducing Functional Grammar. London and New York: Routledge.

Conjunctive adjunct:

This kind of adjunct set up a contextualizing relationship between a new clause it introduces and
the previous text. In that sense, this cohesive device is related to the textual metafunction. It could
be performed by adverbial-cohesive conjunctions.

Something really important to take into account is that a conjunctive adjunct is part of the clause
is being introduced. Thus, it is possible to change its position, although is generally located at the
beginning of the corresponding clause.

In the next PDF, you can find the types of conjunctive adjuncts, subtypes and items.

Tag question:

Tag question is a kind of question formed by the repetition of the two elements in the Mood at the
end of the clause: the finite, which is made explicit even if it is fused with the lexical verb of the
clause, and the subject, replaced by the pronoun. In tag questions, the finite has a different
polarity from that of the verb in the clause:

- He is invited to the party, isn’t he?

- John will be coming, won’t he?
- What you said is nonsense, isn´t it?
- We didn’t do this, did we?

This construction is generally used when the speaker seeks confirmation of the statement of the
main clause or checks on the factuality of it. However, the speaker also can use tag questions to
express surprise, skepticism or a conjecture about something. In those cases, although less
common, the finite or the question tends to share the polarity of the rest of the clause.

- She is a good teacher, is she?

- It was a boring movie, was it?
- It looks like a deadly trap, does it?

What about subordinated clauses? Tag questions can refer to the verb of the subordinated clause.
However, this is allowed just when the speaker is the subject of the main clause:

- I believe that John is ill, isn´t he?

- You believe that John is ill, isn´t he?
- I expect that the match will be postponed, won´t it?
- He expects that the match will be postponed, won’t it?

Finally, there is a discussion about how to use a tag question when we use a positive declarative
clause using the form I am. If this form is used in a negative clause, there is no problem:
 - I am not the next on the list, am I?
- I am not invited to the party, am I?

Nevertheless, in positive clauses, it is necessary to replace ‘am’ for ‘are’. The contraction ‘amn´t’ is
not acceptable in English:

- I am the next on the list, aren’t I?

- I am invited to the party, aren´t I?

References:

Lock, G. (1996). Functional English Grammar: An introduction for second language teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Morley, D. (2000). Syntax in Functional Grammar: An introduction to lexicogrammar in systemic

linguistics. London and New York: Continuum.

Tag question presente de “Be”: aren’t I, amn’t I? o ain’t I? (2015, July 23). Retrieved from:
https://www.ingenierogeek.com/2015/07/guia-3-formar-tag-questions-presente-simple-be-amnt-
arent-aint-ejemplos-preguntas-coletillas-ingles-espanol.html

Thompson, G. (1996). Introducing Functional Grammar. London and New York: Routledge.