adh em eee Faculty of Engineering Structural Engineering Department Sm sured ult)STEEL STRUCTURES 1G ALL GUA LL Sep FES Cai This book provides the readers with an introduction to CL emt Te rtrd been so widely used in building construction and other Prenat ee Oe eR C eC egere eee ee applicable to stecl structures design, it has been assumed ree Coes a rests at tee cree sis procedures. The material of this book is mainly based on the design Reet ne ee a cee ere Cae eve eee ae Sec OTS rr Pec a Sea a erm) Loa eee aoe ee eee Introduction emer rans ree ran reas Bolted Connections Welded Connections rn Beam-Columns erg Lr ec er oe eran ae oe ee olumns CR Cee Cet ee eee reer ee eee es [pean ca eas 13. Miscellaneous Desig eee crs ee CO eons onto Load and Resistance Factor Design er ee Te a Ce eee ee POS ac ee eee ee ee Se Ce eT ee ee ene ee re cae Catt enya eee ter yet ore Abdelrahim Khalil Mohammed Dessouki orn Oers LL al reper ee) ep neo er Con Or TREO Yr) Saco Lanes enor ar PTET Eee pera van ON a Sapo REC) | moneSTEEL STRUCTURES DESIGN (ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN) Prof. Dr. ABDELRAHIM KHALIL DESSOUKI Ain Shams University Faculty of Engineering Structural Engineering DepartmentSteel Structures Design : GUS! aul - es dus aa stlas , ad: Ciligal) aud - Aiea) lads, : au - TeeA/ VAVIY s Gast Slay Ely! ly - AVY. Of YM. TO Ns ctgall ad sll FB al) la Ahad Aa gine ay j silly Quy tll gia (©) Hotel) wad o luni) gf dash Sale| of GUS Gee ja oti un Y SPA AS MS ph ge Lt gh gly AS gl A yadell Atak G58 gl Lasthe GLiN cya Abad AH ge Cy 99 ANS CADIS ol Ly quails gf Austins 43 eal) fa dase YeAouyy. ned Ce Lassie alal sis jll Changs BL A VUAEE 6 Ee yaad Que Auaaia lal lst pall 6 U8 € E-mail:dar_elmaarefa@yahoo.comPREFACE TO FIRST EDITION This book provides the readers with an introduction to the analysis and design of steel structures which have been so widely used in building construction and other areas for years. Structural materials will inevitably become more expensive and there will be increasing pressures to use thinner structural members to save materials. Understanding the behavior, basics and rules of design will be the drive for economy in design. It is very appropriate that the scientific basis of the structural use of steel sections should be specified clearly and effectively. In the presentation of the various analytical methods applicable to steel structures design, it has been assumed that the reader is familiar with the basic structural analysis procedures. : The material of this book is mainly based on the design equations presented by the Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges — Allowable Stress Design ( 2001 ). Undoubtedly, the text books and lecture notes of all my professors and colleagues were so helpful in preparing this book. The book contains fourteen chapters, namely : 1. Introduction 2. Tension Members 3. Compression Members 4. Bolted Connections 5. Welded Connections 6. Beams 7, Beam-Columns 8, Bases 9. Bracing Members, End and Side Girts & End Gable Columns 10.Members Made of Cold-Formed Sections 11.Portal Frames 12.Trusses 13.Miscellaneous Design Applications 14.Introduction to Load and Resistance Factor Design Each of these chapters provides the reader with a step towards the understanding of the principals of the design of therelevant elements. Examples are given where possible to clear out some of these principals. I am greatly indebted to all the professors in the Structural Engineering Department of Ain Shams University and in particular those teaching Structural Steel Design. They all gratefully participated in forming my career as a member of the staff of steel design. Abdelrahim Khalil Mohammed Dessouki Cairo, 2008TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION Ll PROJECT DESIGN 12 STRUCTURAL DESIGN 1-3 DESIGN PROCEDURE 1-4 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN CODES 1-5 STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL 1-6 SOME APPLICATIONS OF STEEL STRUCTURES 1-7 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL STRUCTURES 1-8 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION 1-9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL 1-10 ‘TYPES OF STEEL SECTIONS Il EXAMPLES OF COMMON STEEL STRUCTURES 1-12 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES 1-13 BUILDING LOADS 1-14 PRIMARY AND ADDITIONAL STRESSES 1-15 CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS 1-16 CRITICAL LOAD/STRESS 1-17 MAXIMUM SLENDERNESS RATIOS Amax CHAPTER 2: TENSION MEMBERS 21 TYPES OF TENSION MEMBERS 22 EXAMPLES ON MEMBERS USED IN TRUSSES 23 TENSION MEMBERS RESISTANCE 2-4 CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR TRUSS MEMBERS WITH BOLTED CONNECTIONS Rw nN * i 23 30 31 36 42 45 48 5127 2-8 2-9 2-10 CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR TRUSS MEMBERS WITH WELDED CONNECTIONS STIFFNESS REQUIREMENTS FOR TENSION MEMBERS DESIGN PROCEDURE EXAMPLES ON DESION OF TENSON MEMBERS EFFECTIVE NET AREA OF PIN-CONNECTED MEMBERS EFFECTIVE AREA OF THREADED TENSION MEMBERS CHAPTER 3: COMPRESSION MEMBERS 3-1 3-2 33 3-4 3-5 3-6 INTRODUCTION THE EULER COLUMN FORMULA ALLOWABLE COMPRESSIVE STRESS MAXIMUM SLENDERNESS RATIO DESIGN PROCEDURE EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS CHAPTER 4: BOLTED CONNECTIONS 4-1 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 INTRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR CLASSIFICATION AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN LOCAL FAILURE MODES IN NON-STRENGTHENED BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS LOAD TRANSFER RIVETED AND BOLTED CONNECTIONS TYPES OF BOLTS USED IN STRUCTURES HOLES, CIEARANCES, WASHERS AND NUTS 53 54 55 56 69 Wl B B 15 15 19 94 104 107 108 110 116 116 749 4-10 411 4-12 4-13 414 415 4-16 4-18 4-19 4-20 NON-PRETENSIONED BOLTS EXAMPLES ON NON-PRETENSIONED BOLTED CONNECTIONS ALLOWABLE SHEAR RUPTURE STRENGTH HIGH STRENGTH PRETENSIONED BOLTED CONNECTIONS OF THE FRICTION TYPE DIFFERENT TYPES OF HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF HIGH STRENGTH PRETENSIONED BOLTS CLASSIFICATION OF PRETENSIONED BOLTS ACCORDING TO STRAINING ACTIONS EXECUTION OF HIGH STRENGTH PRETENSIONED BOLTS EXAMPLES ON HIGH STRENGTH PRETENSIONED BOLTS, SPLICES IN TRUSS MEMBERS ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS SOME RECOMMENDED DETAILS OF RIGID CONNECTIONS, CHAPTER 5: WELDED CONNECTIONS 5-1 52 53 5-4 5-5 5-6 57 58 59 5-10 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS WELDABILITY AND STEEL PROPERTIES WELDING POSITIONS ELECTRODE REQUIREMENTS WELDING PROCESSES DISTORTION TYPES OF STRUCTURAL WELD DEFECTS IN WELDED CONNECTIONS WELDED CONNECTIONS DESIGN IN TRUSSES EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF WELDED CONNECTIONS 11g 125 133 137 138 139 143 145 147 153 166 198 200 202 202 206 207 207 210 226 228 231S- 5-12 FILLET WELD SUBJECTED TO SHEAR FORCE AND TORSIONAL MOMENT ECCENTRIC WELDED CONNECTIONS, CHAPTER 6: BEAMS 6-1 6-2 63 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-7 69 6-10 6-11 6-12 6-13 6-14 6-15 6-16 INTRODUCTION COMMON BEAM CROSS SECTIONS PERFORMANCE AND BEHAVIOR OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS BEHAVIOUR OF LATERALLY UNSUPPORTED BEAMS LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS BUCKLING LENGTH OF COMPRESSION FLANGE OF BEAMS DESIGN CRITERIA OF BEAMS CLASSIFICATION OF TYPE OF CROSS-SECTION ALLOWABLE BENDING STRESS “F,” ALLOWABLE SHEAR STRESS “qui” ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION IN BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES ALLOWABLE CRIPPLING STRESS IN WEB “Fer,” COMBINED STRESSES EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF BEAMS LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS (FLOOR BEAMS) DESIGN CRITERIA OF FULLY LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS (FLOOR BEAMS) CONNECTION BETWEEN SECONDARY AND MAIN BEAMS EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS iv 236 240 244 245 247 251 253 257 274 214 216 292 297 302 3066-19 BEAMS SUBJECTED TO BI-AXIAL BENDING MOMENTS (ROOF PURLINS) 6-20 PURLIN DESIGN 6-21 DESIGN PROCEDURE 6-22 USING TIE RODS IN PURLINS. 6-23 EXAMPLES ON PURLIN DESIGN 6-24 CRANE TRACK GIRDERS. 6-25 OVERHEAD CRANES 6-26 COMMON SECTIONS USED IN DESIGN OF CRANE GIRDERS 6-27 LOADS ON CRANE TRACK GIRDERS 6-28 DATA REQUIRED FOR THE DESIGN OF CRANE GIRDERS 6-29 DESIGN PROCEDURE OF CRANE GIRDERS USING ROLLED “I” SECTIONS 6-30 DESIGN PROCEDURE OF CRANE GIRDERS USING UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS (BUILT-UP SECTIONS) 6-31 EXAMPLES ON CRANE TRACK GIRDERS DESIGN 6-32 EXAMPLES ON FINISHED STEEL STRUCTURES CHAPTER 7: BEAM-COLUMNS 7 INTRODUCTION 72 BEHAVIOR OF BEAM-COLUMNS 73 BUCKLING OF SOME PRACTICAL COLUMNS TA CHECK OF SECTION CLASS TS DESIGN OF ROLLED SECTION BEAM-COLUMNS 16 EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF ROLLED SECTION BEAM-COLUMNS DESIGN OF BUILT-UP BEAM-COLUMNS 318 322 325 328 330 341 350 352 353 356 387 366 371 391 396 396 398 402 406 412 41s18 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR BEAM TO COLUMN 426 CONNECTIONS 19 EXAMPLES ON BUILT-UP BEAM-COLUMNS 428 DESIGN 7-10 DESIGN OF COMBINED BEAM-COLUMNS 433 7-11 EXAMPLES ON COMBINED BEAM-COLUMNS, 438 TAZ INTRODUCTION OF LACING BARS AND BATTEN 445 PLATES 713 DESIGN OF LACING BARS 447 714 DESIGN OF BATTEN PLATES 451 THIS EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF LACING BARS AND 455 BATTEN PLATES 7-16 SOME EXAMPLES OF DETAILING OF COMBINED 464 COLUMNS CHAPTER 8: BASES 81 INTRODUCTION 467 8-2 DESIGN OF HINGED BASES 470 83 EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF HINGED BASES 474 84 DESIGN OF FIXED BASES 476 8-5 EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF FIXED BASES 490 CHAPTER 9:BRACING MEMBERS, END AND SIDE GIRTS & END GABLE COLUMNS 9-1 DESIGN OF BRACING MEMBERS 506 9-2 DESIGN OF END AND SIDE GIRTS 518 93 DESIGN OF END GABLE COLUMNS 521CHAPTER 10: MEMBERS MADE OF COLD-FORMED SECTIONS 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 GENERAL ADVANTAGES LINEAR METHOD FOR COMPUTING PROPERTIES OF COLD-FORMED SECTIONS DESIGN CRITERIA DEFINITIONS ALLOWABLE DESIGN STRESS DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS EXAMPLES ON COMPRESSION MEMBERS PURLIN DESIGN EXAMPLES ON PURLINS DESIGN CHAPTER 11: PORTAL FRAMES 1-1 11-2 11-3 114 1-5 11-6 INTRODUCTION DESIGN PROCEDURE. EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF PORTAL FRAMES DESIGN OF SPLICES FOR BEAMS EXAMPLES ON SPLICES FOR BEAMS SOME SYSTEMS USING PORTAL FRAMES, CHAPTER 12: TRUSSES 12-1 122 12-3 12-4 12-5 12-6 12-7 INTRODUCTION TYPICAL MEMBERS LOADS ON TRUSSES AND LATTICE GIRDERS DEFLECTION OF TRUSSES DESIGN OF TRUSS MEMBERS COMPRESSION MEMBERS IN BUILDINGS, COMPRESSION MEMBERS IN BRIDGES 533 542 544 544 545 550 558 558 561 562 579 581 592 613 617 623 633 634 636 640 641 64312-8 TENSION MEMBERS FOR BUILDINGS, 643 12-9 TENSION MEMBERS FOR BRIDGES. 644 12-10 EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF TRUSSES 644 12-11 SOME TYPICAL DETAILS OF TRUSSES 679 CHAPTER 13: MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN APPLICATIONS 13-1 DECKING SYSTEMS 693 13-2 STAIRCASES 695 13-3, COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION 706 13-4 BUILT-UP SECTIONS 13 13-5 SPACE FRAMES 716 CHAPTER 14: INTRODUCTION TO LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN IN STEEL BUILDINGS 14-1 INTRODUCTION 721 14-2 DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS 71 14-3 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS 750 14-4 DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 766 REFERENCES 792CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1-1 PROJECT DESIGN ee Fig. 1.1 Initial Concepts2 Steel Structures Design For design and construction of any structure, the following steps may be followed :- 1- Initial planning, see Fig. 1.1 2- Initial design 3- Final design a- analysis b- proportioning of elements c- drawings, specifications 4- Contract 5- Fabrication and construction 6- Operation and maintenance Fig. 1.2 Finished Building 12 STRUCTURAL DESIGN The aim of the structural designer is to produce: 1- A safe and economical structure to achieve a certain function. 2- A structure that is aesthetically pleasing. 3- A structure that is easy to build and maintain.Chapter 1 : Introduction 3 1-3 DESIGN PROCEDURE 1- Selection of type and layout of structure. Structural design involves application of engineering judgment to produce structural system that will adequately satisfy the client/owner’s needs. 2- Determination of service loads. Estimate the different loads acting on the structure during its service lifetime. 3- Based on material properties, structural function, environmental considerations and aesthetics, geometrical modifications in the analysis model are made. 4- A structural analysis is carried out to determine the internal straining actions (forces and moments) acting on each element of the structure. Loading Bending moments Gravity loading Re Wind loading Bending moment diagram Fig. 1.3 Straining Actions in the Structural Elements 5- Design of each member of the structure and design of each connection between those different structural elements.4 _ Steel Structures Design 6- For design of members and its selection the following should be taken into consideration: a. Strength: where maximum stress should be less than the allowable stress. b. Stiffness: deflection and deformations should be less than the allowable values. Construction requirements. |. Economic aspects. Aesthetic aspects. Easy connections. mo ap 1-4 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN CODES Local building departments require structural designs under their jurisdiction to be designed in accordance with some codes. The designer doing structural engineering will have to follow closely the design requirements in the appropriate building code/specifications of the local governing body as a minimum requirement. Special requirements of the owner/client mass require a more stringent design than the building code criteria. Three types of specifications are utilized; project specifications, material standards, design codes and specifications. The specifications for structural design represent a compromise between theoretical consideration and practical requirements. Project specifications include items like materials that must be used in construction, methods of joining the members, and specifications of welding. The design codes represent the consensus of opinion of experienced engineers, architects and others. 1-5 STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL Steel is one of the most important structural materials. Properties of particular importance in structural usage are high strength compared to any other available material, and ductility. Steel is produced by refining iron ore and scrap metals together with appropriate fluxing agent, coke (for carbon), and oxygen in high-temperature furnaces to produce large masses of iron called “pig iron”. The pig iron is further refined to remove excess carbon and other impurities and / or is alloyed with other metals,Chapter 1 ; Introduction 5 such as copper, nickel, chromium, manganese to produce the desired strength, ductility, welding and corrosion — resistance characteristics. The wide use of steel in our civilization today can be attributed to the remarkable properties of this metal, the abundance of the raw materials required for its manufacture, and its competitive marked price. Steel can be produced with widely varying characteristics which can be controlled to satisfy the intended use. The final product may be anything from a stainless steel surgical instrument to a city skyscraper, a giant bridge, a nuclear reactor vessel, or innumerable other objects. 1-6 SOME APPLICATIONS OF STEEL STRUCTURES 1-. Sign support. 2- Frameworks of industrial buildings with their internal members such as crane girders etc. 3+ Railway and roadway large span bridges. 4- Multistory buildings, exhibition halls, hangers, 5- Transmission towers, masts, storage tanks, gasholders. 6- High rise buildings. 7- Car parks. 1-7 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL STRUCTURES 1-7-1 Advantages 1- Ability to resist high loads. 2- Lighter in weight. 3- Have small size members. 4- High ductility (ability to deform substantially in either tension or compression before failure). 5- Better quality control since they are executed in workshops. 6- No need formwork. 7- Faster construction. 8- Miscellaneous * Easy to construct, Fast erection, Weldability, Toughness and high fatigue resistance, Possibility of reusing after taking it apart,6 __ Steel Structures Design e Valuable as scrap. 1-7-2 Disadvantages 1- Cost of maintenance. 2- Tendency to buckling. 3- Less resistance to fire. 4- Problems of instability. Due to high working stresses: used, steel structure components are usually slender. Thus the problem of elastic stability appears in different forms such as: Elastic Buckling of columns and compression members, Elastic Buckling of plates, Lateral Buckling of compression flanges of beams and Torsional Buckling of members under axial forces or end torques. 1-8 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION Steel is classified according to its content steel to three types: 1- Low carbon or mild steel (0.09%-0.22%carbon). 2- Medium carbon or medium steel (0.25%-0.5%carbon). 3- High carbon or hard steel (0.6%-1.2%carbon). Almost all steel, which is used in construction, is the low carbon or mild steel. 1-9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL The stress-strain curve of the mild steel is obtained from the standard tension test (shown in Fig. 1.4) and is characterized by the following: 1- An initial linear relation between the stress and the strain which defines the Young’s modulus of the steel. Within this zone the material is perfectly elastic. 2- A yield point at which the material starts to behave in a plastic manner. 3- Tensile strength is defined as a maximum value for the stress.Chapter 1 : Introduction 1 Fig. 1.4 Stress-Strain Curve For Mild Steel Some of the most important structural properties of steel are the following: 1- Modulus of Elasticity (E): is the ratio of stress to longitudinal strain in the elastic zone, E = 2100 t/cm’. 2- Poisson’s Ratio (1): is the ratio between the transverse strain to longitudinal strain, and it ranges between 0.25 to 0.33 in the elastic range. 3- Tangent Modulus (T): is the slope of tangent at a point on the stress-strain curve above the proportional limit. 4- Shear Modulus of Elasticity (G): is the ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain. E/[2(1+p) t/em? 5- Tensile Strength (F,): is the ratio of the maximum axial load on the specimen to cross-sectional area. 6- Yield Stress (Fy): the yield stress is defined as a specified point on the curve established by constructing a (0.2%) offset of strain parallel to the initial elastic portion of the curve. The point at which this line crosses the stress-strain curve is taken as the yield stress. 7- Fatigue Strength: is the stress at which the steel fails under repeated applications of load. 8- Impact Strength: is the ability of steel to absorb energy at high rates of loading.8__ Steel Structures Design Table (1-1) Material Properties of Steel Used in Design Mechanical Property St37 St44 Sts2 Modulus of Elasticity (E) 2100 t/em? Poisson’s Ratio (u) 03 Shear Modulus of 2 Elation Gh 810 vem Mass Density (p) 7.85 vm? Coefficient of Thermal L2x108/°C Expansion (a) Steel Strength All steel design takes into consideration the yield strength of the material. The yield stress and ultimate strength of several grades of steel available for design are given in Table (1-2). Table (1-2) Nominal Yield Stress and Ultimate Strength of Different Types of Steel Nominal value of yield stress (Fy ) and ultimate strength Steel ,) Grade t<40mm 40mm20 kg/m? 1-1 (for accessible roofs) L.L = 200-300 tan a >20 kg/m? 1226 Steel Structures Design. LL.kg fm? i Access Roof 250 tnecceshite Root 200 150 oe 100 50% an a ——} - tan 0.2 04 06 08 7 oO Fig. 1.8 Live Loads on Inclined Roofs 3- Wind loads Generally, for tall structures, estimation should be made to determine the wind forces on the structure. For smaller regular-shaped structures with heights about 30m, the wind pressure stipulated in the appropriate building code is satisfactory to use. Wind loads are the forces which act perpendicular to the surfaces of the buildings and structures. The force is considered pressure if it is in surface direction and the force is suction if it is outside the surface. The external pressure or suction of wind force is calculated using the following equation: p=CeKq 13 Where ; Pe is the extemal design static wind pressure affecting the external unit area. Ce is the coefficient of wind effect (pressure or suction) which depends on the building geometric shape and is taken as shown in Figures 1.9 to 1.12 for different types of frames K is the coefficient that changes with the change of building height and is taken according to Table (1-3). q is the basic wind pressure and it depends on the location of the building and is taken according to Table (1-4) for areas inside Egypt.Chapter 1: Introduction __27 Ce=-0.8 =+0.8 Ce=-0.5 Ce: wind—— eae Elevation Ce=-0.7 =+0.8 Ce=-0.5 Ce: Plan Fig. 1.9 Coefficient of Wind Effect on Rectangular Frames28 Steel Structures Design Fig. 1.10 = 40.8 Ce: (cae aA Ce +08 +08 404 +02 Como 5 Fue Ci Ta Elevation tan ~0.2 0.4 ~08 -oe | VOR +04 0.8 7.8 Coefficient of Wind Effect on Pitched Roof Frameswind Chapter 1: Introduction __29 ce=-08 «© — E=« os K=s -— Ps i — | 3 8 3— ag .__d.__} levation = Ce 408 se +08 +04 +02 tan ex Ton | P02 v04 208 8 -04 -08 -08 Fig. 1.11 Coefficient of Wind Effect on Inclined vind —— Roof Frames 2 x9 ges Eas i i oa os [pasts m| pre caeameeh Elevation Fig. 1.12 Coefficient of Wind Effect on Inclined Roof Frames30__ Steel Structures Design Table (1-3) Values of Coefficient « K » Height «m» Coefficient «K » Oto 10 1.0 10 to 20, 1 20 to 30 13 30 to 50 15 50 to 80 17 80 to 120 19 120 to 160 2.1 More than 160 23 Table (1-4) Basic Wind Pressure at Different Locations in Egypt ; q Location eights ‘Marsa Matrouh, El-Dabaa, Ras-Sedr 90 Alexandria, El-Saloum, Abu Sower, <0 Hurghada and all coastal areas Cairo, Asyot, Belbis 70 Fayoum, Menya, Aswan, Modereyat El- |, Tahrir Tanta, Mansoura, Damanhour 50 1-14 PRIMARY AND ADDITIONAL STRESSES For the purpose of computing the maximum stress in a structure, the straining actions shall be calculated for two cases: Case 1: This case of loading is considered to include the main loads affecting the structures, Primary stresses are due to dead loads, live loads or superimposed loads, dynamic effects and centrifugal forces, Case 2: Primary and additional stresses are due to case 1 + wind loads or earthquake loads, braking forces, lateral shock effect, change ofChapter 1: Introduction 31 temperature, frictional resistance of bearings, settlement of supports in addition to the effect of shrinkage and creep of concrete. Notes 1- Stresses due to wind loads shall be considered as primary for such structures as towers, transmission poles, wind bracing systems, etc. 2- The design should be checked for case II (primary + additional stresses), where the allowable stresses are increased by 20%. 1-15 CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS In the Egyptian code of practice, the structural sections are classified depending on the maximum width-thickness ratios of there elements as follows: 1-15-1 Class 1 (Compact sections ) It is considered as a compact section if it can achieve the plastic moment capacity without local buckling of any of its component plate elements subjected to compressive stress. 1-15-2 Class 2 (Non-compact sections) It is considered as a non-compact section if it can achieve the yield moment capacity without local buckling of any of its component plate elements subjected to compressive stress. 1-15-3 Class 3 (Slender sections) It is considered as a slender section if it can not achieve the yield moment capacity without local buckling of any of its component plate elements subjected to compressive stress. ‘When any of the compression component elements of a cross- section is classified as class 3, the whole cross-section shall be designed as aclass 3 cross-section.32__ Steel Structures Design Table (1-5a) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Stiffened Compression Elements (a) Webs: (Internal elements perpendicular to axis of bending) 5 5 5 ait Pat} eS Stee 4.Compact |, nlal-|nl «4 any HE) yy yy EL A Sess cstbuton | F - 5 in element. = a = 05 a= 10 a>05 [ agos [Not for single channel] 5 Fy 2.Non-Compact y 1 Piet ———= d{-] nh d h Stress distribution let LA | in element, Fy vA >-Chapter 1 : Introduction Table (1-5b) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Stiffened Compression Elements (b) Interal Flange Elements: (Intemal elements parallel to axis of bending) db tf te Axis of || bending 2. Non-Compact Stess distribution in element and across section 2. F in tom 3334 __ Steel Structures Design Table (1-Se) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Unstiffened Compression Elements (C) Outstand Flanges Gc. c. ¢ c c bey Tm t ty ty ty ty le Fiange Subject Flange Subject ce Be Class / Type to Compression E Compression an Eo Due toMy, Tip in Comprssion Tip in Tension 1. Compact Fy ae! F ae, F -]y [yy Stress distribution | inelement Rolled | Welded z $1835, F< 83K R SE <183/aR, 2. Non-Compact E Vv RY Fy Stress distribution =f = Z| & is in element f 4— wieysks qom Peyojn6uojy e16uis— sequen fosyaeK Chapter 1 : Introduction qa4 uieysks—y — pejoouuos jejonbepo wejshs i loplozedpay gem Pag°0 pejesisyuy eiduinw— soUSoOKT Peopaqua pespig Ajeayoen3 P40UD Uo|ssesduiog |pacyg uolsseadwon, eudid—$0—4NO ($409) sWielshs BuloDig eBplig UE pue s6ulpling uy susqwew Uojsseiduiog yo YyyBue] Buljjong (g—1) e1qG>) aSteel Structures Design pajoauu0s Ajayonbepo woyshs DjnBupjoes gem pajoasiajuy aldyinn— wejsks gam peyojnBuow) [6uls— spouSBOIT uods s/o 7 S8'0 75870 peonaquy Ip4oyD uojsseudwog peonag Ajeaoe) 33 pioyg uojssesdwiog 40 eud|d-Jo-1NO seBpig ul Sieaquiay uolssaidwog jo BUD|g—uy sequen, yybue7 Buljjong (6-1) eqD,41 8040} Uolsseldiuoo yo anjDA 4964107 = "NV 8040} UO|sseidiuos jo anjDA sal|DUS = SN 1 N y ‘ 4(5,,080+06'0) SZ'0+S2'0) wiaysks gam peyoesie}ul—y—| N Chapter 1 : Introduction wajshs gem poyoinBuoj4y e[6uis— svequieur (poyex PCAN 7.60 wejsis—y — peooiquy, peonig Ajenoass3 PACU UOIsseidWOD|/pso4yy Uo|ssesdwon euD|g—u} euD|d—}0—-4NO (‘{u09) sebpiuig ul sdequiey uojsseudwo5 $o yj6ue7 Buljyong (OL-L) eIgDL42 _ Steel Structures Design 1-17 MAXIMUM SLENDERNESS RATIOS Amax 1-17-1 Maximum Slenderness Ratios for Compression Members The slendemess ratio of a compression member, shall not exceed Amex given in Table (1-11). Table (1-11) Maximum Slenderness Ratio for Compression Members Member Bracing systems and secondary members Bridges: Compression members in railway bridges Compression members in roadway bridges Bracing systems 1-17-2 Maximum Slenderness Ratios for Tension Members The slendemess ratio of a tension member shall not exceed Amax given in Table (1-12). Table (1-12) Maximum Slenderness Ratio for Tension Members Member eae Buildings: Tension members 300 Bridges: Tension members in railway bridges 160 Tension members in roadway bridges 180 Vertical hangers 300 Bracing systemsCHAPTER 2 TENSION MEMBERS 2-1 TYPES OF TENSION MEMBERS The elements of a structure that carry tension loads are termed tension members. The bottom chords of roof and bridge trusses are classic examples of tension members. Some of the truss web members may carry tension or may be a tension for certain loading conditions and compression for other loading conditions. Transmission and microwave towers and bracing systems in multistory buildings and steel cables as used in suspension bridges and in cable-supported roofs are examples of steel tension members. Some examples of these members are shown in Fig. (2-1). In all these uses the tensile strength of the steel is used. In this stress configuration plate buckling or warping is not a consideration in some instances; however, specifications will require a minimum amount of member stiffness for aesthetic and safety reasons. Generally, tension members may be categorized as rods and bars, rolled structural shapes, built-up members, and wires or cables. Currently, the Egyptian Code of Practice does not allow the use of rods and cables in bracing systems or as main tension members. 4344 _ Steel Structures Design em an Fy & h Fig. 2.1 Samples of Steel Structures Containing i Tension MembersChapter 2: Tension Members _45 WIRING CABLE Fig. 2.2 Samples of Cross-Sections of Tension Members 2-2 EXAMPLES ON MEMBERS USED IN TRUSSES 1- Unsymmetric sections (single angles) Which is used in vertical and diagonal members of trusses, minimum radius of gyration is ty* 0.2a.46 _ Steel Structures Design 2- Symmetric sections a. Star-shaped b. Which is used in vertical members of trusses at intersections with longitudinal bracing, and in long tension members, minimum radius of gyration is ry = 0.385a. d= 2ottg c. Two angles back-to-back Which is used in chord members of trusses and web members of high values of forces. Minimum radius of gyration is rx * 0.3a and maximum radius of gyration is ry 0.45a.Chapter 2 : Tension Members__47 Table (2-1) _ Approximate Values of Radius of Gyration for Sections Composed of Angles case| SECTION oF MeuBER| 1%0T % | r,0r 5, fi 1 pee | = 0.30 | ------, I : is ames a 7,= 0.286 | 7,= 0.48a) if 1, = 0.80. é i Sree Ss PA jf a Hi ‘ co ee r, = 0.2a| fare eee t fe ss r,= 0.140] ------ = IN. 8 a 1, = 0.fa| ------ i48 _ Steel Structures Design 2-3 TENSION MEMBERS RESISTANCE The maximum resistance of a tension member “T,” is calculated from Equation (2-1): = Aner F; Where: Anet_ is the effective net area of the cross section, F; is the allowable stress of the steel in tension which is defined according to the Egyptian Code of Practice, ECP 2001, as: F, = 0.58F,, ~ 2-2 There are two code requirements for tension members; the stress requirements and the stiffness requirements. 2-3-1 Allowable Stress in Tension The actual stress in a tension member is based on the effective net area and should not exceed the allowable stress. The allowable tensile stress (F,) for steel is calculated using Equation (2-2) or Table (2-1) which shows the allowable tensile stress for different steel grades used in structural design. The yield stress of the different steel grades can be taken from Table (1-2). Table (2-2) Allowable Tensile Stress For Different Steel Grades F; (allowable tensile stress), t/em’ Bisel grade t<40mm 40mm——— > —_ a eaves 0.85x0.85 F; -For welded connections a. Symmetrical sections; Arcquirea= a t Force b. Uns: etrical sections; = symm Avequired = 085K, Step 2: Check of the Chosen Member a. Check of the actual stress fact fg= PU Anet DOE SF, = 0.58 Fy b. Check stiffness Check of the length to depth ratio i the previous values in (2-6-2) ~ Check slenderness ratio For two angles back-to-back (Amax is the maximum of Ajg= Lb-in CE ae Lb-out rx ry For two angles star-shaped (hmax= L2=m2 Tu-lL For single angle (max= Z2=™2) Ty-1L Note that minimum angle leg “a” shall be > 3d+t (where d is the bolt diameter and t is the angle leg thickness).56__ Steel Structures Design 2-8 EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS Example 2.1 Design the lower chord tension member “ A “ shown in the figure. The force in the member is 20 t ( case II ) and the bolts used in the connections are M16 nonpretensioned ordinary bolts. Data : Force = 20 t (case II), length=2.00 m Ly=2 m andLy=6 m 4 VA a Estimation of the member cross section : Arq = Force/(0.85 Fix1.2) =20/(0.85 x [0.58 x 2.4] x 1.2)= 14.08 cm? Choose 2 angles back-to-back for the lower chord. y Area of IL = 14.08/2 = 7.04 cm? | For 2 angles back-to-back with ! equal legs : 1; =0.3a and ry | =0.45a H Me = L(t *0.3 a) = | 200/(0.3a) < 300 rae eq = > 2.22 cm fm . tas dy = Lyly =0.45 a) = {—* 600/(0.45a) < 300 aq 24.45 cm For construction: a-t > 3 9 = 4.8 cm From the tables choose 2Ls 70 x 70 x 7Chapter 2: Tension Members__57 Ane = Agross— Anoies Ane = 2 [9.40 —(1.6 + 0.2) x 0.7] = 16.28 cm? i 20/16.28 = 1.228 vem? < (0.58 x 2.4) x 1.2 (case II) = 1.68 vem? which is safe 2- Stiffness -Lid =200/7=28.6 <60 OK whe = Ly/ty = 200/2.12 = 94.34 <300 OK Ay Ty-2L=2 [ly ay + Aix (&y + 0.5 ta pi) all =2 [42.4+9.4 x (1.97+0.5x 1) = 199.5 cm* Ax =2x9.40=18.8 cm? [i995 =3.26 rae 188 e = 600/3.26 = 184 < 300 Ok 3- Construction requirement a =7 om>3o+t=5.5 cm Ok Example 2.2 Design the same member of Example 2.1 using welded connections. Estimation of the member cross section : Areq = 20/[(0.58 x 2.4) x 1.2] = 11.97 cm”58__ Steel Structures Design Choose 2 angles back-to-back for the lower chord. A of IL = 11.97/2=5.98 cm? q For 2 angles back-to-back with equal legs tx = 0.3a and ry = 0.45a Beet ANN de = Lal 0.3 a) = 200/(0.3a) as <300 eq > 2.22 om Se Ly 045 a) = 600/(0.45a) 300 aq 24.45 om From the Tables choose 2Ls 65 x 65 x7 Checks : 1- Stren; Anet = Agross = 2x 8.7 = 17.4 cm? fact = 20/17.4 = 1.15 them? < (0.58 x 2.4) x 1.2 (case II) = 1.68 t/em? which is safe 2- Stiffness -L/d =200/6.5 = 30.77 <60 OK -Ax = Ly/tx = 200/1.96 = 102 < 300 OK Ly Oy ay + An @y +t. pi/2)"] =2 [33.4+8.7 (1. 85+ 1/2) = 162.9 cm‘ Aa =2x8.7=17.4 cm? 162.9 06 Ty-2L =f “Vina = 3.06 cm 7 aa 06 = 196 < 300 OKChapter 2: Tension Members _59 Example 2.3 Design the same tension member of Example 2.1 using unequal angles. Use M16 ordinary bolts in all the truss connections and 10 mm gusset plates. Data : Force = + 20 t ( case II), length=2 m Lin= 2m, Low =6 m Estimation of the member cross section : Ayeq = 20/(0.85 x [0.58 x 2.4] x 1.2)= 14.08 cm? Choose 2 angles back-to-back for the lower chord. Area of IL = 14.08/2 = 7.04 cm? Choose 2Ls back-to-back 90 x 60 x 6 Checks : 1- Strength Ant = 2 [8.69 — (1.6 + 0.2) x 0.6] = 15.22 cm? y fae = 20/15.22= 1.314 vem? < 4 (0.58 x 2.4 x 1.2) (case II) = 1.68 { pe Ge co SEE tlem? which is safe y 2- Stiffness -Lid =200/6 = 33.3 < 60 OK whe = Ly/te=200/1.72=116.3<300 OK (x in the example = ry from tables ) “ty aTaty Ty=2[I,+A (to p/2tey)"] (1y in the example = r, from tables and I, in the example =I, from tables ) ly =2 [71.7 + 8.69 (1/2 +2.89))] = 343.13 cm*60 Steel Structures Design ty dy 3- Construction requirement 600/4.44 = 135 <300 OK a =6.0 cem>36+t=3x1.6+0.6=5.4 cm OK Example 2.4 Design a diagonal member in a truss if the tensile force is 4 t (case I) and the member length is 2.8 m. The bolts used in all the truss connections are M16 ordinary bolts grade 4.6 with 10 mm thick gusset plates. Data: Force = + 4 t (case 1), length = 2.8 m Estimation of the member cross section ; Assume the section is a single angle (unsymmetrical section) Areq = 4/(0.85 x 0.85 x (0.58 x 2.4))= 3.98 cm? For IL: 1) =0.2a 1.= Lity= 280/0.2 a < 300 a24.6 cm For construction: a>3 +t a-t>48 cm Choose 1L 55x 55x 5 trength Az. Ar =5.5x0.5—(1.6+0.2)x0.5 1.85 cm” Az = (5.5—0.5)x 0.5=2.5 em? Ana = Ar +Ao(— 41) =3.57 om? 341+ A2 = fae = 4/3.57 = 1.12 tem? < 0.58 F, = Cusset 1.4 tem? which is safe AlChapter 2: TensionMembers 61 2- Stiffness -L/d = 280/5.5 = 50.9< 60 OK -h =L/ty=280/1.07<300 OK < Example 2.5 Design the shown tension member if length of the member is 4m and it carries a force of 4 t. The bolts used in the connections are M16 ordinary bolts with 10 mm gusset plates. L=4m oe Estimation of the member cross section: Arg = 4/(0.85 x 2.4) = 3.36 cm? (Assuming that the cross section will be symmetrical about the gusset plate): (star-shaped) A of one angle = 3.36/2 = 1.68 cm” For star-shaped angles: r, = 0.385 a 2 = 1/0.385 a < 300 = 400/0.385 a a > 3.46 om Lid < 60 q 400/d < 60 § d>400/60=7cm >| =(atter.)62__Steel Structures Design _ Construction requirements a-t>48 cm From Table choose 2Ls star — shaped 55 x 55 x 5 (5.32 - (1.6 + 0.2) x 0.5) 84 cm? far = 4/8.84 = 0.45 tom? <0.58F,=1.4t/em’ which is safe 2- Stiffness -Lid =400/(2 x 5.5 + 1)=33.3 <60 OK - L/ty = 400/2.09 = 191.38 < 300 OK Example 2.6 Design the lower chord tension member “ A “ shown in the figure. The force in the member is 30 t (case II ) using a circular hollow section. 12x3.0=36.0m Data : Force = 30 t (case II), length = 3.00 m, Lx = 3.0 m and Ly=9.0 m.Chapter 2: Tension Members __63 Estimation of the member cross section: ion Avreq = 30/ ( {0.58 x 2.4}x 1.2) = 17.86 cm? From the tables choose pipe No. 108 th 6 6 A=19.2 cm ‘Checks : is Ant = Agross =19.2cm? far =30/19.2 = 1,56 t/ cm? < {0.58 x 2.4} x 1.2 (case Il) = 1.68 vem? — which is safe 2 Stiffness Ld =300/15.8=27.77 <60 OK Lxy/™% =300/3.61=83.1 <300 OK Ly/ty =900/3.61=249.3 <300 OK64 _ Steel Structures Design Example 2.7 Design the same tension member of Example 2.6 using a square hollow section (S.H.S). Data : Force = 30 t (case II), member length=3.0m , Ly=3.0 mand E. =9.0m. Estimation of the member cross section: Aveq = 30/( {0.58 x 2.4}x 1.2) =17.9 cm? - From the tables choose S.H.S 100 th 5 A= 18.9 cm? Checks : ‘if 7 # 100] 1- Strength Anet = Agross = 18.9 cm? fact — =30/18.9 1.587 t / em? < [{0.58 x 2.4} x 1.2] = 1.68 vom? =30<60 OK Lx/t =300/3.87 =77.5 <300 OK Ly/ty =900/3.87 =232.5 <300 OKChapter 2:Tension Members _ 65 Example 2.8 Design the same tension member of Example 2.6 using a rectangular hollow section (R.H.S). Data : Force = 30 t (case II), member length=3m ,Lx=3mand Ly= om. Estimation of the member cross section Areq = 30/ ( {0.58 x 2.4}x 1.2) =17.9 em? ; _ From the tables choose R.H.S 120 x 80x 5 : 1 A=18.9 om? al Mi i" rao) Ht - reals Cheeks : F 1- Stren peo, Anet = Agross = 18.9 cm” Fea =30/18.9 = 1.58t/ cm? <[{0.58 x 2.4} x 1.2] (case II) = 1.68 tem? 2- Si Lid OK Lx/ tx OK Ly/ty =900/3.21 =280 <300 OK66__ Steel Structures Design Note : In case of rotating the rectangular hollow section by 90° , the actual stress will not change while the stiffness will improve . 1- Stren; Anet = Agross = 18.9 om? fot = 30/18.9 = 1.58 t / om? < [£0.58 x 2.4} x 1.2 ] (case I= 1.68 t/em” 2 Stiffness Lid =300/8 =37.5<60 OK Lx/t =300/3.21 =93.5 <300 OK Ly/ty =900/4.43 =203 <300 OK 2-9 EFFECTIVE AREA OF THREADED TENSION MEMBERS 2-9-1 Tie Rods for Steel Frame Buildings For roofs of steel frame industrial buildings with steep slopes, tie rods are used to provide lateral supports especially for purlins consisting of channel cross section (See Fig. 2.3). For channels that have small resistance against lateral bending, one can utilize tie rods to provide lateral supports to purlins in order to decrease the lateral bending.Chapter 2: Tension Members 67 a hesting Seas > ELEVATION Lad le Zi LIL PLAN Fig. 2.3 Plan Showing Tie Rods The industrial buildings also frequently have girts running ‘between the columns along the vertical walls (See Fig. 2.4). The rods may also be used in such cases. The following recommendations can lead to economical design: @ For light roofs with corrugated steel sheets as covering material, tie rods will be needed at one-third points if the spacing between trusses is more than 6.0 ms. Gi) For spacing less than 6.0 ms with the same covering material as in (i), tie rods at midpoints may be sufficient. (ii) For heavier covering material such as those made of cement tiles, clay tiles or slate, the one tie rod at-third points will be necessary for spacing more than 4.0 ms. (iv) For spacing less than 4.0 ms with the same covering material as (iii) the tie rods at mid-points will be satisfactory.68 Steel Structures Design Side view Part Elevation Fig. 2.4 Tie Rods for Side Girts Concerning the stiffness condition of section 2.4, a common practice is to use rod diameters not less than 1/500 of their length even though stress calculations may permit much smaller sizes. For practical construction considerations it is usually desirable to limit the minimum diameter of tie rods to. 12 mms. For tie rods used for purlins of roof trusses, the maximum force in a tie rod will occur in the top tie rod since it must support the sum of the forces in the lower tie rods. It is of general practice to use the same diameter for both the top and lower tie rods.Chapter 2: Tension Members 69 2-10 SOME EXAMPLES OF DETAILING OF ROOF TRUSSES Seat an Tamme POS L80%8 [160 oe 2b 901909 a= meee ae . > g\e| Se rr a “Ce | ‘g) on Ge | ‘| é “|g H 2 AY 3 V1 Af i A ! A S- ' ; > ere. * 5 leer Ae QW g fd = ON, | mo Xe We ' | 2L 80x80x8 Sal HES70__ Steel Structures Design Ridge Cap "0.5mm thick" er plates 150x100x10CHAPTER 3 COMPRESSION MEMBERS 3-1 INTRODUCTION The vertical compression members in a structure are commonly identified as columns. A structural member carrying a compression load is termed a column if the length is sufficiently great and if the compression that it transmits is the primary factor determining its structural behavior. For lesser lengths the member may be called a compression block. The length which divides these two classifications is such that it affects the maximum compressive stress which can be developed under the load. If bending is also a major factor, the term beam column may be used. Column failure involves the phenomenon of buckling. When an axially loaded column is first loaded, it shortens in the direction of the load and deformation occurs in a direction normal to the column axis, Column design is considerably less exact than beam design for several reasons, which include the following: 1. The difficulty of determining the exact point of demarcation between compression blocks and columns. 2. Columns, although appearing straight and homogeneous, may have small imperfections and always have residual stresses from mill operations, such as rolling, cooling, ... Any small imperfections will result in a net eccentricity about one or both of the axes and produce lateral deflections due to bending moment that is produced as the product of load times eccentricity. 3. It is often difficult to apply a load through the center of area. n72_ Steel Structures Design 4. The character of the end restraints markedly affects column behavior. For example the top chords of trusses are usually compression members. Trusses are usually analyzed as having pinned joints. From these several considerations it is evident that if an ideal, isotropic, axially loaded column is produced, it is accidental. Nevertheless, it is convenient to analyze a large class of structural members as axially loaded columns, struts, posts, or whatever the local terminology used to identify the compression member. Fig. 3.1 Samples of — Cross-Sections of Compression Members The two main differences between tension and compression members are 1, Tension members are hold straight by means of tensile loads while in the case of compression members the compression loads tend to bend the member out of the plane of loading. 2. For riveted and bolted connections, the net area will govern the strength of a tension member, while for compression members the rivets and holes are assumed to fill the holes.Chapter 3 : Compression Members B 3-2 THE EULER COLUMN FORMULA If the column is long, it will fail at a load that is proportional to the bending rigidity of the member EI. The maximum strength of an axially loaded member is equal to the allowable compressive stress multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the member. The strength is determined by the Euler Formula (for pin-ended column) using the Euler load = P,= x"EV/L? which is the load that will just hold the column in the deflected shape. Critical stress Fe, = P./A = 17EI/ (L? A) = WE/L? *(VA) = Er/L? Fase et 341 d= Ly =KL/r Where: is the buckling length of the member which can be defined by referring to Table( 1-7 ) to Table (1-10), is the cross-sectional area, is the moment of inertia in the buckling direction, is the radius of gyration in the buckling direction, is the modulus of elasticity, is the slendemess ratio of the compression member. eee FA Note that the Buler equation is for a perfectly straight, pin-ended column. 3-3 ALLOWABLE COMPRESSIVE STRESS The column stress obtained with the Euler equation of Fe, = WE/(KL/t) is the equation of a parabola, and thus it would seem appropriate to use a parabolic equation form to develop the allowable column stress. The KL/r is one of the significant parameters. Since the Euler stress is a buckling stress, the allowable stress in compression for different types of steel is defined by:74 _ Steel Structures Design For\<100 _ (inelastic buckling) F, = 0.58 Fy — (0.58 Fy- 0.75) 7/10* Where 2. is the slendemess ratio of the compression member, 4 = KL/t. The allowable compressive stresses of the compression members for 1 < 100 is shown in Table (3-1) based on the yield stress defined in Table (1- 2). Table (3-1) Allowable Compressive Stresses For Different Steel Grades (2.< 100) F, Wem’) Steel grade +<40mm 40mm 3d + t (d is the bolt diameter, and t is the angle leg thickness). Check the safety of the chosen cross-section: 1. Define the buckling lengths for member inside and outside plane. 2. Calculate Ain = Ib-in/Tin s Mout = Ib-our/Tour and get Acriticat Which is the maximum of both values of 2. 3. Check the class of section. 4. Calculate the allowable compressive stress F, using the formulae mentioned in Section 3.3 for compact and noncompact sections. 5. Calculate the actual stress fc: = design force/actual area of cross- section and make sure that its value is less than the allowable stress F,, Design of tie plat Tie plates are used to connect the cross-sections composed of two angles or more (two angles back-to-back or two angles star-shaped) together to prevent the occurrence of local buckling. To prevent any of the two angles forming the cross-section to buckle individually (about the minor axis of the angle “ry”), a plate (called tie plate) should be added at intervals not exceeding “€” noting that “” can be calculated as follows: Elty S Der _ From equation (3-5), calculate the value of “€”; if “t” > % the member length, use one tie plate at mid length and if “€” < % the memberChapter 3 : Compression Members ia length use two tie plates at third points of the member length. Figures 3.3 and 3.4 show the arrangement of tie plates in compression truss members. ZZ Fig.3.3 A Compression Member With One Tie Plate78__ Steel Structures Design I \ Hf 4 N Yp \ 4 Fig. 3.4 A Compression Member With Two Tie PlatesChapter 3 : Compression Members 79 3-5-2 Design Procedure of Unsymmetrical Cross-Sections (One Angle Sections ) Estimation of cross-sectios 1. Assume a reasonable value for the allowable compressive stress based on the design force and the buckling length of the member (ranges between 0.4 t/cm’ to 0.9 em’ for steel 37). 2. Choose a suitable cross-section to satisfy the following requirements: = Required area = Force/assumed Fy. * Stiffness requirement 2 max < 180. = Construction requirement (for bolted truss members only) angle leg width “a” > 3d + t (d is the bolt diameter, and t is the angle leg thickness). Check the safety of the chosen cross-section: 1. Define the buckling lengths for member inside and outside plane. 2. Calculate Nor = Ib-greaterty.- 3. Check the class of section. 4. Calculate the allowable compressive stress F, using the formulae mentioned in Section 3.3 and multiply the value F, by a reduction factor = 0.6 as follows: For2.< 100 F, = [0.58 Fy — (0.58 Fy — 0.75) 0/10"] x 0.6 ForA2 100 F. = [7500/7] x 0.6 5. Calculate the actual stress fia = design force/actual area of cross- section and make sure that its value is less than the allowable stress Fe. 3-6 EXAMPLES ON DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS ample 3.1 Design the compression top chord member U; shown in figure if design force is — 18 ton (case 1). Connections are made using M16, :pretensioned ordinary bolts grade (4.6) and gusset plates are 10 mm.80__ Steel Structures Design U.W.B. Estimation of the cross-section : y 1- Stress requirement: Assume F, = 1.0 t/em? Aveq = 18/1.0 = 18 cm? Choose 2 angles back-to-back Area of one angle = 18/2 = 9 cm? From tables choose 2L 70 x 70x 7 2- Stiffness: Loin =160cm & Lyou=160 cm % = 03a & 0.458 Dax = Ly/tx S180 = 160/0.3a < 180 a 22.96 cm a = Lpowty $ 180 = 160/0.45a < 180 a 2197cm 3- Construction requirement: a23$+t=3x16+0.7=55 om Chosen cross-section is 2L, back-to-back 70 x 70x 7Chapter 3 : Compression Members___81 Checks : 1- Check class of section (compact, non-compact, slender) Ae = 14.8 Section is non-compact. 2- Check slenderness ratio A -=2x9.4=18.8cm? Tix by = 160 cm Tels =Mit=2.12 cm L 2h Tyats Jaze, An, Tyas =2 [y+ Au + tep/2)] = 2x [42.4494 (1 97 +0.5)] = 199.5 cm* fi99.5 Ty-2Ls 738 =3.26 cm dx = Lpw/tx = 160/2.12 = 75.5 < 180 ... controls dy = Ley/ty = 160/3.26 = 49 < 180 3: Check strength Ymax = 75.5-< 100 Fe = 0.58 Fy— (0.58 Fy — 0.75) 47 /10* 0.58 x 2.4 ~ (0.58 x 2.40.75) x 75.5°/10* 1.026 tem? fact = F/Aais = 18/18.8 = 0.96 t/em? < F, = 1.026 t/em? which is safe Design of Tie Plate : Ely < bmax = 1.37 x 75.5 = 103.4 cm > L/2; use one tie plate in the middle.82__ Steel Structures Design Example 3.2 Design the compression vertical member (V;) shown in figure of Example (3.1), if the force is — 3 ton (case I). Connections are made using MI6, nonpretensioned ordinary bolts grade (4.6) and gusset plates are 10 mm. Estimation of the cross-section : y 1- Stress requirement: u =~ Assume F, = 0.5 tem? pe Areq = 3/0.5 = 6 cm? 8 v Choose 1 angle 60 x 60 x 6 2- Stiffness: Loin = 200 cm Loour =200cm tv =0.2a a = Lihty = L/(0.2a) < 180 = 200/(0.2a) < 180 a 25.5em 3- Construction requirement: a>3$+t=3x16+0.6=5.4 cm Chosen cross-section is IL 60 x 60 x 6 Cheeks : check class of section (compact, non-compact, slender) 23 b/t=60/6=10< =14.8 1 Section is non-compact. 2- Check slendemess ratio A =691cm? Lyx = Ley =Ly = 200 cmChapter 3 : Compression Members __83 Ty =1.17 cm a = 200/1.17 = 170.9 < 180 3- Check strength > 100 Foroneangle = F, = 0.6 x (7500/170.97) = 0.156 t/em? face =F/A=3/6.91 = 0.43 tlom? > F, = 0.156 t/em? The section is unsafe, try another angle (80x80x8). Lyx =Ley=200 em Ty =1.55 cm 2% = =200/1.55 = 129 < 180 24> 100 Fe = 0.6 x (7500/2? ) = 0.6 x 7500/1297 = 0.27 t/em? fia © = F/A=3/12.3 = 0.244 tem? L/2; use one tie plate in the middleChapter 3 : Compression Members 85 Example 3.4 Design the compression member A marked in figure if the design force is — 10 ton (case I). Connections are made using M16, nonpretensioned ordinary bolts grade (4.6) and gusset plates are 10 mm. {VVVINNANAYET TINS ea oxtéaté 2xL6=48 Estimation of the cr: ‘tion : 1- Stress requirement: Assume F, = 1.0 t/em? Aceq = 10/1.0 = 10 cm? Choose 2 angles back-to-back Area of one angle = 10/2 = 5 cm? From tables choose 2L 80 x 80x 8 2- Stiffness: y i =160em & Lyon =3L | = 3x160 = 480 cm H tk =0.3a & y*0.45a : | Dax = Lp/tx S180 — se Cae = 160/0.3a < 180 : a = 2.96 cm | dy Lyouty $ 180 is = 480/0.45a < 180 a 25.9 em 3- Construction requirement: ab3g+t=3x16+0.8=5.6 om86__ Steel Structures Design Chosen cross-section is 2L, back-to-back 80 x 80 x 8 Checks : 1- Check class of section (compact, non-compact, slender) bit=80/8=10< 72 =148 i Section is non-compact. 2- Check slenderness ratio Teas =r =2.42cm Jy-215 Ty2Ls Tyas =2 [yar + Au (+ tor/2)'] 2x [72.3 + 12.3 (2.26 + 0.5] =332 cm* 332 Han = \5pg 73.67 em x = Log/tx = 160/2.42 = 66.1 < 180 130.8< 180 ... controls dy = Ley/ty = 480/3.67 3- Check strength Amex = 130.8>100 F, = 7500/130.8" = 0.44 tem? fat = F/Aats = 10/24.6 = 0.4 tem? < F, = 0.44 tiem? which is safe Design of Tie Plate : Wty < Dana £= 1.55 x 130.8 = 202.7 om > L/2; use one tie plate in the middle.Chapter 3 : Compression Members 87 Example 3.5 Design the same compression member of Example 3.4 using ‘unequal angles. Data : force = - 10 ton (case I), member length = 1.6m , Lx = 1.6 m and Ly =3L =4.8 m. Estimation of the cross-section : 1- Stress requirement: t Assume F, = 1.0 vem? he A Aceq = 10/1.0 = 10 cm” SS 1 a5 Choose 2 angles back-to- ares . back Area of one angle =Sem? From tables choose 2L, 80 x 40 x 6 7 10/2 2- Stiffness: Loin =160cem & Lyon =3L =3x160 = 480 cm tk = 0.28a & 1y*0.50b Mx = Lp/tx < 180 = 160/0.28a < 180 a 22.96 cm i = Lyout/ty < 180 = 480/0.50b < 180 b 25.3cm 3- Construction requirement: a>3o+t=3x 16+0.6=5.4 om sen cross-section is 2L, back-to-back 90 x 60 x 8 ecks :88__ Steel Structures Design 1- Check class of section (compact, non-compact, slender) bit= 90/8 = 11.25< = = 148 , (b+hy/2t= (00+60)/2x8 = 9.375 < ” 17 10.97 ir Section is non-compact. 2- Check slenderness ratio Lyx Tyas = Tit = 1.7 em (1 in the example = r, from tables ) = Jy as Ce oe Fy-2Ls Bi Tyas =2 (yar + Au (+ top/2)) (1y in the example = r, from tables and ly in the example = I, from tables and ey in the example = e, from tables) =2x (92.5 + 11.4x(2.97 + 0.5)*) = 459.5 cm‘ Tats = oe =4.49 em Dx = Lox/tx = 160/1.7 = 94.1 < 180 dy = Lay/ty = 480/4.49 = 106.9 < 180 ...controls 3- Check strength Amax = 106.9>100 Fe 7500/106.9° = 0.65 t/em™ fact. = F/Aats = 10/22.8 = 0.43 t/em? < F, = 0.65 t/em? which is safe Design of Tie Plate : Elty S Amex £ 1.29 x 106.9 = 138 cm > L/2; use one tie plate in the middle.Chapter 3 : Compression Members __89 Note : Compare the area and the margin of safety of the section made of two equal angles back to back and the section made of two unequal angles back to back. Example 3.6 Design the top chord compression member “ B “ shown in figure using a pipe section if the design force is — 28.0 ton (Case I). B : force = - 28.0 ton (case I), member length= 1.8m ,Ly=1.8m Ly=1.8m. . \e F, = 1.0 t/em* =28/1.0=28.0 cm? = 133/8 = 16.6 < 25-1065 Fs section is compact90__ Steel Structures Design 2- Check slenderness ratio dy = dy = 180/4.43 = 40.6 <180 3- Check strength Fe = 0.58 Fy—(0.58 Fy - 0.75) 22/10! 58 x 2.4 — (0.58 x 2.4 — 0.75) x 40.67 / 104 -28 tem? fac =F /A=28/31.4=0.89 them? <1.28 t/cm? which is safe Example 3.7 Design the same compression member of Example 3.6 using a square hollow section (S.H.S). Data : force = - 28.0 ton (case I), member length= 1.8m ,L,=1.8m and Ly=1.8m. Estimation of the cross-section : y bl Assume F, = 1.0 t/em? Areq = 28.0/ 1.0 =28.0 cm? Choose 8.H.§ 100 th 8 eel si A=29.1 om’ eal ag a Be Checks : 160 Ss 1- Check class of section (compact, | non-compact, slender) vy b= 100 ~2*(8+4) = 76 mm bt=768=9.5 <4 413 VF The section is compact. 2- Check slenderness ratioChapter 3 : Compression Members__91 dy = Ax = 1803.74 = 48.13 < 180 3- Check strength F 0.58 Fy — (0.58 Fy — 0.75) 22/10* .58 x 2.4 — (0.58 x 2.4 — 0.75) x 48.137/10* 1.24 vem? fact =F /A=28/29.1=0.96 tom? Figure 4.1(1): Depending on the geometry and the applied forces, stiffeners may or may not be necessary. This connection has the advantage of cheap fabrication but the disadvantage that its total construction height is higher than that of the other designs in Figure 4.1(2).96 Steel Structures Design > Figure 4.1(2): In this connection there is no need to make a cope as in the connection 4.1(3). Therefore it is also a cheap design to fabricate. > Figure 4.1(3): The top flanges are at the same height. The cope makes this design more costly than the design of 4.1(2). > Figure 4.1(4): The beam to be connected is higher than the main beam. This design is rather cheap to fabricate. The hinge will be located where the plate is welded to the web. 4-1-2 Simple Beam-to-Column Connections > Figure 4.2(1): Connection with fin plates welded to the column. The beam is connected single sided. > Figure 4.2(2): Bolted connection with angle cleats. Cleats may be welded to either member as an alternative. > Figure 4.2(3): Connection with thin flexible endplates welded to the beam.Chapter 4: Bolted Connections __97 > Figure 4.2(4): Bolted connection with angle cleats. The horizontal angle cleat provides extra bearing resistance. > Figure 4,2(5): For a thick wall of a tube, the plates can be welded directly to the wall without making a sleeve in the tube to have a continuous plate. > Figure 4.2(6): The stiffness depends largely on the thickness of the end plate on the column and the thickness of the flange of the beam. The stiffening plates may be omitted in many cases. Fig. 4.2 Simple Beam -to-Column Connections 1-3 Column Splices > Figure 4.3(1) and (2): These are welded splices. Where there are different thickness of the plates, cheaper fillet welds can be used. It should be recalled that welding may not be the most appropriate connection means for site connections. > Figure 4.3(3): Bolted splice. The vertical forces may be assumed to be transmitted by bearing and/or through the plates. The plates also serve to transmit bending moments and shear forces. Where there is unequal thickness of the flanges/webs, intermediate plates are necessary.98 __ Steel Structures Design > Figure 4.3(4): A frequently used splice connection. Due to the welding in the workshop, the plates may not be perfectly flat. Normally no subsequent machining is necessary to flatten these plates. > Figure 4.3(5): Sometimes it is easier to make the beam continuous. To transmit the forces and for stability reasons, it is necessary to stiffen the beam between the column flanges. “ ®) Fig. 43 Column Splices 4-1-4 Column Bases Fig. 4.4 Column BasesChapter 4 : Bolted Connections _99 > Figure 4.4(1) and (2): Thick base plates need no stiffening. Normally this is the cheapest solution. > Figure 4.4(3): Thinner base plate with stiffeners as used in some designs. 4-1-5 Bracing Connections I- Horizontal Bracing Connections Fig.4.5 Horizontal Bracing Connections > Figure 4.5(1), (2) and (3): The gusset plates on the top flanges may be a problem when metal roof or floor decking is used. > Figure 4.5(4), (5) and (6): The channel section is needed as a chord for the horizontal truss.100__ Steel Structures Design _ I- Vertical Bracing Connections Fig. 4.6 Vertical Bracing Connections 41-6 Moment Resisting Beam-to-Beam Connections > Figure 4.7(1): In this design stiffeners can be omitted where possible. > Figure 4.7(2): The tensile force in the top flange is transmitted via the flange plate that crosses the web of the main beam through a sleeve. On the compression side, small compression parts may be necessary to introduce the compression force. Figure 4.7(3): In this design also a cope of the beam is necessary. Figure 4.7(4): Both beams have the same height. VV Moment Resisting Beam-to-Column Connections Figure 4.8(1): Fully welded connection. . Figure 4.8(2): Bolted knee - connection. Figure 4.8(3): Knee-connection with welded end plates. Figure 4.8(4): Welded T-connection. Figure 4.8(5): Bolted T-connection. Figure 4.8(6): Bolted end plate connection. It is assumed that another beam is connected on the other side of the web. VVVVVV4Chapter 4: Bolted Connections 101 Fig. 4.8 Rigid Beam-to-Column Connections102__ Steel Structures Design 4-1-8 Beam-to-Concrete Wall Connections In high-rise buildings it may be convenient to combine the steel structure resisting gravity loads with a concrete core resisting horizontal forces. Attaching the steel frame to a concrete core is mainly a practical problem, since the two systems are built with dimensional tolerances of a different order of magnitude. Special care should be taken to account for the relative sequence of erection of the concrete and steel system, the method of construction of the core (on which concrete tolerances also depend), as well as the feasibility of compensating for misalignments. The connection should be able to transfer to the core vertical forces, V, due to loads applied to the beam, and horizontal forces, H, due to wind and frame geometrical imperfections (lack of verticality). Some connection types are illustrated in Figure (4.9). It is important to stress that the details in the concrete wall must be suitably designed to disperse connection forces safely. In particular the details are especially important when deep beams are required to transmit high vertical loads. The type shown in Figure (4.9a), with pockets in the wall, is convenient for ease of adjustment, but complex in terms of core erection, ‘Types illustrated in Figures (4.9b) to (4.9h) where part of the connection is encased in the core wall during concrete pouring, may be preferable. The steel plate may be flush with the wall surface, as in types b-f, or extended outwards as in types g and h. In the first case, which is usually the more convenient because the steel plate can be supported on the inside face of the formwork, a single web plate is welded on site to which the steel beam is then attached. In the latter case the beam can be connected directly to the encased plate. Reinforcing bars (rebars) and/or headed studs can be used in order to transmit both components of the beam action. Full penetration welds are preferred when the rebars are connected directly to the flush plate (Figure 4.9), so that eccentricity of the force with respect to the weldment is avoided, see Figure (4.9c).Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections 103 Fig. 4.9 Beam-to-Concrete Wall Connections Checking of the various components within the connection should conducted in a consistent manner, ensuring that the principles of ection design, e.g. the assumed distribution of forces satisfies librium, are observed. As an illustration of this, consider the ‘tural requirements for the arrangement of Figure (4.9h). Assuming the shear transfer plane, ie. the "hinge" location of the simple ‘ction is the mid-plane of the wall, then the set of headed studs must ist only shear. Alternatively, the "hinge" is assumed as the wall face, the studs should be designed to resist a combination of shear and ent. This general requirement for a consistent approach to modeling force transfers is further explained in Figure (4.10), which details the transfer for the arrangement of case in Figure (4.9). The shear force is assumed to be resisted entirely by the shear studs, whilst the moment is carried by a couple consisting of tension in the upper rebars and pression transmitted by contact stresses between the concrete and the 1 plate. Whichever arrangement is adopted, however, the main irement is to ensure a proper dispersion of forces into the core wall.104 Steel Structures Design Ay Fig. 4.10 Beam-to-Concrete Wall Connections Subject to Shear and Moment 42 REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR Relevant properties of steel are its strength, its stiffness and its ductility or deformation capacity. See Figure (4.11). A well designed steel structure should possess the same good properties. The basic requirements for structural elements/connections concern the strength, the stiffness and the deformation capacity. Figure (4.12) defines the strength, stiffness and deformation capacity of a beam-to-column connection designed to transfer a moment from the beam into the column. The rotation capacity is a measure of the deformation that can be obtained before failure somewhere in the connection causes a drop in the moment resistance. a. Strength For the determination of the forces on the connection, a static analysis must be carried out. Such analysis includes the determination of the design loads and the modeling of the structure, see Figure (4.13). In the schematization of the structure, the stiffness of the connections is an important element. Connections can be assumed rigid, as hinges or as having a stiffness between these two. The deformation capacity of theChapter 4 : Bolted Connections _105 members (beams and columns) and of the connections plays an. important role in the ultimate distribution of forces in the structure. ee a. P<—— OP e—-(hdC | | ‘Steel Connection Requirements of strength, stiffness end deformation cepacity. Connections should have comparable properties to the structural steel Fig.4.11 Strength, Stiffness and Deformation Capacity of Steel Connections ee Fig. 4.12 Moment-Rotation of Beam-to-Beam Connections.106 _ Steel Structures Design Wi yee. bids] dude] ae ‘Analysis SSchematization ofthe structure Connection Moments M Shear forces V Nommal forces N Fig.4.13 Analysis of the Forces on the Connections All parts of the structure must be designed so that they can resist the calculated forces and have a deformation capacity that is consistent with the assumptions made in the global analysis. b. Stiffness The stiffness of the connection affects the level of loading for which it should be designed. A connection of low rotational stiffness does not attract major bending moments and therefore may be assumed as a pinned connection in the schematization of the structure. Of course, the stiffness of the connections affects the deflections of the beams. Especially in non-braced frames the stiffness of the connections may have a major effect on the deflections of the structure as a whole and on its stability. If the connections are assumed rigid in the modeling for the static analysis of the structure, then consequently the form of the connections should be such that their deformations have a negligible influence on the load distribution and the deformations of the structure. On the other hand, if pinned connections are assumed, they should have sufficient flexibility to accommodate rotations without causing significant bending moments that may lead to premature failure of (parts of) the connection or connected members.Chapter 4: Bolted Connections 107 The schematization of connection stiffness is discussed further later. In many instances it is acceptable to design connections giving explicit consideration only to their strength. ¢. Deformation Capacity The requirements for strength and stiffness are clear. They result from the static calculation. The requirement for deformation capacity is more qualitative. In practice it is sometimes difficult to check this requirement. Ductile connections that have a great deformation capacity contribute to the overall safety of the structure in the event that the connection becomes overloaded. Such connections may also be a design requirement in certain instances, e.g. when plastic design is employed with plastic hinges forming in the connections. 4-3 CLASSIFICATION AS 4 BASIS FOR DESIGN Connections should be designed according to their required behavior. Many design approaches are possible for stiffness and strength. In Figure (4.14) three designs for a beam-to-column connection are given with their moment rotation characteristics. These characteristics may be described as follows: > Curve I, Both the rotational stiffness and the moment resistance are small and may reasonably be neglected, leading to the concept of a pinned or hinged connection. Only vertical shear is required to be transferred, with the value being equal to the beam end reaction necessary to resist the beam loading. > Curve II, Behavior is intermediate between characteristics I and IIL, in which the connections possess a finite moment resistance less than the full moment resistance of the beam and a rotational stiffness that permits some relative rotation. (Such connections are usually both semi-rigid and partial strength, however it is possible to have connections that are full-strength and semi-rigid or fully rigid but only partial strength.) > Curve III. The rotational stiffness is very high and the connection's moment resistance is at least that of the beam. Continuity is thus preserved with no rotation of the beam relative to the column; both the beam end reaction and its end moment are transferred to the column.108 Steel Structures Design > All three possibilities can be applied in multi-story frames. Type Ill can be applied in both braced and unbraced frames. Type I is only suitable for braced frames. Type II may be used for both braced and unbraced frames, but in the latter case the influence of connection flexibility on frame behavior needs to be considered. Figure (4.14) gives the schematization of rotational stiffness for the frame analysis. H+ HS] BES 4 % Fig. 4.14 Moment-Rotation Diagrams (M-) 4-4 LOCAL FAILURE MODES IN NON-STRENGTHENED BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS Potentially weak areas may occur in connections. In the beam-to- column connection in Figure (4.15) such areas may be the column flange and the column web. The transmission of high-localized forces in the column may cause local yielding and local buckling. These failure modes may be decisive for the moment resistance of a connection. For example,Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections 109 the moment resistance of the connection shown in Figure (4-15) is lower than the full plastic moment of the beam. Local bending of column flanges. Column web ff” Yielding ‘Web yielding ~~ due to shear Local buckling ofthe column web Fig. 4.15 Local Failure Modes in Non-Strengthened Beam-to-Column Connections Backing plates Welded web plate Fig. 4.16 Strengthening Possibilities of Beam-to- Column Connections in Potentially Weak110__Steel Structures Design Areas If necessary, the moment resistance can be increased by strengthening the relevant weak areas of the connections, as shown in Figure (4.16). Ny Welded 5. Yielding of end plate Fig. 4.17 Possible Failure Modes of a Tension Force in a Column Web 4-5 LOAD TRANSFER The connections should be designed to transfer moment and/or shear forces and/or normal forces. The next step in the analysis is to determine the distribution of forces within the connection, Figure (4.18). It is not necessary and often not feasible to determine the real internal distribution of forces. It is sufficient to assume a realistic distribution, provided that: * The principal structural requirement of a connection is that it is capable of safely transferring load from the supported members to the supporting member. ¢ The analysis of connections implies the assumption of a realistic internal distribution of forces that are in equilibrium with the external forces, where each element is capable of transferring the assumed force and the deformations are within the deformation capacity of the elements. In the analysis of connections, a number of basic load transfers can generally be identified.Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections 111 Moments Shear forces Normal forces Realistic assumption Intemal forces Realistic assumption Components 3 Forces on fasteners {bolts and welds) tye Parts 4.18 Analysis of Forces on Components and Fasteners112 __ Steel Structures Design (1) Axial force (2) Shear force (3) Introduction of tensile force (4) Introduction of compression force (5) Shear panel Fig. 4.19 Basic Force Transfers in ConnectionsChapter 4 : Bolted Connections _113 (e) Butt welded {b) Welded cover plate (c} Bolted cover plete (d) Bolted flange joint for use with tubuler construction (e) Truss connection Fig.4.20 Examples of Transfer of Tensile or Compressive Axial Force114 _ Steel Structures Design [Pa [PE (e) Bearing plate (b) Flush end plete | v | (c) Web plate (4) Angle cleat Fig. 4.21 Examples of Transfer of Shear Force = ste -— | GC eeT t = |e v Fig.4.22 Examples of Transfer of Shear Force Through Shear PanelChapter 4 : Bolted Connections 115 (a) Welded {b) Welded flange plate {c) Extended end plate {d) Flush end plate {e) Angle cleats Fig. 4.23 Examples of Transfer of Tensile Force Fig. 4.24 Examples of Transfer of Local Compressive Forces116 __ Steel Structures Design 4-6 RIVETED AND BOLTED. CONNECTIONS The rivetéd connections are means of producing safe and serviceable metal connections. The process required punching or drilling holes. The rivet contraction during cooling is resisted by the joint material and develops tension in the rivet so that a riveted joint is intermediate between a friction and a bearing-type connections, The riveted joint has had a long history of success under fatigue At present almost no riveting is used in engineered structures, either in fabrication shops or in the field, for several reasons: 1- Labor costs associated with large riveting crews. 2- Careful inspection required for riveted joints and the large costs involved in digging out poorly installed rivets. 3- Development and the high reliability of high-strength bolts. 4-7 TYPES OF BOLTS USED IN STRUCTURES There are two general classes of bolts used in structures: 1- Pretensioned bolts. 2- Non-pretensioned bolts. The nominal values of the bolts’ yield stress “Fy,” and the bolts’ ultimate stress “Fy,” are given in the following table: Table (4-1) Nominal Values of Yield Stress “Fy” and Ultimate Stress “F,,” for Bolts Bolt Grade 46 | 48 | 5.6 [5.8 | 68 | 88 | 10.9 Fy Wem’) 24 | 32] 3 4 [48] 64 [9 Fyp (t/em*) 4 4 5 5 6 8 10 Notes : 1- These bolt grades are used in conjunction with structural components in steel up to St 52. 2- Bolts of grades lower than 4.6 or higher than 10.9 shall not be utilized, 3- Bolts of grades 4.6 up to 6.8 are made from low or mild carbon steel, and are the least expensive type of bolts for light structures,Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections 117 48 4-8-1 1- 2- Grade 8.8 is of heat-treated high strength steel and grade 10.9 is also of heat-treated, but is of alloy steel. Bolts grade 8.8 and 10.9 are mainly used as pretensioned bolts with controlled tightening. HOLES, CLEARANCES, WASHERS AND NUTS Holes Holes of bolts may be drilled or punched unless specified. Where drilled holes are required, they may be sub-punched and reamed. Slotted holes shall either be punched in one operation or else formed by punching or drilling. Clearances in Holes for Fasteners Except for fitted bolts or where low-clearance or oversize holes are specified, the nominal clearance in standard holes shall be: 1 mm for M12 and M14 bolts 2mm for M16 up to M24 bolts 3 mm for M27 and larger Holes with 2mm nominal clearance may be specified for M12 and M14 bolts provided that the design meets the requirements with a reduction in shear resistance of bolts grade 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9 by 15%. The clearance of fitted bolts shall not exceed 0.3mm. Nuts Constructional Precautions For structures subjected to vibrations, precautions shall be taken to avoid any loosening of the nuts. If non-pretensioned bolts are used in structures subjected to vibrations, the nuts should be secured by locking devices or other mechanical means. The nuts of pretensioned bolts may be assumed to be sufficiently secured by the normal tightening procedure.118 _ Steel Structures Design 4-8-4 Washers Utilities 1- Washers may not be required for non-pretensioned bolts except as follows: + A taper washer shall be used where the surface is inclined at more than 3° to a plane perpendicular to the bolt axis. + Washers shall be used where this is necessary due to a requirement to use longer bolts in order to keep the bolt threads out of a shear plane or out of a fitted hole. 2- Hardened washers shall be used for pretensioned bolts under the bolt head as well as under the nut, which ever is to be rotated. 4-8-5 Tightening of Bolts 1- Non-pretensioned bolts shall be tightened sufficiently to ensure that sufficient contact is achieved between the connected parts. 2- It is not necessary to tighten non-pretensioned bolts to the maximum tightening value, but it should be: ° That which can be achieved by one man using a normal prodger spanner or ¢ Up to the point where an impact wrench first starts to impact, 49 NON-PRETENSIONED BOLTS 4-9-1 Classification of Non-pretensioned Bolts According to Type of Loading 1 Non-pretensioned bolts subjected to shear force only. 2- Non-pretensioned bolts subjected to tension force only. 3- Non-pretensioned bolts subjected to tension and shear forces. 4- Non-pretensioned bolts subjected to shear and moment, 5- Non-pretensioned bolts subjected to shear and torsional moments. 6- Non-pretensioned bolts subjected to tension, shear and moment. 4-9-1-1 Non-pretensioned Bolts Subjected to Shear The force acting perpendicular to the center line of bolts will cause shear on bolts or bearing on plate. The maximum resistance of boltsChapter 4: Bolted Connections 119 is considered the least of the shear capacity of the bolt “R,” or the bearing capacity of the plate “R,” + F ec | FOr Rs i ae : aT Shear failure on single-plane b-Shear failure on double-planes Fig. 4.25 Shear Failure in Bolts 1- Shear Failure on Single-Shear Plane In this type of bolted connections the maximum resistance of the bolts is considered the least of the shear capacity of the bolt “R,;.” or the bearing capacity of the plate “Ry” and they are calculated as follows: Rat eee 41 Ry = Fd tga Where: is the stressed area of the bolt (nd”/2). is the allowable shear stress of the bolt, which is taken for bolt grades 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8 equal to 0.25 Fy» and for bolt grades 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9 equal to 0.2 Fup (Fup is taken from Table (4-1). is the number of failure planes (in this case n is taken =1), is the bolt diameter, is the allowable bearing stress for the connected elements and can be calculated as follows Rp =a, F, is the ultimate stress of the connected plate and a. is a factor in Table (4-2).120 __ Steel Structures Design Table (4-2) Values of Factor « End Distance in Direction of Force 2=3.0d 225d 2 2.0d 215d a 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 The design value of bolt resistance is the least from the following ‘two values: nd? R= a a 44 Rp a"aFy"dtmin — eentttteneeenneen 4-5 The connection between the truss member composed of one angle or star shaped angles with the gusset plate are good examples of single shear connections. 2- Shear Failure on Double-Shear Plane In this type of bolted connections the maximum resistance of the bolts is considered the least of the shear capacity of the bolt “Rg,,” or the bearing capacity of the plate “R,” and they are calculated as follows: Ras =2Asqpn wansenecectc teen 4-6 R, =F,d tun The design value of bolt resistance is the least from the following two values: 4-8 ‘ Ry, =2 +72 (0.25F40r02F,) : Rp ="0F,"d2tmin 49 Where Ytmin is the least of the thicknesses of the plates on either sides of the connection.the truss plates. Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections 121 As an example of double shear case is the connection between members composed of two angles back-to-back and the gusset 3- Positioning holes for bolts and rivets a. The positioning of holes for bolts and rivets shall be done such as to prevent corrosion and local buckling, and to facilitate the installation of the bolts and rivets. . The positioning of holes shall be also in conformity with the limits of validity of rules used to determine the design bearing strength of the bolts and rivets. Minimum end distance * The end distance e as shown in Figure (4.26) from the center of a fastener to the adjacent end of any steel element, measured in the direction of load transfer should not be less than 1.50, where © is the nominal bolt diameter. ¢ The end distance should be increased if necessary to provide adequate bearing resistance. |. Minimum edge distance The edge distance e) from the center of a fastener to the adjacent edge of any steel element, measured at right angles to the direction of load transfer should not be less than 1.5 as shown in Figure (4.26). Maximum end or edge distance The maximum end or edge distance shall be 12 times the thickness (t) of the smallest connected part under consideration. Minimum spacing The spacing (S) as shown in figure (4.26) between centers of fasteners in the direction of load transfer should not be less than 3 ©. . The spacing (g) as shown in Figure (4.26) between rows of fasteners measured perpendicular to the direction of load transfer should be not less than 3® . Maximum spacing in compression members The spacing (S) as shown in Figure (4.27) of the fasteners in each row and the spacing (g) between rows of fasteners should not exceed the lesser of 14t or 200mm.122 __ Steel Structures Design i. Maximum spacing in tension members ‘The maximum spacing “S” between the bolts in inner rows may be twice the value given in ”g” as shown in Figure (4.28). s<14t_and <200mm Direction of 4 ay load transfer ‘t=the smallest connected thickness Fig. 4.26 Spacing in Tension or Compression Members ss 14t and < 200mm Fert hoatrea8 raed alan alee pepe samt | Le cme Peer aoe Fig. 4.27 Staggered Spacing in Compression Members 44,05 4t and < 200mm ‘Ay $[28t and < 400mm —=—-_—__} — Axis of symmetry t= The smallest connected thickness Tension Fig. 4.28 Maximum Spacing in Tension MembersChapter 4 : Bolted Connections 123 4 Minimum and maximum number of bolts in members Bil The minimum number of bolts used in a member is 2 bolts. . Lap joints with only one bolt may be used with the following provisions: ¢ Bolts shall be provided with washers under both the head and the nut to avoid pull out failure. e The bearing strength shall not exceed the value: Ry<0.75Fytinin . In case of high strength bolts grades 8.8 and 10.9, hardened washers should be used. . The maximum number of bolts shall be calculated to make the distance “L;” between the centers of end fasteners in a joint “measured in the direction of the transfer of force” not exceeding 150. If the distance L; is found to be more than 150, the allowable shear and bearing stresses “q, and Fy” shall be reduced by a reduction factor “B,” calculated as follows: -159 2006 Where 0.75< B,<1 This provision is not to be applied where there is a uniform distribution of force transfer over the length of the joint such as the transfer from the web of I-section to the column flange. Ly fi —— i. oe AS Fig. 4.29 Distance Between End Bolts124 _ Steel Structures Design 4-9-1-2 Non-pretensioned Bolts Subjected to Tension When bolts are externally loaded in tension, the tensile strength ofa single bolt shall be defined as follows: 2 Reension -0.7720.33F yp tiem 411 Where the 0.7 is the reduction in bolt area due to threads and 0.33Fub is the allowable tensile stress of bolts. 4-9-1-3 Non- Pretensioned Bolts Subjected to Combined Stresses (Shear and Tension ) Bolts subjected to the combined action of shear and tension should satisfy the following interaction equation: Qext/0 2, Text 0,9 C5 a) tHe) “yp “a 20ton 18ton 2L80x80x8 — 2L70x70x7 6 160 Solutio: Lower chord member L, F=+18ton 2Ls 70x70x7 2 2 Rac = 27 0.25%) = 22EX (025440) =4.02 ton ‘Assume end distance > 2 ©, thus, a= 0.8 ‘tin = top, OF toangles = 10 mm Ry ="oFy"dDtmin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6xl = 4.61ton Rreas= Ras. = 4.02 ton Force _ 18 _ 4.47 taken SMI6 ihc 1’ Rieast 402 Lower chord member Lz:126 _ Steel Structures Design F=+ 20 ton 2Ls 80x80x8 (2 2 Ras, =2-=2-0.25Fyy) = 2 =4-D 0.25x4,0) =4.02 ton ds. 4 ‘ub 4 Assume end distance > 2 ®, thus, a = 0.8 tmin = tg.p1, OF tangles = 10 mm Rp ="aFy"dZtmin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x1.0=4.61 ton Rreast= Ras. = 4.02 ton Force 20 = =—— =497 taken SM16 72 Rear 402 i. Upper chord members U,&U2: F=-18 ton, -14 ton 2Ls 70x70x7 The two members have the same cross-section; the connection is a continuous connection, thus it is designed to transmit the bigger of the resultant of the two forces or the component of the force in the diagonal member. Resultant of chord member forces = 18 - 14=4 ton controls Component of diagonal force = 1.5 * cos 51°= 0.94 ton 2 2 Rac 2.22 0.25F.) = 2.202 0.25%4.0) =4,02 ton Assume end distance > 2 ®, thus, a = 0.8 Rp ="aF"d3tmin ="0.83.6"x1.6x1.0=4.61 ton Rieast= Ras, = 4.02 ton 3 = Foree _ 18-14 _ 9 99 taken 2M16 Ricast 4.02 Diagonal member D, F=#2.0ton IL 70x70x7 2 2 Ris =" O25hy) = BOD (0.2584.0) =2.01 ton Assume end distance > 2 ®, thus, «= 0.8 tmin = tG.p1, OF tangles = 7 mm Rp ="OFy"d.2t pin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x0.7 =3.22 ton Rreasi= Res. = 2.01 tonChapter 4 : Bolted Connections 127 = Fore _ 2-1 00 taken 2M16 Rieast 2.01 Diagonal member D2: F=+1.5 ton 1L 70x70x7 2 2 Ros = (025Fy) == LX (02504.0) =2.01 ton Assume end distance > 2 ®, thus, a = 0.8 tin = tap), OF tangles = 7 mm Rp ="aFy".dStmin ="0.80x3.6"x1.6x0.7 = 3.22 ton Reeast= Rss, = 2.01 ton Force ng = = Rieast 2.01 = 0.75 taken 2M16 Vertical member F=3ton 2Ls 80x80x8 star-shaped 2 2 Rem 025%) = BED" (025240) =2.01 ton Assume end distance > 2 ®, thus, a = 0.8 ‘tmin = te.pi, OF tangles = 8 mm "d.Zt min ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x0.8 =3.68 ton Rieas Res, = 2.01 ton = Fore. 13/4/49 taken 2MI6 Rieast 2.0 ‘ a7:128 Steel Structures Design Corrugated steel sheets 0.5 mm thick L 80x80x8 Tf Rleeie 2L 80x80x8 "2E 10x70x7Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections _129 Example 4.2 Calculate the number of M16 non-pretensioned bolts, grade 4.6 Tequired for connecting the monorail beam to the lower chord of the truss shown in figure. Check also the number of bolts in the lower chord members. 2@L70x70x7 = 2L70x70x7 4 -18ton -14ton i i Wed wD ' : < So, -3tdn ‘ a: a F 8 2. ' gi | AN Fr eEHeOHe ga, || , Be t : oe “Dp “ay ‘ : e20ton 18ton. 7 : 2L80x80x8 | 2L70x70x7 : 1.60 0 10ton Solui Bolts connecting the upper flange of the monorail beam to the lower chord of the truss are subjected to a tensile force. Ry =Fp-As and Fy = 0.33Fy, =0.33x 4.0=1.32 aa Ry =Fip-Ag =1.32x0.7x ae =1.32x0.7x22 -- Basta Required No. of Bolts = ells Force /R; = 10/1.85 = 5.4 use 6 bolts Lower chord member Li: 187+52=18.68 ton 2Ls 70x70x7130 __ Steel Structures Design z Ras. = 2.72 (025F) = 2,222) (0.25x4.0) =4.02 ton 4 Assume end distance > 2 ®, thus, a = 0.8 Rp ="aFy"d.2t min ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x1 = 4.61ton = 18ton Rreas= Ras. = 4.02 ton 5 Force _ 18.68 = ——— = 4.65 take Rien 4.02 en SM16 Lower chord member La: F=+ 207+57=20.6ton 2Ls 80x80x8 =c/G wo3x.¢'2 2 2 Ras, = 27D 0.25F 9) = 22D" (02544,0) =402 ton Assume end distance > 2 ©, thus, a= 0.8 Ry ="OF,"d2tmin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6xI.0 =4.61 ton Ries Ras, = 4.02 ton Force _ 20.6 Be = —=5, nz Rican” 4.02 13 taken 6M16 Example 4.3Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections _131 Calculate the number of M16 non-pretensioned bolts, grade 4.6 required in the connections enclosed by dotted rectangle (Gusset plate is 10 mm. thick). 2L70x70x7 -10ton i We OX% 4 aS 2.00 1l2ton! 2L70x70%7 160 | Connection of upper chord member to gusset plate: F=-10 ton 2Ls 70x70x7 2 2. Ras = 2X 0.25h») E 22ED (0.2504.0) =4.02 ton Assume end distance > 2 ®, thus, a = 0.8 Rp ="aFy"d2tmin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x1.0=4.61 ton Rteast= Ras. = 4.02 ton ny == =~ = 2.48 taken 3MI16 Connection of diagonal member to gusset plat F=+15.0 ton 2Ls 70x70x7132___ Steel Structures Design 2 se 2.7 (0.25%) =2.00 Assume end distance > 2 ©, thus, a= 0.8 Rp "OF," d2tmin =0.8x3.6"x1.6x1.0=4.61 ton Ries Ras, = 4.02 ton ny Oe 505 al ANE Rix 402 Connection of lower chord member to gusset plate: F=-12ton Ls 70x70x7 nd2 2 = 2.2) (0.25Fyp) =2. (0.25x4.0) =4.02 ton Assume end distance > 2 ©, thus, a= 0.8 Ry ="GFy"d.Ztmin ="0.8x3.6"x1. 6x1.0=461 ton Rueast= Ras, = 4.02 ton _ For - 2.98 taken 3M16 Bolts connecting gusset plate to column: 2 2 Ras = 2.75 (025%yy) =2.24 = (0.25x4.0) = 4.02 ton Assume end distance > 2 ©, thus, a= 0.8 Ry ="aF, ‘u"dZtmin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x1.0 = 4.61 ton Rueast= Ras. = 4.02 ton R 11.8 = =—— = 2.93 3M16 n4 Ria 4.02 taken 3M1| Assume ns = 6M16 Ry =Fp-As and Fy, = 0.33Fy =0.33x 4.0=1.32 tom? 2 2 Rr =Fu-As =132x0.7x™ 2 132%07% = =1.85tonChapter 4 : Bolted Connections 133 Rgy =2.01 ton at re 10ton o et 3 iS > yox8tt 1.6ton Q: Rshay2 , Reay2 < Rshay2 , Reay2 <1 arty ; * + Cay =0.93<1 which is safe 4-11 ALLOWABLE SHEAR RUPTURE STRENGTH At beam end connections, where the top flange is coped and for similar situations where failure might occur by shear along a plane through the fasteners or by a combination of shear along a plane through the fasteners plus tension along any perpendicular plane, such as the end of a beam web or as thin bolted gusset plates in single or double shear134__ Steel Structures Design (Fig. 4.30) the allowable shear stress acting on the net shear area Ay is to be increased by 15% : 4-13 = 0.48, Furthermore, the allowable tensile strength on the net tension area A; is to be increased by 25% : Fy = 0.725 Fy Fig. 4.30 Failure by Tearing Out of Shaded Area Example 4.4 Check the safety of the lower chord member L; of the shown truss against shear rupture failure.Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections 135 2@L70x70x7 2L70x70x7 -18ton -14ton 1Le0xpox8 2 Dp. 2L80x80x8 2L70x70x7 1.60 1.60 Solution: Lower chord member 1: F=+ 18 ton 2Ls 70x70x7 ny is taken SM16 check of shear rupture failure 1.8 as 2 ft Ae = (G-58) x0.7x2=2.94 em Aan = (4x643-4.5x1.8)) x 0.7 x 2=26.460m? “Ysa, 4 aca Vl Shear rupture strength = A; x Fy + Asn X qr = 2.94x0.725x2.4+26.46x0.4x2.4 =30.5 ton >18 ton QW The member is safe against shear rupture. 30, 60,136 ___ Steel Structures Design Example 4.5 Design the lower chord tension member which carries a force of 50t using channel section and design the connection using M20 non- pretensioned ordinary bolts (grade 8.8). Gusset plate thickness is 12mm. Check the safety of the member against failure by shear rupture. Data: Force = 50 t, length= 2m L,=2mandLy=6m Estimation of the member cross section : Arey = Foree/(0.85 Fi) = 50/(0.85 x [0.58 x 2.4))= 42.25 em” Choose 2 U.P.N for the lower chord. Area of Ichannel = 42.25/2 = 21.13 em? From the tables choose 2 U.P.N160 Checks : - Strength Anet = Agross — Atotes Anet (path A-B) =2 [24-2 (2.0 + 0.2) x 0.75] =41.4 em” Ang(path A-C)= 2 [24-2 (2.0 + 0.2) x 0.75 + 6 x 0.75/(4x2.6)] = 46.59 fa = 50/41.4 = 1.207 t/em? < (0.58 x 2.4) = 1.4 t/em? safe | -L/d =200/16 = 12.5 <60 OK AL we - “dx = Lyte = 200/6.21 = 32.2 < 300 OK 2: Stiffness why = Lylty ly-2c= =2 [ly a+ Arex + 0.5 to.nt))] - TAs =2 [85.3 + 24x (1.85 +0.5 x 1.2)'] = 435.68 cm* NY Acc =2x24=48 cm?Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections _137 I 435.68 y E =f = |=” =301 ty cm dy = 600/3.01 = 199 < 300 Ok Design of connection F=+ 50 ton 2U.P.N160 A : Res 272 025%.) 2 2.22" (025480) =12.56 ton Assume end distance > 2 ©, thus, a = 0.8 ‘train = top. OF tchannels = 12 mm R, ="aF,"d5t,,, ="0.8x3.6"x2.0x1.2 =6.91 ton Reeast= Ras = 6.91 ton _ Force 50 = some _ 20 7.93 taken 8M20 a Rem Gor 7 Check of shear rupture failure At = (8-2.2)x 0.75 x2=8.7 cm? Ash = (4x6+3-2.5x2.2) x 2 x 0.75 x 2= 64.5 cm? Shear rupture strength = A; x F+ AghX Gr = 8.7.x 0.725x2.4+ 64.5x0.4x24 =77ton >50 ton The member is safe against shear rupture, 4-12 HIGH STRENGTH PRETENSIONED BOLTED CONNECTIONS OF THE FRICTION TYPE In this type of connections high strength bolts of grade 8.8 and 10.9 only are to be utilized. The bolts are inserted in clearance holes in the steel components and then pretensioned by tightening the head or the aut. Any applied force across the shank of the bolt is transmitted by fiction between the contact surfaces of the contacted components, while the bolt shank itself is subjected to axial tensile stress induced by the tension and shear stress due to applied torque.138 Steel Structures Design 4-13 DIFFERENT TYPES OF HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS At the present time the two basic types of high strength bolts as specified by the E.C.P. 2001 are the (8.8) and the (10.9) types . Both types have hexagonal heads and have shorter thread lengths which makes it easier to exclude the threads from the shearing plane. Fig. 4.31 and Table 4-3 show the different dimensions characterizing the two types. Washer cand Hexagonal nut raeM fen a} 6] Le _ eS Fig. 4.31 General Layout of Bolts , Nut and Washer. For high strength bolts (10.9) a hardened washer under each bolt head and nut must be used in order to develop a good distribution of stresses throughout the plates as shown in Fig. 4.32. f t Nut | J Washer nt Bolt NN eae Fig. 4.32 Stress Distribution in Plates of A bolted ConnectionChapter 4: Bolted Connections 139 Table (4-3) High Strength Bolts (FrictionType) Cree 18 20 22 24 27 d mms. a sie | 346 | 369 416 473 h 12 13 14 1S 17 2D a8, 29 31 32 35 Ke) | 33 34 36 37 40 ts 0.4 0.4 04 OS 0S * 27 30 32 36 41 ‘ 15 16 18 19 22 dl 19 el 23 25 28 d2 34 36 40 44 So c 4 4 4 4 4 f 45; LS. 15 2 ia 9 17 17 22 22 a2 4-14 DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF HIGH STRENGTH PRETENSIONED BOLTS 1- The pretension force The axial pretension force produced in the bolt shank by tightening the nut or the bolt head is given by: T=(0.7) Fy As A de Where:140__ Steel Structures Design Fy _ is yield stress of the bolt material according to Table (4-1), As is the bolt stress area according to Table (4-4). 2- The friction coefficient or the slip factor “p” a The friction coefficient between surfaces in contact is that dimensionless value by which the pretension force in the bolt shank is to be multiplied in order to obtain the frictional resistance P, in the direction of the applied force. b- The design value of the friction coefficient depends on the condition and the preparation of the surfaces to be in contact. The friction coefficient “1” lies between 0.5 to 0.3. _Where the coefficient of friction 1 should be taken as follows:- 0.5 for class A surfaces. 0.4 for class B surfaces. 0.3 for class C surfaces. H u B c The friction coefficient p. of the different classes is based on the following treatments: In class A: - Surfaces are blasted with shot or grit with any loose rust removed, no painting. - Surfaces are blasted with shot or grit and spray metalized with Aluminum. - Surfaces are blasted with shot or grit and spray metalized with a Zinc based coating. In class B: - Surfaces are blasted with shot or grit and painted with an alkali-zinc silicate painting to produce a coating thickness of 50-80 um. In class C: ~ Surfaces are cleaned by wire brushing, or flame cleaning, with any loose rust removed.Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections 141 d- If the coatings other than specified are utilized, tests are required to determine the friction coefficient. The tests must ensure that the creep deformation of the coating due to both the clamping force of the bolt and the service load joint shear are such that the coating will provide satisfactory performance under sustained loading. 3- The safe frictional load (P,) The design frictional strength for a single bolt of either grade 8.8 or 10.9 with a single friction plane is derived by multiplying the bolt shank pretension T by the friction coefficient 1 using an appropriate safety factor y as follows: Py=pT/y 4-16 Where: T is axial pretensioning force in the bolt, is friction coefficient, is safety factor with regard to slip, = 1.25 and 1.05 for cases of loading I and II respectively for ordinary steel. = 1.6 and 1.35 for case of loading I and II respectively for parts of bridges, cranes and crane girders which are subjected mainly to dynamic loads Rr Table (4-4) gives the pretension force (T) and the permissible frictional load (P,) per one friction surface for bolts of grade 10.9.a € ‘0s Aq peonpes eq jyeys senjea evoge oy ‘ g'g epeiB ASH 404, Be Apitstd cLpzOs"Ww W%4(LO)=L as 5 [soe [aoe [vest [over [ese [exoz | veer [aver | ae [aris [ive Levon | sew =e [4oct[vorr | vor | core [over [crv | ever | oct tiz Teese | i961 oz | oc 5G [ozo] cos | see | eee [ever [ost [cow] see] ust preac | esr [ers | sw = G 2z'e | v6'9 | es‘9 | sss | 09°01 | ose v8 Ws 401 | ezzz| ese | zs | pzw BS | sox | eee [ses [ure | ove | coz | azz | ore] ve | eo: | coe | one | cen 3s e b's | cep | ose | see | 9e2 | 29 oes | cer zo | ssh | sre | wie | OzWw oe 99'¢ | 60's | 26% | Lyz bly | see | zee | ove ue 686 | ZSb Loz | SLW 3 8 séb | sot | asp | zen | zoz wee Loz | 69°F ze 6z's | vs'o | ehh | Zin a3 Wl 1 WW 1 i U i 1 - = ga Bujpeoj jo saseg Bulpeoy jo sese gels ee €s oat) Wo=t) o=") Wor) 125 | Soe Se | Be |g am ss0s3s | vreveccis | ss-053s | przpeze is B= gE sses/ssle E 5: Saueig pue sobpug womieasheupio | 53 | s"o gg | se | 8 Fe ‘Su0} (a) eDe}INg UORILY gy je 8 * = BUD 48d HOG OUO J0 peo’ VON aiqissiueg = a a Steel Structures Design Table (4-4) 142Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections 143 4-15 CLASSIFICATION OF PRETENSIONED BOLTS ACCORDING TO STRAINING ACTIONS 1- _ Pretensioned bolts subjected to shear force only. 2- Pretensioned bolts subjected to tension force only. 3- _ Pretensioned bolts subjected to tension and shear forces. 4- Pretensioned bolts subjected to shear force and torsional moment. 5- Pretensioned bolts subjected to tension force, shear force and bending. 4-15-1 Pretensioned Bolts Subjected to Shear Force The force acting perpendicular to center line of bolts will cause shear on bolts. The actual shear force in the bolt should not exceed the value of P, given in Table (4-4), bot = F/ni = ....... tons Ps a me tT: (Group of Bolts ay | pee. Te 4-15-2 Pretensioned Bolts Subjected to Tension The force acting parallel to center line of bolts will cause tension on bolts. The group of bolts “n;” must be checked so that the external force in the bolt does not exceed 60 % of the pretension force “T” .144 _ Steel Structures Design Group of Rolte|| | Group of Botts t i eee ' logs Tet =Tension/m,=......ton<0.6T 9 ----n------------- ~~ 4-78 Where: ny is the total number of bolts resisting the external tension force (Text). 4-15-3 Pretensioned Bolts Subjected to Tension and Shear Force 1, When the group of bolts “ny” is subjected to shear force “F” the actual shear force in bolt (per shear plane) should not exceed the values of “P,”. 2. When the group of bolts nz is subjected to the combined action of shear force Q and tensile force the following must be satisfied: Tex/n $ 0.6 T from normal force . 4419 Qext / ny $ Ps (1-(Text/02)/T) - 4.20Chapter 4: Bolted Connections 145 Group of Bolts wy k oe F Bolts ny > Sima 416 EXECUTION OF HIGH STRENGTH PRETENSIONED BOLTS 4-16-1 Bolting Procedure and Execution Bolts may be tightened by calibrated wrenches, which can indicate either the applied torque or the angle of rotation of the nut. 1- For the first method, torque wrenches which have a cut-out: device to limit the required amount of the applied torque must be employed. Wrenches may be of the manual, pneumatic, or clectric-type. The torque “M,” (Table 4-4) required to induce the pretensioning force “T” shall be calculated as follows: Moskdts Bo vee 421 Where: M, is the applied torque, k is acoefficient (about 0.2 for all bolt diameters), d__ is the diameter of bolt, and T is the bolt pretension force. 2- The second method of tightening is based on a predetermined rotation of the nut. The tightening can be achieved in different ways as follows: a- The parts to be joined are first brought into contact by making the bolts snug tight by a few impacts of an impact146 __ Steel Structures Design wrench. Following this initial step each nut is tightened one half turn. b- The bolt is first tightened using a wrench until the several plies of the joint achieve a “ snug fit” after which the nut is further tumed by the amount:- a=90°+t+d Where: a is the rotation in degrees, t is the total thickness of connected parts in mm, and d is the bolt diameter in mm. 4-16-2 Preparation of Contact Surfaces The contact surfaces must be free from dust, oil, paint, etc. Spots of oil cannot be removed by flame cleaning without leaving harmful residues, and must be removed by chemical means. It is sufficient to remove any film of rust or other loose material by brushing with a soft steel brush. 4-16-3 Protection Against Corrosion Parts to be joined with high strength bolts of the friction type must be protected against corrosion, by suitable protection against entry of humidity between the contact surfaces as well as the bolt holes. For structural components, where the contact surfaces have been prepared for a prestressing process, and are stored for long periods, there is a risk of rusting. An inspection regarding the coefficient of friction is essential. 4-16-4 Inspection 4-16-4-1 Tensioning Force One of the following two procedures may be adopted to check that the specified torque “M,” has been applied:- 1- The bolt is turned a further 10° for which at least the specified torque has to be applied.Chapter 4: Bolted Connections 147 2- The position of the nut on the bolt which is to be checked is marked. The bolt is then held firmly and the nut is unscrewed by 1/6 of a complete turn. To turn the nut back to its original Position, it must be necessary to apply the specified torque. 4-16-4-2 Friction Coefficient Check It is desirable to make random checks of the friction coefficient achieved by surface preparation. 4-17 EXAMPLES ON HIGH STRENGTH PRETENSIONED BOLTED CONNECTIONS Example 4.6 Design the connections shown in figure using pretensioned bolts (friction type) grade (10.9), 16 mm diameter. Gusset plate thickness is 10 mm. 2L70x70x7 2L.70x70x7 : =18ton -14ton H wey \ uD : : < So, -3tdn : ‘ GER 1 B04B0xE Ns : \ DEON. ay. NOS | : we) ap @ $ ! 20ton 18ton i : 2L80x80x8 2L.70x70x7 5 160 Solution: For M16 (Grade 10.9): A= 1.57 cm’, P,=3.16 t and, T=9.89 t148 __ Steel Structures Design ny = Force/2P = 18/(2 x 3.16) = 2.85 taken 3 M16. Lower chord member L2: F=+20ton — 2Ls 80x80x8 np=Force/2P, = 20/(2 x 3.16) = 3.16 taken 4 M16 Upper chord members Ui&U>: F =-18 ton, -14 ton 2Ls 70x70x7 The two members have the same cross-section; the connection is a continuous connection, thus it is designed to transmit the bigger of the resultant of the two forces or the component of the force in the diagonal member. Resultant of chord member forces = 18- 14=4 ton controls Component of diagonal force = 1.5 * cos 51°= 0.94 ton n3 = Force/2P, = 4/(2 x 3.16) = 0.63 taken 2M16 Diagonal member Di: F=+2.0 ton 1L 70x70x7 n4= Force/P; = 2/3.16 = 0.63 taken 2M16 Diagonal member D2: F=41.5 ton IL 70x70x7 ns = Force/P, = 1.5/3.16 = 0.47 taken 2M16 Vertical member Vj: F=-3ton 2Ls 80x80x8 star-shaped ng = Force/P; = 3/3.16 = 0.95 taken 4M16Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections 149 Corrugated steel sheets 0.5 mm thick 2L 70x70x7 L80x8 [160 Purlin L 80x80x8 a — jee 9 Se ee “OL 80x80x8 T2E 70x70%7 '150__ Stee! Structures Design Example 4.7 Calculate the number of M16 pretensioned bolts (friction type) grade 10.9 required in the connections enclosed by dotted rectangle (Gusset plate 10 mm). 2L70x70x7 =10tor| 2 ©, thus, a= 0.8 Ry ="GF "dt min ="0.8%3.6"x1.6x = 4.61ton Ria = Ras = 4.02 ton (0.25x4.0) =4.02 ton Force 30 _ 7.5, more than 6 bolts, thus use splice Risa 4.02 plates. a- Using horizontal splice For member (1 Assume force to be transmitted by splice plate F"= F,/2 = 24/2 =12t 2 2 Ress = 025%) = 2D 0.25440) =2.01 ton Assume end distance > 2 ©, thus, a= 0.8 Rp ="GFy"d2tmin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x0.8 =3.68ton Rieast = the least from Rss and Ry =2.01 t N\ splice = F /Rieast = 12/2.01 = 5.97 taken 6M16 Force transmitted by gusset plate F"= F,/2 = 24/2 =12t 2 2 Rig= 2.7 (025%) #2. ao Assume end distance > 2 ®, thus, a= 0.8 Ry ="aFy"d.Etmin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x1 =4.61ton Recast = the least from Ras and Ry= 4.02 t NY gusset = F’/Rieast = 12,/ 4.02 = 2.98 taken 3M16 (0.25x4.0) = 4.02 tonChapter 4: Bolted Connections 161 Form 2) Force to be transmitted by splice plate F’= F\/2 = 24/2 =12t Np splice = M1 splice = OM16 Force transmitted by gusset plate F"=F,-F* rau 12 = 18t 2 Ras = pe (0.25Fy,) = 2.202 0.2540) =4.02 ton Assume end distance > 2 ©, thus, a = 0.8 Rp ="aF,"d.2tmin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x1 = 4.61ton Rieast = the least from Ras and Ry= 4.02 t To gusset = F""/Ricast = 18/4.02 =4.5 taken SM16 Consider the splice plate thickness > the angle thickness = 10 mm Check of stresses in splice plate fact = Force /net area = 12/ {[2 x8 + 1.0)- 2x (1.6 +0.2)] x 1.0} = 0.9 vom? < 0,58F, = 1.4 vom? HORIZONTAL SPLICE b- Using vertical splice For member (1 Assume force to be transmitted by splice plate and gusset plate F) = 24t162 __ Steel Structures Design 2 2 Rut 42 025%) ~4 BOD 0.25x40) =8.04 Assume end distance > 2 ©, thus, a= 0.8 Ry ="GFy"d.Et min ="0.8X3.6"X1.6x1.6 =7.37 ton Recast = the least from Ry4s and Ry = 7.37 t DI splice & gusset = F1/Ricast =24/7.37= 3.2 taken 4M16 For member (2) Force to be transmitted by splice plate F;= 24t N2 splice = 1 splice = 4M16 Force ce by gusset plate F'=F)- S308 24=6t 2 FRY sa 22 ame) =2, — (0.25x4.0) =4.02t Assume end distance > 2 ®, thus, a = 0.8 Rp ="aFy"d.2tmin ="0.8x3.6"x1.6x1 = 4.61ton Riaast = the east fom Rag and y= 4.02 1 gusset = F”"/Ricat =6/4.02 = 1.49 taken 2M16 Consider the splice plate thickness > the angle thickness = 10 mm Check of stresses in splice plate fact = Force per one splice plate / net area = (122) / {(0.8 x8)~1 x (1.6 + 0.2)) x 1.0) = 1.3 Hem? < 0.58Fy = 1.4 tem’ VERTICAL SPLICEChapter 4 : Bolted Connections _163 Example 4.1 Calculate the number of bolts required for the splice of the shown figure using pretensioned bolts (grade 10.9) 16 mm diameter. Gusset plate thickness is 10 mm. F,=36t & F, = 42t 2L 100x100x10 eL 90x90X9 Solution: For bolts grade 10.9 = 3.16t =+ 36 ton 2Ls 90x90x9 42 ton 2Ls 100x100x10 Force 36 2Ps force 42. 2Ps 2x3.16 = 6.64, more than 6 bolts, thus use splice plates. a- Using horizontal splice For member (1 Assume force to be transmitted by splice plate F'= F)/2 = 36/2 =18 t Th splice = F'/P, = 18/3.16 = 5. 69 taken 6M16 Force transmitted by gusset plate F’'= F,/2 = 36/2 =18 t 1 gusset = F’/ 2P; = 18 / (2x3.16) = 2.85 taken 3M16 For member (2)164 Steel Structures Design Force to be transmitted by splice plate F'= F\/2 = 36/2 =18 t 12 splice = 1 splice = 6M16 Force transmitted by gusset plate F"=F)-F* = 42-18 = 24t M2 gusset = F”"/2P = 24/(2x3.16) = 3.8 taken 4M16 HORIZONTAL SPLICE Consider the splice plate thickness > the angle thickness = 10 mm Check of stresses in splice plate fact = Force / gross area (pretensioned bolts) = 18/ { (2x 9+ 1.0) x 1.0 } = 0.95 tem? < 0.58Fy = 1.4 tem” b- Using vertical splice For member (1) Assume force to be transmitted by splice plate and gusset plate F 11 spice = F1/4P, =36/(4x3.16) = 2.85 taken 3M16 for member (2 Force to be transmitted by splice plate F, = 36t Ny splice = Nt splice = 3M16 Force transmitted by gusset plateChapter 4: Bolted Connections _ 165 N2 gusset = F”"/2P, =6/(2x3.16) = 0.95 taken M16 Consider the splice plate thickness > the angle thickness =-10 inm Check of stresses in splice plate face = Force per one splice plate / gross area (pretensioned bolts) = (18/2)/{ 0.9x9+ 1.0) x 1.0} = 1.3 vom? < 0.58Fy = 1.4 tem? i re< 2 [ele 2 Ses) 2L 100x100X10 | — 2L 90x90K9 ae ee VERTICAL SPLICE166 _Steel Structures Design 4-19 ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS 4-19-1 Analysis of Eccentric Connections Generally, when the eccentricity of the load on a bolt group is less than about 50 mm, it is neglected. Joints such as the simple frame connection, which is widely used, are in this category. The bracket connection of figure 4.33 is loaded with an eccentricity that is obviously too large to be neglected. The framed beam connection may be large enough that the resulting eccentricity is also too large to neglect. Fig. 4.33 Bracket Connection 4-19-2 Eccentric Connections Made of Non-pretensioned (Ordinary) Bolts 4-19-2-1 _ Non-pretensioned Bolts Subjected to Shear Force and Torsional Moment 4-19-2-1-1 Definition This type of eccentric connection is resulted when the line of action of load lies in the plane of the group of bolts such as the bracket connection supporting the crane girder shown in figure 4.34 and the bolts connecting the web in the beam splice shown in figure 4.35.Chapter 4: Bolted Connections _167 0 $+ ¢ 4 4 oe Fig. 4.34 Bracket Connection Supporting Crane Girder ++ pee to pte te ypee + epee epee ee pee ole e eelee + eles Fig. 4.35 Splice of Beams168 _ Steel Structures Design 4-19-2-1-2 Design Procedure 1- Assume the number of bolts and define the center of gravity of this group: X =ZAy.x/EZAG y =A, y/ZAG 2. Straining actions: The group of bolts is subjected to the following straining actions Qa =Px where Py =H/2 Q =Py where Py=P/2 Mr = Px.ey + Py.ex 3- Effect of shear force: The shear forces is distributed equally on the group of bolts H =Q/n Vo =Q/n Where n = no of bolts 4- Effect of torsional moment: The shear force in bolts due to torsional moment M; is calculated according to the distance between each bolt and the center of gravity of the group of bolts: Fyft = Fo/t=Fo/t3 = .....=Fo/ta= constant | \ Thus F) = Fy o/ 1 | Fa= Fy y/t : A Since M, = Fyary + Fo.ty + F3.13 + ....0+ Fata M =F2r/n => FL =Mr/Er Br =Ze7+y) Fy H, =F, sind=M,r/Er sind =My/2r y: Vi =F) cos® =Myr/EP cin® = MyEr x1 y The total force on the outermost bolt is: Re =H+Hi Ry =Vt+Vi R= JR? +R? 4) cmb geo & 2- Calculate the straining actions affecting the group of bolts Ts M= +] 4 Q= sl fg Whale Ts | +] +i] 4 3- Assume the number of bolts with © | pitch of (3-4) ©172 _ Steel Structures Design 4- Get the position of neutral axis Assume x = H/6 Acsr= 0.7 (n67/4) ay bx/2=2 Acer [V1 =x) + (92-¥) + (Ys -x) H.-J =0 x=....Cm 5- Calculate the inertia of the virtual section Ty= bx'/3 + Acer [(Y1 = x)? + (Yo = x)*+ (ys - x) +...] 6- Calculate the maximum tensile stress in the bolt fu = Tn 0.7 29°/4) + M.(y1 - xy 7- Calculate the maximum shear stress in the bolt qi = Q/[n Ag] 8- Apply in interaction equation (fa/Fany? + (qu/aan)? <1 Fan = 0.33 Fup qa = 0.25 Fyp or 0.2 Fyy depend on type of bolt 9- Check compression stresses on plate f=M.x/ly $0.72 Fy tem? 4-19-2-4 Examples on Non-Pretensioned Bolts Example 4-11 Design the connection shown in the figure using non-pretensioned bolts M20 grade (4.6). Wheel loads on crane girder are 8t each. Spacing between columns (s = 6 m). Bt Bt 18Chapter 4 : Bolted Connections _173 5 sR T ! | (2021 tPE300 ter tt = i re i Pe a a h BE > : t | 4 2Channel ! hot I! q Hl _ 400, Solution Ro= Wo. x = 0.142 x 6=0.852t Py=Ror + Qu (1+) = 0.852 + 13.6 x 1.25 =17.85t Px= 1/10 Qu = 1.36t Assume h = 1.25 x 400 = 500 mm st Bt Qe13.6t 6m Straining actions Q=Py/2= 1.36/2 = 0.68 t Q,=P,/2 = 17.85/2 = 8.93 t M, = 8.93 (0.2 + 0.2) + 0.68 (0.30 + 0.5/2) = 3.946¢174 _ Steel Structures Design Maximum force acting on bolt (1) Er = 12 (15)° + 4 (4 + 12? +207) = 4940 cm? Qin + M.y/Er* 0.68/12 + 3.946 x 100 x 20 /4940 1.65t Ry=Qyin+ M,xy/EP = 8.93/12 + 3.946 x 100 x 15/4940 =1.94t Ri= (1.65)? +0.94)? =255¢ Res = AX q5x 1.2 =nx2/4x0.25x4x12 =3.77t >R:=2.55t R Example 4-12 Design the previous example using pretensioned (high strength bolts) M20 grade (8.8). Solution Rot=WoixS = 0.142 x 6=0.852t Py=Ror+ Qu (1+D = 0.852 + 13.6 x 1.25=17.85t Px= 1/10 Qi =1.36t Assume h = 1.25 x 400 = 500 mm. Straining actions Qx = Py/2 = 1.36/2 = 0.68 t Qy=Py/2 = 17.85/2 = 8.93 t M, = 8.93 (0.2 + 0.2) + 0.68 (0.30+ 0.5/2) = 3.946tChapter 4 : Bolted Connections _175 Maximum force acting on bolt (1) Br = 12 (15) +4 (4? + 12? +207) = 4940 cm? Rx=Qd/n+M.yV/Er = 0.68/12 + 3.946 x 100 x 20 /4940 = 1.65t Ry=Q/n+M.x/Er = 8.93/12 + 3.946 x 100 x 15/4940 = 1.94 Ry = (1.65)? +1.94)? =2.55 t = 20 x 6.573/3 + 2 x 2.2 [(41 - 6.57) + (33 - 6.57)" (26 — 6.57)Chapter 4: Bolted Connections 177 + (19- 6.57)" + (12 - 6.57] 1, = 12650.75 om’ 5- Calculate the maximum tensile stress in the bolt fu =M.Qn - x), = 4.5 x 100 x 34.43/12650.75 = 1.22 t/om? 6- Calculate the maximum shear stress in the bolt a= V/[n Ay] = 2(12 x mx 27/4) = 0.053 tiem? 7- Apply in interaction equation (fu/Fan)? + (Qu/qan)? <1 (1.22/0.33 x 4)? + (0.053/0.25 x 4)? = 0.857 <1 safe where, Fon = 0.33 Fup dau = 0.25 Fup 2 Check compression stress on plate f&=Mx/ly $0.72 Fy = 4x 100 x 6.57 /12650.75 = 0.2 tiem? < 1.728 t/em? Example 4-14 Design the connection between main beam and column using non-pretensioned bolts M20 grade (4.6). 6 4mt Column )) ——1.4+t BFIB450 J \IPE270 270178 Steel Structures Design IPE270 fe : 0 \e * + e aa . e + peters] ete @ |" Se eae i, 200 Solution 1- Assume H=h+18cm 2. Assume the number of bolts n= 12 at pitch = 70 mm 3- Get the position of neutral axis Assume x = H/6 = 450/6 = 75 em Actr= 0.7 19°/4 = 0.7 x 0x 27/4 =2.2 cm? Smy= 0 bx/2—2 Acre [(y1 - x) + (Y2 - x) + (3 =) Ha - x) Hs - x) ]=0 20 x°/2 — 2 x 2.2 [(41 - x) + (33 - x) + (26 - x) + (19 - x) + (12 - x)] = Zero + 2.2 x -— 57.64 = Zero x=6.57 cm 4- Calculate the inertia of the virtual sectionChapter 4: Bolted Connections 179 T= bx + 2a [()1 = x)? + (y2 - x) (93 = x)? + (Vs 0? Hs - x] = 20 x 6573/3 + 2 x 2.2 [(41 — 6.57) + (33 — 6.5774 (26 — 6.57) +(19-6.57)P + (12-6.57)] Ty = 12650.75 om’ 5- Calculate the maximum tensile stress in the bolt fu = Ti(n 0.7 97/4) + M.(y; - x)/ly = 1.4(12x2.2) + 4 x 100 x 34.43/12650.75 = 1.14 tem? 6- Calculate the maximum shear stress in the bolt qi = Vn Ay] = 6/(12 x mx 27/4) = 0.16 them? y - Apply in interaction equation (u/Fan)? + (Qi/gan)? < 1 (1.14/0.33 x 4) + (0.16/0.25 x 4?=0.77 <1 safe where, hi Check compression stress on plate f&=Mx/ly $0.72 Fy = 4x 100 x 6.57 /12650.75 = 0.2 tem? < 1.728 tiem? 419-3 Eccentric Connections Made of Pretensioned (High Strength) Bolts 4-19-3-1_ Pretensioned Bolts Subjected to Shear Force and Torsional Moment In case of pretensioned bolts, the same procedure followed in case of non-pretensioned bolts is followed, except that the resultant force in the bolt R is checked to be less than the allowable shear force that can be carried by the pretensioned bolt “P,” instead of “Ricas” of the nom. pretensioned bolt,