Shear Streght Soils PDF

Unsaturated soils: definitions and notations
Saturation states
4.
3. Residual
1.
2. Partially
Saturatedsaturated
state
Quasi-saturated
state
state
•• SSr <
r= Vw / V = 1
0.1
•• Liquid
0.1 <<S
Liquid
0.85 phase
r <
phase
S 1isisdiscontinuous,
r <0.85
• air phase
Liquid and
continuous is air
phase continuous
isphases are
• both continuous
Possibility
continuous, ofair
negative
phase
pore
is discontinuous
water pressure
• The
uw<0fluid phase (gaz +
liquid) becomes
compressible
lyesse.laloui@epfl.ch
Unsaturated soils: definitions and notations
When the soil pores are filled by more than one fluid, e.g. water and air,
the porous material is termed unsaturated with respect to the wetting
fluid:
Gas, ua
Water, uw
Water, uw
Solid Solid
grains grains
Saturated Unsaturated
The matric suction s is defined as: s = (u a − u w )

Water retention curve
The water retention curve plots the evolution of the degree of saturation,
Sr, as a function of the matric suction.
Sr
1 2 3 4 1 2
1
Hydric
hysteresis
3 4
Sr(res)
• Sr(res) :Residual
se Ln s degree of saturation
Funicular Pendular • se : Air entry suction,

below which Sr =1
1. Hydric loading path
Idealized shape of the volumetric response(s):
Ln s
D D
Unsaturated
2 wetting
zone
1 drying
C se C’ C
C’ NC
B sB B Saturated
zone
A E OC E A
Sr 1 0 εvh
Isotropic mechanical loading path
εv A2
A1 B2
B1 Volumetric response
C2 to drained isotropic consolidation
C1
under three levels of applied
C3 suction, p = exterior load
B3
A3
Points A2, B2 and C2 delimit the
s Ln(p) elastic domain for each path
C1 C2 C3
They define a yield locus

B1 B2 B3 in (p-s) plane called
Loading Collapse (LC)
A1 A2 A3 yield curve
(Alonso et al., 1990 – BBM)
Ln(p)
Wetting collapse
p For given soils, a decrease in suction
D C can induce a collapse.
C’ A necessary condition to obtain plastic
compression on wetting is a preliminary
mechanical consolidation.
A B
LC curve Elastic domain
s
εv Swelling
Collapse
• AB: drying (p=const.)
A
• BC: mechanical consolidation
C’ B (s=const.)
• CC’: wetting – elastic swelling
C
D • C’D: wetting – plastic collapse
s
Variations in degree of saturation
p
The mechanical load may
F G
have an influence on the
degree of saturation, provided
that mechanical solicitations
induce elasto-plastic changes
E’ in the void ratio, and thus in
E
se Ln(s) the fluid volume fractions
Sr
F E • EE’E Drying-wetting (p=0)
• EF Mechanical consolidation
(Sr=const.=1)
S res G
E’ • FGF Drying wetting (p=const.)
se Ln(s)
Effective stress for a multiphase material
Extending Terzaghi’s proposal to unsaturated soils:

Effective stress
Gas, ua
Water, uw 2 Continuum
dσ 'ij = dσ ij − ∑ α β uβ δ ij solid
Solid β =1
Single-phase
Multi-phase description description
Bishop (1959) thus proposed writing the effective stress as:
σ ij′ = (σ ij − uaδ ij ) + χ (ua − uw )δ ij

Effective stress for a multiphase material
In Bishop’s equation, the effective stress parameter χ is

expressed as a function of Sr (involving volume ratios)
χ = f ( Sr )
Experimental
determination
The relation is
not unique for
all materials (adapted from
Jennings and
Burland 1962)
A possible approximation is:
χ = Sr (Schrefler 1984)
Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling
• Both the Bishop’s effective stress concept and the

independent stress framework allow the description of
the effect of suction on the mechanical behaviour
• For a complete description of the hydro-mechanical
coupling the Bishop’s effective stress is not sufficent.
1
Mechanical Advanced feature: Hydraulic
behaviour 2-sided coupling behaviour
2
3. Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling
Mechanical behaviour
• Stress and strain variables
stress strain rate
σ ij′ = (σ ij − paδ ij ) + Sr s ε&ij
• Modifications to the constitutive model:

1 - Use of a complete elasto-
plastic framework
Mechanical Hydraulic -The influence of suction on the
behaviour behaviour mechanical behaviour must be
taken into account 1
(e.g suction-induced hardening)
Hydraulic behaviour
The “mechanical model” needs to be completed:
• Evolution of Sr and s need to be known to obtain the effective stress
σ ij′ = (σ ij − uaδ ij ) + S r s
• A full description of the state of the material must include the hydric
behaviour :
Mechanical Hydraulic The hydraulic part undergoes

the influence of the mechanical
behaviour behaviour state (coupling 2 )
The work input rate study leads to work conjugate stress

variables and strain rates:
stresses strain rates
σ ij′ = (σ ij − paδ ij ) + Sr s ε&ij Mechanical

behaviour
s = pa − pw S&r
Hydraulic
behaviour
In this combination, if Bishop’s generalised effective stress is

choosed for the mechanical part, the stress variable for the hydric part
is the matric suction
A constitutive model for unsaturated soils
ACMEG - S
In this section, a constitutive model is presented, taking into
account the typical features of behaviour listed below:
Effects of suction on mechanical response:
- Increase of preconsolidation pressure
- Decrease of compressibility
- Increase of shear strength
1
Mechanical Coupled elasto- Hydraulic

behaviour plastic framework behaviour
2
Effect of mechanical state on hydric response
- Shifting of the water retention curve
ACMEG - S
Referring to previous discussion, the following stress framework is

adopted:
Stresses work conjugate strain rates
σ ij′ = (σ ij − uaδ ij ) + S r s ε&ij

(Bishop’s generalised effective stress) (soil skeleton strain)
s S&r
(matric suction) (degree of saturation)
The model is formulated within the framework of hardening plasticity

The strain rate is decomposed into an elastic and a plastic part:
ε&ij = ε&ij + ε&ij
e p
Isotropic stress paths
ACMEG - S
εvm (a) s (b) ψ(s)
D1 D2 D3
A1 A2
C1 C2 C1 C2 C3
D2
D1
κm/(1+e0) A1 A2 A3
λm/(1+e0) D3 se E
A3 C3 LC yield curve
Ln p' p'c0 p'
Under this type of loading, i.e. mechanical load at constant level of
suction, the strain rate is elastic-plastic:
εv = εv + εv
& & &
m me m p
The parallel representation of experimental results in (ε v − ln p ')

and ( s − p ') planes lets appear the existence of a yield curve.
Isotropic stress paths : LC yield curve
ACMEG - S
Comparison between numerical and experimental results

pc′ ( s ) = pc′ 0 for 0 < s < se
⎡ ⎛ s ⎞⎤
pc′ ( s ) = pc′ 0 ⎢1 + γ s log ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ for s > se
⎣ ⎝ se ⎠ ⎦
400 100
350
(Sharma 1998) 90 (Kane 1973)
Bentonite/kaolin mix loess
80
300
70
250
60
s (kPa)
s (kPa)
200 50
40
150
30 EXP
100 EXP
20 model
model
50 10
0
0
0 100 200 300 400
0 50 100 150
P' (kPa) P' (kPa)
LC Curve: behaviour under hydric loading
ACMEG - S
Ln s Ln s
D D LC curve
Elastic
zone
se C’ se C’ C
C
B
E B
E A
A
p'c0 p' εvh
• Path AB : ( 0<s<se , Sr=1 ) initially overconsolidated material.
Drying equivalent to mechanical load and provokes elastic deformations.
• Path BC: (0<s<se , Sr=1 ) plasticity threshold reached, yielding on LC
• Path CD : (0<s<se , Sr=1) - partial saturation state,
p’c increases faster than σ’, so the deformations are reversible.
• Path DE : upon wetting, fully reversible behaviour
LC curve: swelling collapse mechanisms
ACMEG - S
s A The path followed is a wetting on a
sA initially consolidated material.
sB B LC curve Elastic zone

sC C • Path AB : The stress state
se remains inside the elastic domain.
σ ′ = σ net + χ s
Ln(p') .
εv if s , then σ’ , so ε .
B A
• Path BC: The yield limit is reached
on point B. Further wetting provokes
C a yielding on the LC curve. The only
sA possible straining is a plastic
sC sB compression to reach point C.
Ln(p')
Deviatoric stress paths
The modified Cam-clay model (Schofield and Wroth, 1968; Roscoe
and Burland, 1968) is extended to unsaturated states by substituting
Terzaghi’s effective stress by Bishop’s generalised effective stress.
• The deviatoric yield surface is simply expressed as follows:

f = q − M p ′( pc′ ( s ) − p ′) = 0
2 2
which includes the effects of suction such as the increase p’c with s
• The critical state line is assumed unique in (p’-q) plane and obeys
the relation: q = Mp ′
• The elastic part of the deviatoric strain increment is simply written:

q& with G being the elastic shear coefficient
ε&d =
e
(assumed independent on suction)
3G
Deviatoric stress paths
ACMEG - S
Graphical representation of the yield surface
ACMEG - S
Modelling the hydraulic behaviour :
(σ ′, ε ) ( s, S r )
Mechanical
Mechanical Hydraulic
behaviour
behaviour behaviour
2
• The aim of the second part of the model is the description of the evolution
of the hydraulic stress and strain variables, respectively s and Sr.
Model for the soil water retention curve (SWRC)
• The mechanical influence on the hydric state is introduced by the HM
coupling
Modelling the soil water retention curve
ACMEG - S
Hydraulic behaviour – Hydric hysteresis

Sr Sr
B
1 A C
MODEL
Sr(res) Sr(res) E D
se Ln s se sd sw Ln s
• ••AB:
CD:
•DE: Main
Maindrying
Saturated
EB: Reversible part, 0<s<se
curve
slope,
wetting curveKh , Sr = constant = 1.
s is called the drying yield suction, S d = S at point C
sw(unsaturated
is the wettingstate)
d yields Reversible w
suction, Sr slope
=Sr atr point Er
log = β h ( S r − S r )
• BC: d
& ⎛ s ⎞
−ββhh((Smodulus
Sr r−−SSrdrW) ) K h ( s ) = K h 0 ⎜⎜ s
s s s ⎟⎟
S&r = logsthe
log
with d ==
elastic
K h (s) sWsd ⎝ ref ⎠
Coupling with mechanical part
ACMEG - S
Sr
Sr
A B
C
e1<e0
e0 D
Sr(res) Sr(res) E
se Ln s se1 se2 Ln s
The mechanical straining of the material may cause the water retention
curve to be shifted right.
Shifting of water retention curve piloted by the air entry value se, which is
dependent on the volumetric strain:
Mechanical state εv se(εvp) (Sr-s) relation
Mass and momentum balances
Water/solid mass balance
⎛ n ∂S w n ∂ρ w ⎞ ∂p w n ∂S w ∂p g
⎜⎜ w + w ⎟
w ⎟
− w +
⎝ S ∂s ρ ∂p ⎠ ∂t S ∂s ∂t
neglected for two-
⎛ k rw K ⎞
phase modeling ∇ • v +∇ • ⎜⎜ w (∇p − ρ g )⎟⎟ = 0
s w w
⎝ µ ⎠
Air/solid mass balance ⎛ n ∂Sw n ∂ρg ⎞ ∂pg n ∂Sw ∂p w
⎜⎜ + g g ⎟⎟ − +
⎝ 1 − S ∂s ρ ∂p ⎠ ∂t 1 − S ∂s ∂t
w w
⎛ k ra K ⎞
∇ • v +∇ • ⎜⎜ g (∇p − ρ g)⎟⎟ = 0
s g g
⎝ µ ⎠
Momentum balance
of the three-phase ∇•[σ' - Sw pwI - (1- Sw) pg I] + ρg = 0
mixture
Content
Introduction to Geomechanics
• Introduction – standard approach
• Effective stress concept
• Soil constitutive behaviour
• Seepage
Advanced Geomechanics for Landslides

• Hydro-Mechanical coupling
• Unsaturated soils
• Finite elements simulations
Predicting time-dependent
(Trisenberg) landslide
Location
Principality of Liechtenstein
Slope in the Rhine valley : 5 km2
The infratructures of Triesen and

Triesenberg are subject to
significant damage induced by
the movements during critical
periods
The major difficulties in

modelling the Triesenberg
landslide are related to the huge
area of instability, the
4 km
unsaturated conditions of the
slope and the relatively low
velocity of the movements.
Location
24°
1.5 km
3 km
Two main parts : Deeper-seated slope movement : 1.7 km2 - 74 Mio m3

Active slide : 3.1 km2 – 37 Mio m3
Mean inclination : 24°
Mean depth : 10 to 20 m
Kinematic
Sliding mass
Slip surface
Bedrock
Mean term velocity of the surface movements Inclinometric profile
Surface movement : Medium term (> 20 years) From 0,5 to 3 cm per year
Short term (+/- 1 year) From 0,1 to 4 cm per year
Exceptionally (< 1 month) Until 6 cm per year
Vertical distribution of movement : A well-defined slip surface
Morphology
-Three distinct active zones

-The general shape of the whole instability phenomena is curved while the directions
of the movement vectors are almost parallel
-Three bowl-shaped parts in the in-depth profile of the slide along a transversal
Three quasi-independant landslides
cross-section (this should correspond to the BC of each independent slide)
-The damages on infrastructures and buildings are mainly concentrated along the
region corresponding to the crests
Hydrogeology
Hydraulic input from Valüna

Valley
Direct infiltration
Double feeding system in
piezometric observations
Tacher et al.
Water table is about 20 m to 30 m below the soil surface at the top of

The upper part : “Buntsandstein” sandstone, schists and limestones
the landslide, whereas at the bottom, it almost reaches the surface
The lower part : Austroalpine Triesen Flysh (clayey schists)
The: landslide takes Rhine
Toe place river
in unsaturated
alluvia conditions for a large part of its profile
2D modelling : [2000 crisis modelling] – 2 main actives zones
Zone clearly observable on the map of the
average annual displacements
Continuous inclinometer B5
Initial time Inclinometer KL1A
Inclinometer KL1A (Trend)
1st January 2000
Numerical modelling • Good agreement with the
8
general trend
Displacements [cm]
4 • The measured values are

higher than the simulated ones
2
0
May/15/2000
Nov/15/1999
Sep/15/2000
Mar/15/2000
Jan/15/2000
Jul/15/2000
Date
3D modelling : [2000 crisis modelling]
D is pla ce m e n ts
D isplacem e nts D isplacem e nts
P o re w ater pre ssure
P ore w a ter pre ssure P ore w ater pre ssure 15 60
7 100 50 40
Pore water pressure [kPa]

6 90
April August of the movements
• Qualitatively, the simulated

40 distribution 20 is fairly similar50to the 12
Displacements [mm]
Displacements [mm]
Displacements [mm]
5 80
measured
4 values (by survey
70 30 and GPS) of annual
0 displacement 40 9
3 60
20 -20 6 30
2 50
• The
1 modelling results40 exhibit
10
one main active -40
zone within each slide, which
20
is fairly 3
small
0
in size 30
0 -60 10
-1 20 0
0 50 10 0 150 20 0 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 20 0 25 0 30 0
T im e [d a ys] Tim e [days] T im e [d a ys]
Elastic reversible behaviour Elasto-plastic (irreversible) behaviour

Stabilizing La Frasse landslide
Characteristics of the landslide
Instabilities induced by :
• Hydraulic pore pressures (crises)
• Viscosity of the materials (between crises)
Background
Evolution of the observed displacements of three points A, B, C on La
Frasse Landslide and of rainfall (monthly and 6-month running mean
values). The shaded triangular bands represent the range of long-term
average velocity characterizing the zones in which points A, B and C are
located.
Hydro-Mechanical Modelling
1890 m
433 m
406.3 kN/m
2D Mesh: 1694 nodes, 1530 elements

Six layers with different mechanical
characteristics
600.0 kN/m
Main assumptions:
• Hydro-mechanical coupled formulation
• Darcy’s law for the fluid phase + saturated media + K = f(porosity)
• Cyclic elasto-plastic + viscoplastic constitutive laws (Mohr-Coulomb,
Cap, Hujeux)
Comparison between two constitutive laws: cyclic elasto-
plastic model (Hujeux) and elasto-perfectly plastic model
(Mohr-Coulomb)
• Crisis 94 – 300 days 2
• Displacement point 1
1
Horizontal displacement Vertical displacement

Horizontal displacement [m]
0.25 0.04
Vertical displacement [m]

0.2 0.02 M-C
0.15 Hujeux EP
0
0.1 -0.02
0.05 M-C
-0.04
0 -0.06
Point 1 Point 1 Hujeux EP
-0.05 -0.08
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time [Days] Time [Days]
Influence of drainage pumping
1

5 0.2

4 Without pumping 0
-0.2 With pumping
3 -0.4
2 -0.6
-0.8
1
Point 1 With pumping -1 Point 1
Without pumping
0 -1.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Influence of drainage pumping
1

0.4 0.1

Without pumping
0.3
0.05 Without pumping
0.2
0
0.1 With pumping
-0.05 With pumping
0
Point 2 Point 2
-0.1 -0.1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Conclusion Conclusions
• Natural slopes represent complex phenomena
to model, both in space and time
• Strong need for numerical analysis
• Multiphase coupled formulation and
unsaturated soil mechanics may significantly
improve the modelling
• Advanced 3D FEM analysis is confirmed to be
a useful tool for the design and selection of
risk mitigation strategies
ConclusionRecent publications
• François B., L. Tacher, C. Bonnard, L Laloui, V. Triguero. “Numerical modelling of

the hydrogeological and geomechanical behaviour of a large slope movement: The
Triesenberg landslide (Liechtenstein)”. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, vol. 44,
pp. 840-857, 2007.
• Nuth M., Laloui L. “Effective Stress Concept in Unsaturated Soils: Clarification and
Validation of a Unified Framework”. International Journal of Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics (in press), 2007.
• Charlier R, L. Laloui, F. Collin ”Numerical modelling of coupled poromechanics

processes”. REGC (European Journal of Civil Engineering), Volume 10, N°6-7, pp.
669-702, 2006.
• Laloui L., M. Nuth. ”An introduction to the constitutive modelling of unsaturated

soils”. REGC (European Journal of Civil Engineering), Volume 9, N°5-6, pp. 651-
670, 2005.
• Tacher L., C. Bonnard, L. Laloui, A. Parriaux. "Modelling the behaviour of a large

landslide with respect to hydrogeological and geomechanical parameter
heterogeneity". Landslides journal. Vol. 2, N°1, pp. 3-14, 2005.
Conclusion Course Notes
Could be obtained at : www.lelivre.ch
• Laloui L. "Mechanics of Porous Media". Course notes -

Doctoral programme of Mechanics - EPFL, 2006. 122
pages.
• Laloui L. "Ecoulements souterrains". Course notes for
students of the Civil Engineering Section of the EPFL,
2002 (new edition in 2007). 114 pages.
• Laloui L. "Seepage and Consolidation in Tunnelling".
Course notes – Master of Advanced Studies in
Tunnelling - EPFL, 2007 (95 pages).
• Laloui L. "Groundwater Flows Interacting with
Structures". Course notes for the Advanced-level
courses in hydraulic schemes, EPFL 2001.

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Unsaturated soils: definitions and notations

The matric suction s is defined as: s = (u a − u w )

Funicular Pendular • se : Air entry suction,

Idealized shape of the volumetric response(s):

They define a yield locus

Extending Terzaghi’s proposal to unsaturated soils:

Bishop (1959) thus proposed writing the effective stress as:

σ ij′ = (σ ij − uaδ ij ) + χ (ua − uw )δ ij

In Bishop’s equation, the effective stress parameter χ is

• Both the Bishop’s effective stress concept and the

• Stress and strain variables

stress strain rate

σ ij′ = (σ ij − paδ ij ) + Sr s ε&ij

• Modifications to the constitutive model:

The “mechanical model” needs to be completed:

• Evolution of Sr and s need to be known to obtain the effective stress

Mechanical Hydraulic The hydraulic part undergoes

The work input rate study leads to work conjugate stress

stresses strain rates

σ ij′ = (σ ij − paδ ij ) + Sr s ε&ij Mechanical

In this combination, if Bishop’s generalised effective stress is

Mechanical Coupled elasto- Hydraulic

Referring to previous discussion, the following stress framework is

Stresses work conjugate strain rates

σ ij′ = (σ ij − uaδ ij ) + S r s ε&ij

The model is formulated within the framework of hardening plasticity

The parallel representation of experimental results in (ε v − ln p ')

Comparison between numerical and experimental results

sB B LC curve Elastic zone

• The deviatoric yield surface is simply expressed as follows:

• The elastic part of the deviatoric strain increment is simply written:

Graphical representation of the yield surface

Modelling the hydraulic behaviour :

Hydraulic behaviour – Hydric hysteresis

Mechanical state εv se(εvp) (Sr-s) relation

Advanced Geomechanics for Landslides

Slope in the Rhine valley : 5 km2

The infratructures of Triesen and

The major difficulties in

Two main parts : Deeper-seated slope movement : 1.7 km2 - 74 Mio m3

Mean term velocity of the surface movements Inclinometric profile

-Three distinct active zones

Hydraulic input from Valüna

Water table is about 20 m to 30 m below the soil surface at the top of

4 • The measured values are

Pore water pressure [kPa]

• Qualitatively, the simulated

Elastic reversible behaviour Elasto-plastic (irreversible) behaviour

• Hydraulic pore pressures (crises)

• Viscosity of the materials (between crises)

2D Mesh: 1694 nodes, 1530 elements

Horizontal displacement Vertical displacement

Vertical displacement [m]

Horizontal displacement Vertical displacement

Vertical displacement [m]

Horizontal displacement Vertical displacement

Vertical displacement [m]

• François B., L. Tacher, C. Bonnard, L Laloui, V. Triguero. “Numerical modelling of

• Charlier R, L. Laloui, F. Collin ”Numerical modelling of coupled poromechanics

• Laloui L., M. Nuth. ”An introduction to the constitutive modelling of unsaturated

• Tacher L., C. Bonnard, L. Laloui, A. Parriaux. "Modelling the behaviour of a large

• Laloui L. "Mechanics of Porous Media". Course notes -

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