SERIE ORIENTALE ROMA CII KAYD STUDIES IN HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY IN MEMORY OF DAVID PINGREE Edited by Gherardo Gnoli and Antonio Panaino ROMA ISTITUTO ITALIANO PER L’AFRICA E L'ORIENTE 2009TAKANoRI KUusuBa GEOMETRICAL DEMONSTRATIONS. IN SANSKRIT TEXTS 0. Introduction ‘The Euclidean proof of the Pythagorean theorem in the Elements proposition 1. 47 applies the congruency of two obtuse triangles, In the proof, the concept of angle is indispensable. Indian mathematics, however, did not have a conception of angle; in Sanskrit mathematical texts a triangle is called tribhuja (trilateral, literally three-arm), and a right triangle Jatyaksetra (well-born figure); a square is called samacaturasra, meaning that which has four equal sides/edges. The Sanskrit base texts such as the Lildyati consist of stanzas to be learnt by heart, and do not give proofs. A ey to investigating how Indian mathematicians proved the Pythagorean theorem is reading the commentaries on the base texts. The investigation of Sanskrit commentaries shows also how Indian mathematicians gave the geometrical demonstration of the quadratic equation. The procedure is Aifferent from the geometrical proofs given by Arabic mathematicians such as Abi Kamil, who applied propositions 5-6 of Book two in the Elements’ In this paper I survey what Bhiiskara II discussed about the Pythagorean theorem in his Sanskrit works, and read an excerpt from a Sanskrit ‘commentary on the theorem in the Lildvati; next I study a geometrical demonstration of the quadratic equation in the commentary; then I investigate features peculiar to Indian mathematics and their origin, 1. The Lilivati of Bhaskara II In his Lilavati, Bhaskara II (fl. c. 1150) gives a rule to calculate any side of a right triangle when the other two are given. * For Arabic mathematicians, see Dold-Samplonius 1997,tatkytyor yogapadam karo dobkaravargayor vivarat/ ‘miflam kofih Kotisrutikrtyor antarat padam bahubd/ ‘The square root of the sum of these two squares is the ear (diagonal). The square root of the difference of the squares of the arm and the car is the upright. The square root of the difference of the squares of the upright and the ear is the arm? ‘The Lilavat’ is a book on patiganita. It shows algorithms for calculation. In this field no symbols for unknowns are used even in the inderminate equation. In the book no proof of the theorem is given. 2. The Bijaganita of Bhaskara Il In his Bijaganita, Bhaskara II gives various rules for equations with the symbols of unknowns. He mentions two geometrical proofs of the Pythagorean theorem. One is mentioned in stanza 128. ksetretithinakhais tulye dobkot tatra ka srutih/ ‘upapattis ca radhasya ganitasyasya kathyatim// ‘What is {the length of] the ear in the figure having fifteen and twenty as the ‘arm and the upright [respectively]? The proof of this commonly known calculation should be told ‘This stanza asks the length of the hypothenuse of a right triangle when the lengths of the other two are given, The Sanskrit term upapatti corresponds to proof, a kind of demonstration that shows how the rule can be derived. The text runs as follows. uddisfaksetram idam/ ‘karno yatha bahir bhavati tathaitatsamam anyatksetram yojyate/ athaivam eva trtlyaksetram yojyate/ ‘evam caturthaksetrayoge darSanam/ This is the indicated figure. ‘Another figure of the same [size] is attached to in such a way that the ear is outside. ‘Then in exactly the same way the third figure is attached. ‘Thus is the illustration when the fourth figure is attached to each other.” In Sanskrit the horizontal side of a right triangle is called the arm (bah, dos, bhi, ‘bhuja), and the vertical one the upright (kof). Bhiskara I calls any one of the two sides ‘orthogonal each other arm, and the other upright LildvarT 135). The hypothenuse is called the ‘ear (karna), which also means a diagonal ofthe quadrilateral The versiied rule in the Sanskrit mathematical text rarely gives the proof because rules 60