Engineering Encyclopedia: Identifying Weld Discontinuities

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Identifying Weld Discontinuities
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Welding For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: COE11405 A.A. Omar on 873-3705
Engineering Encyclopedia Welding
CONTENTS PAGES
DETERMINING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND

DEFECTS.............................................................................................................................................1
Weld Quality...........................................................................................................................1
Acceptance Criteria.................................................................................................................1
Weld Discontinuities .................................................................................................2
Nonrelevant Indications ............................................................................................8
Weld Defects .............................................................................................................9
IDENTIFYING NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS USED TO DETECT

WELD DISCONTINUITIES ..............................................................................................................10
Visual Inspection ..................................................................................................................10
Liquid Penetrant....................................................................................................................12
Magnetic Particle ..................................................................................................................14
Ultrasonic..............................................................................................................................17
Radiographic.........................................................................................................................20
WORK AID 1: GUIDES FOR DETERMINING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS ....................................................25
Visual Inspection Acceptance Standards ..............................................................................25
Magnetic Particle Examination Acceptance Standards .........................................................26
Liquid Penetrant Examination Acceptance Standards...........................................................26
Radiography Examination Acceptance Standards.................................................................27
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................................28
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DETERMINING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND

DEFECTS
This section of the Module provides background information on weld discontinuities and defects. This section
includes the following topics that are pertinent to the discussion:
• Weld Quality
• Acceptance Criteria
Weld Quality
Weld quality is defined as the level of perfection that a weld exhibits. Weld quality pertains to the entire
volume of weld metal that is in a weldment as well as to the surface appearance of a weldment. Because most
welding operations are manually performed by welders, weldment imperfections are not uncommon; however,
because engineers can evaluate the service of a weldment and relate the intended service to a specific level of
weld quality, weldment imperfections are not necessarily a problem.
Certain products, components, systems, and facilities require a higher level of weld quality than do others. The
reason for this increased level of weld quality is the inherent danger of the products, components, systems, or
facilities that are manufactured or constructed by welding. Historical data and experience have taught design
engineers that certain facilities and components, such as nuclear power plants and high pressure storage vessels,
can be extremely dangerous if not properly constructed. The level of weld quality that is required for nuclear
power plants and high pressure storage vessels is higher than the level of weld quality that is required for
atmospheric storage tanks that present fewer safety risks. Construction standards that identify the minimum
level of weld quality for the components and systems that are fabricated at Saudi Aramco were discussed in
COE 114.02.
Acceptance Criteria
Construction standards express the required level of weld quality in terms of the maximum weld imperfections
that are allowed in a weldment. In order to be acceptable, weld imperfections must meet the criteria that are
listed in the applicable construction standards such as API 1104 and AWS D1.1 that were identified in Module
COE 114.02. The term “acceptance criteria” is used by construction standards to define the required level of
weld quality. Typically, the weld acceptance criteria that are presented in construction standards are a list of the
maximum allowable weld imperfections. These imperfections can refer to the size (length, width, diameter) of
the weld imperfection or to the quantity of the weld imperfections. When the quantity of the weld
imperfections is the acceptance criteria, the allowable quantity is usually dependent on the thickness of the base
metals that are welded. Thicker materials can generally have a larger quantity of weld imperfections than can
thinner materials.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

In addition to weld quality, the weld acceptance criteria that are contained in the construction standards also can
pertain to the physical attributes of a weldment. The following criteria are examples of acceptance criteria that
apply to the physical attributes of a weldment:
• Minimum fillet weld size.
• Maximum weld reinforcement (root and face).
• Maximum concavity and convexity of a fillet weld.
• Maximum mismatch in groove welds.
• Minimum weld transition requirements between members of unequal thickness.
Weld Discontinuities
A weld discontinuity is defined as an interruption of the typical structure of a weldment such as a lack of
homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics of the weldment. Not all weld
discontinuities are considered to be weld defects. Only those weld discontinuities that do not meet the
applicable acceptance criteria are considered to be weld defects; therefore, weld discontinuities that meet the
applicable acceptance criteria are not considered detrimental to the strength of a weldment.
Typical weld metal discontinuities that are encountered in welds at Saudi Aramco are presented in Figures 1
through 10.

Figure 1 shows cracks in welds. Cracks in welds are unacceptable discontinuities. They are either longitudinal
(aligned with the weld bead) or transverse (perpendicular to the weld bead). Cracks can be either surface cracks
or subsurface cracks, and they generally occur in a weld due to stresses that are developed during the welding
process.
Figure 1. Cracks in Welds

Figure 2 shows slag inclusions. Slag inclusions are located within a weld and occur when impurities or flux
contaminate a weld. Slag inclusions are the result of improper interpass cleaning.
Figure 2. Slag Inclusions
Figure 3 shows lack of fusion. Lack of fusion is generally located at the weld metal and base metal interface,
and it occurs when the molten weld metal does not fuse completely with an adjacent weld bead or with the base
material. Lack of fusion is generally the result of inadequate heat or excessive travel speed.
Figure 3. Lack of Fusion

Figure 4 shows incomplete root penetration. Incomplete root penetration occurs when the weld metal does not
completely penetrate into the root area and consume both of the base materials. Incomplete root penetration is
generally the result of inadequate heat or excessive travel speed.
Figure 4. Incomplete Root Penetration
Figure 5 shows weld undercut. A weld undercut is a groove that is melted into the toe or root of a weld and that
is left unfilled by the weld metal. Undercut results in a depression on the surface of the base metal at the point
at which the weld metal contacts the base metal. Undercut is generally the result of excessive heat and travel
speed.
Figure 5. Weld Undercut

Figure 6 shows cold lap. Cold lap occurs when the weld metal freezes too quickly and does not fuse with the
surface of the base metal. Cold lap typically is found on the cover pass at the toe of the weld. Cold lap is
generally the result of inadequate heat and excessive travel speed.
Figure 6. Cold Lap
Figure 7 shows root concavity. Root concavity occurs in weld joints that are welded from one side only, an
example of which would be pipe. Root concavity results from excessive heat, too wide of a root opening, or
insufficient deposited weld metal.
Figure 7. Root Concavity

Figure 8 shows a crater pit. Crater pits are located on the weld bead surface, and they are generally associated
with Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). Crater pits result from the rapid breaking of the electric arc so that
the weld puddle freezes too quickly and shrinks, which leaves a small void.
Figure 8. Crater Pit
Figure 9 shows an arc strike. Arc strikes are caused by dragging the electrode over the surface of the base metal
in an effort to initiate an arc for welding.
Figure 9. Arc Strike

Figure 10 shows weld porosity. Weld porosity is caused by inadequate flux or shielding gas coverage, which
allows oxygen to contaminate the molten weld metal prior to solidification. Porosity can be located on the weld
surface, but it is typically located within the weld. Moisture or other contaminants (e.g., oil, penetrant,
temperature-indicating crayon residue) on the base metal can also vaporize during welding and result in gas
bubbles that are trapped in the weld metal.
Figure 10. Weld Porosity
Nonrelevant Indications
Nonrelevant indications are indications that are revealed by nondestructive testing but that are not caused by
actual weld discontinuities. The majority of nonrelevant indications are directly related either to the improper
use of a nondestructive testing method or to the examiner’s ability to properly perform the nondestructive
testing method. Examples of typical nonrelevant indications include the following:
• Scratches or water spots on radiographic film.
• Sharp lines on radiographic film due to severe changes in the section thickness of the material
that was radiographed.
• Liquid penetrant indications that result from the inability to adequately remove all of the
surface penetrant.
• Flow lines and magnetic writing indications that are revealed by magnetic particle
examination.
• UT reflections that are due to the interface of mating parts rather than due to a discontinuity.
Based on the method of NDT, the configuration of the component that is being examined, and the appearance
of the indication, such indications can be determined by the NDT technician to be nonrelevant.

Weld Defects
A weld defect is a discontinuity that does not meet the acceptance criteria of the applicable construction
standard. A weld defect, as determined by the construction standards, would probably result in the premature
failure of the weld. Welds that have defects must be repaired so that the defect is either completely removed
from the weld or is sufficiently reduced in size so that the defect meets the acceptance criteria. The weld
discontinuities that were shown in Figures 1 through 10 would or would not be classified as defects depending
on acceptance criteria.

IDENTIFYING NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS USED TO DETECT

WELD DISCONTINUITIES
This section contains a description of the nondestructive testing (NDT) methods that are used to detect weld
discontinuities at Saudi Aramco. The information provides an overview of the nondestructive testing methods,
and it includes a description of the basic principles and common applications of each of the following methods:
• Visual Inspection
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic Particle
• Ultrasonic
• Radiographic
Visual Inspection
The purpose of visual inspection is to detect surface discontinuities on weldments that are visible to the human
eye. A visual inspection is the quickest and most cost-effective method of NDT that can be used to identify a
surface discontinuity on a weld. Due to the complexity of the information that is involved, mastery of visual
inspection methods and the ability to accurately interpret results requires extensive training.
The visual inspection is the most frequently used method of examination, and welders and welding inspectors
continuously use visual inspections during welding operations to improve the quality of welds. Visual
inspections often will identify problems during welding that can be repaired “in process” to prevent the
discovery of a discontinuity by a subsequent nondestructive test.
Inspection aids sometimes are used to facilitate visual inspections. The following are examples of commonly
used visual inspection aids:
• Mirrors
• Portable Lighting
• Flashlights
• Light Meters
• Straight Edges and Rulers
• Magnifying Lenses
• Boroscopes
• Microscopes
• Video Cameras
• Weld Gages
The tool that is used to perform visual inspections is the human eye. The following are the requirements to
perform a visual inspection:
• Visual Acuity - Personnel who perform visual inspections must pass an annual eye
examination in accordance with industry standards. The eye examination checks for
conditions such as visual acuity, color blindness, and depth perception.

• Distance - To conduct a visual inspection, the examiner’s eye should be located within 24
inches and at an angle of not less than 30 degrees to the surface of the weld that is being
examined. Mirrors can be used to improve the angle of vision.
• Access - If the area to be examined is not directly accessible, an examination aid can be used.
• Lighting - A flashlight or other additional lighting should be used to sufficiently illuminate the
area that is to be inspected. A minimum of 35 foot candles of light should be available for
normal visual inspections. When visual inspections for small indications are being performed,
a minimum of 50 foot candles of light should be available. If required by a procedure, a light
meter can be used to determine the exact amount of illumination that is available.
Common applications for visual inspection include the following:

• To determine the size and length of fillet welds on structural members.
• To inspect the weld joint fit-up, including the bevel angle, the root opening, the land, and the
cleanliness of piping welds.
• To inspect the proper fit-up of socket weld fittings on small diameter pipe.
• To inspect in-process welds and completed welds prior to additional NDT.

Liquid Penetrant
The purpose of liquid penetrant testing (PT) is to detect discontinuities that are open to the surface of non-
porous materials. Figure 11 shows that PT can be broken down into the following basic steps:
• Cleaning the surface.
• Application of the penetrant to the surface that is to be inspected.
• Removal of the excess penetrant.
• Application of a developer.
• Visual inspection for indications.
PT uses the principle of capillary action to detect discontinuities. When a liquid penetrant is applied to the
surface of a material, capillary action will cause the penetrant to enter any small openings that exist on the
surface of the material. After the excess penetrant is removed, a developer is applied to the surface of the
material to draw the absorbed penetrant back out of the openings. If the application of the developer causes the
penetrant to be drawn back out of an opening, discontinuities are present on the surface of the material.
Because dirt or contamination could mask surface discontinuities, proper preparation of the surface to be
inspected is important.
Figure 11. Principles of PT

Saudi Aramco only uses color contrast, visible dye, solvent removable penetrants and the dry air spray
developers. The type of developer that is used depends on the type of penetrant that is used. Typically, the
same family of penetrant material is used throughout the inspection process. The use of penetrant materials
from different families requires special permission from the Saudi Aramco Inspection Department.
The following are the major advantages of PT:
• Good sensitivity
• Inexpensive
• Simple
• Wide range of uses
The following are the major limitations of PT:

• Inability to detect subsurface discontinuities.
• Not conducive to high temperature applications. Special penetrants and developers are
required for even moderate temperature use. SAIP-04-P only applies to PTs that are
performed on materials that have a maximum temperature of 125 oF.
• Extensive surface preparation required.
• Surfaces that are covered with paint or other coatings cannot be examined with the liquid
penetrant method. The coating prevents the occurrence of capillary action.
• The lengthy dwell time (sometimes up to 45 minutes) of liquid penetrant examinations.
The following are common applications for liquid penetrant examinations:

• To check for surface discontinuities on non-magnetic welds such as aluminum and stainless
steel.
• To check for surface discontinuities on magnetic welds when magnetic particle testing cannot
be performed.
• To check socket welds and root passes on pressure vessels, storage tanks, and piping welds.

Magnetic Particle
The purpose of magnetic particle testing (MT) is to detect discontinuities that are either on the surface of or near
the surface of ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic materials (e.g., iron, steel, and associated alloys) are
those materials that can be strongly magnetized.
Magnetic particle testing is based on the principle of magnetism. Magnetism is the ability of one ferromagnetic
material to attract other ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic fields exist within and around a permanent magnet
or around a conductor that carries an electric current. These magnetic fields are made up of magnetic lines of
force that are perpendicular to the direction of the electric current flow. When a discontinuity exists in a
ferromagnetic material, the discontinuity results in a distortion in the magnetic lines of force, and it creates a
leakage field in which the magnetic testing particles are gathered. The visual gathering of magnetic particles
indicates that a discontinuity may exist in the material that is being tested.

Figure 12 illustrates the following basic principles of MT:

• An electric current is passed through a test object to create a magnetic field in the test object
(i.e., the test object is magnetized).
• Magnetic particles are applied to the surface of the magnetized test object.
• The test object is evaluated for gathered magnetic particles.
Figure 12. Principles of MT

The following methods are used at Saudi Aramco to establish the magnetic field:
• Indirect Method - This method uses an electromagnetic yoke to pass a magnetic field through
the test object. The test object completes a magnetic circuit with the yoke, which results in the
establishment of a magnetic field in the test object. Yokes can use ac, half wave (HW) dc, or
dc current to establish magnetic fields.
• Direct Method - This method uses prods to pass electrical current through the test object. The
current that passes through the test object establishes the magnetic field. Prods also can use
ac, HWdc, or dc current to establish magnetic fields.
The use of ac current results in a magnetic field that is fairly shallow in the test material; the use of dc current
provides a deeper magnetic field; however, dc current also has more of a tendency to magnetize the test objects.
Depending on the circumstances of the part that is tested, demagnetization may be necessary.
Magnetic particles can be suspended in liquid, or they can be in the form of a dry powder. The wet method of
magnetic particle testing generally provides a more sensitive inspection because the wet method is able to
detect minute discontinuities. The method of application depends on the test situation. The following methods
can be used:
• The wet method uses magnetic particles that are suspended in a liquid such as oil or water.
The magnetic particles may be fluorescent or non-fluorescent. The mixture is applied by
allowing it to flow over the test object.
• The dry method uses magnetic particles in the form of a dry powder. The magnetic particles
are non-fluorescent, but the particles are available in different colors. The particles are applied
by allowing them to lightly settle on the surface of the test object. The particles must be
applied lightly and evenly to the surface.
The following are the major advantages of MT, in comparison to PT:

• MT is less labor-intensive
• After the initial investment, MT is less expensive to perform.
• MT can detect some subsurface defects.
• MT has less post-test cleanup.

The major limitation of MT is that it can only be used to find defects that are at or near the surface of
ferromagnetic materials.
The following are the common applications for magnetic particle examinations:
• To check carbon steel weldments (wet or dry particle method).
• To check socket welds on piping, weld bevel preps, structural fillet welds, valve bodies, shafts
of rotating equipment, vessels, and storage tanks (wet or dry particle method).
• To check vessels and tanks that are susceptible to sulfide stress and hydrogen induced
cracking (wet particle method).
Ultrasonic
The primary purposes of ultrasonic testing (UT) are to detect volumetric discontinuities in materials and to
measure the thickness of materials. UT, unlike the previously discussed methods of NDT, can be used to
inspect the entire volume of a weld.
Figure 13 illustrates the basic principles of UT. UT is a more complex method of NDT than is either VT, PT, or
MT. UT uses a pulse generator to generate an electrical signal that is supplied to a transducer. The transducer
uses this electrical signal to generate and emit ultrasonic energy. The ultrasonic energy causes mechanical
vibrations (wave propagation) in the form of a wave to travel through a test object. After the wave travels
through the test object, the transducer receives the return signal and sends it through a process circuit. The
output of the process circuit is sent to a cathode ray tube. If the wave encounters a discontinuity in the test
object, the return signal will reflect the disruption of the wave. The ability of the ultrasonic system to detect
small defects (e.g., the sensitivity) is a function of the wavelength of the emitted ultrasonic energy.
When ultrasonic energy (wave) is transferred into a material, the distance that the wave travels can be
determined through use of CRT display. If the wave does not encounter a discontinuity, only the initial and
return signals appear on the CRT display screen; however, if the wave encounters a discontinuity, part of this
energy is reflected back, and three indications (initial signal, return signal, and reflected signal) will appear on
the CRT display screen. A qualified inspector can determine the approximate size and the location of the
discontinuity from these indications.

Figure 13. Principles of UT
The following are the basic test equipment components that are used to perform UT:
• Transducer - This device is used to convert energy from one form to another form. These
piezoelectric devices (transducers) are used to both transmit and receive ultrasonic signals.
• Couplant - A couplant is a medium that is used to facilitate the transmission of ultrasonic

energy between the transducer and the test object.
• Pulse - The pulse generator is used to generate the input electrical signal to the transducer and
the CRT display is used to display the return signal.
Other important pieces of test equipment are calibration blocks and reference blocks. Calibration and reference
blocks are used to help ensure that the test equipment is properly operating. Because the operation of the test
equipment affects the examiner’s interpretation of the test results, proper operation of the test equipment is
extremely important.

Contact testing is the test method that is widely used at Saudi Aramco. Contact testing can provide different
types of CRT display patterns that are known as scans. The type of CRT display pattern that is used is
dependent on the application. The following types of CRT display patterns can be used.
• “A” Scan - An “A” scan is the usual type of CRT display that is used in ultrasonic material
testing. “A” scans indicate the depth of a discontinuity.
• “B” Scan - “B” scans provide a view of an object in a plane that is perpendicular to the
direction of movement of the transducer signal and the surface of the test piece. The “B” scan
also can indicate the depth of a discontinuity. “B” scans are typically used in medical
applications. A photograph of the CRT display screen is often taken for record purposes.
• “C” Scan - “C” scans provide a plan view of an object. A plan view is the view through the
object from the inspection surface. The CRT display of a “C” scan also can be photographed.
The following advantages of UT make it a widely used method of testing for defects in a variety of situations:
• UT is extremely sensitive.
• UT displays the size and location of discontinuities.
• UT can be used on a variety of materials including most metals.
• UT can be used on all but the very complex weldments.
• UT only requires access to one side of a weld structure or component.
• UT can be performed through use of portable equipment.
• UT is safe to perform.
Because of the many variations of testing methods, UT is the least limited method of NDT; however, the
following limitations do exist:
• UT can only be performed by highly skilled technicians.
• UT is difficult to use on course grain materials (castings).
• UT cannot detect discontinuities that are parallel to the ultrasonic beam.
• UT cannot be used to check all weld joint configurations (e.g., socket welds).

The following are the common applications for ultrasonic examinations:

• Thickness gaging for corrosion detection.
• Inspection of plate material for laminations.
• Inspection of full penetration groove welds in structural members, piping, and pressure
vessels.
Radiographic
The purpose of radiographic testing (RT) is to detect internal weld discontinuities and not only surface and
subsurface discontinuities. Figure 14 illustrates the basic principles of RT. RT uses radioactive sources (x-ray,
gamma ray, or neutron beams) to emit radiographic rays that penetrate the test object. The energy and
wavelength characteristics of these rays allow them to be used to penetrate any material. The physical
characteristics of the test object determine the amount of the energy beam that passes through the material. Any
changes in material thickness or density will affect the amount of energy that passes through the test object.
The portion of the rays that pass through the test object are used to expose a special type of film. The image
that is produced on the film will show any changes in the density of the areas that are exposed to the penetrating
radiation.
Figure 14. Principles of RT

Radiation is the energy that is given off due to a nuclear reaction at the atomic level. This energy may be in the
form of an electromagnetic wave or a particulate. Photons, which are small packets of energy that are caused
by radioactive decay, display both wave and particle characteristics. The two types of electromagnetic radiation
that are used to perform radiography at Saudi Aramco are X-rays and gamma rays. X-rays are generated in
electronic X-ray tubes of the linear accelerator type. The tubes may be portable to allow performance of
radiographic examinations in the field. The sources of gamma rays are the disintegrating nuclei of radioactive
isotopes. The following are the radioactive isotopes that Saudi Aramco uses to produce gamma rays:
• Cobalt-60 (Co-60)
• Iridium-192 (Ir-192)
The penetrating nature of radiation presents a danger to people. These rays pass through the body in the same
way in which they pass through the test object, and, if the exposure is excessive, the rays can cause permanent
damage to the human body. A significant danger exists when sources of radiation are not properly handled.
This danger is magnified because there are no immediate signs to tell people that they are being exposed to
harmful amounts of radiation. Overexposure to radiation may cause radiation sickness, permanent damage to
vital body organs, or, in severe cases, death.
Because of these dangers, special precautions and safety procedures must be strictly followed by personnel who
handle radiation sources. SAGI 9.100 (Ionizing Radiation Protection) sets the general guidelines that all Saudi
Aramco personnel must follow to protect themselves against ionizing radiation. This instruction is used by
personnel who are involved in all aspects of storage, handling, and use of radioactive sources.
Because the senses of the human body cannot detect the presence of radiation, special monitoring equipment
must be used. Section 4.09 (Personnel Monitoring Equipment) of SAIP-08 identifies the devices that are used
to measure the actual exposure of personnel during the performance of RT. These devices include film badges,
dosimeters, and radiation survey meters. Section 5.0 (Radiation Monitoring Equipment) of SAIP-08 identifies
the devices that are used to perform radiation surveys. A radiation survey meter is used to check radiation
levels in a given area. This information is needed to determine personnel stay times and shielding
requirements.

The following are the basic radiation safety techniques that are used to reduce personnel exposure to ionizing
radiation:
• Time - As the amount of time that is spent near a radiation source decreases, the exposure to
the radiation decreases.
• Distance - As the distance from a radiation source increases, the exposure to the radiation
decreases.
• Shielding - As the amount of shielding that is between the radiation source and personnel
increases, the amount of exposure decreases.
The term “exposure” refers to exposing the test object to the radiation source. Many variables must be
considered to ensure that the exposure produces a usable image. The radiograph is not acceptable as proof that
the test object is free of defects unless it is of good quality. Every effort must be made to achieve the highest
quality image so that all of the discontinuities can be identified.
The following are the most important factors that must be considered in the achievement of the highest quality
image:
• The type, position, and intensity of the radiation source.
• The thickness, density, and configuration of the test object.
• The type and positioning of the film.
• Film processing time and chemical temperatures.
A penetrameter is used to check the quality of the image that is produced on the radiographic film. A
penetrameter is typically a wire or block that is made of the same material as the test object. The dimensions of
the penetrameter are critical because the dimensions represent the thickness of the object that is being
examined. The penetrameter is used to confirm the sensitivity of the radiograph. The penetrameter is not used
to determine the size of discontinuities. The penetrameter image is a permanent record that proves that the
technique that is used to perform the RT produced a good quality radiograph. ASTM wire-type penetrameters
and hole-type penetrameters are commonly used at Saudi Aramco.
Figure 14 showed an example of the “double wall” radiographic technique that is used to examine piping or
small pressure vessel welds. Figure 15 shows examples of “panoramic” and “elliptical” radiographic
techniques that also are used on piping welds. Figure 15 points out the relative location of the radiographic
source for each technique. Note that the “panoramic” technique requires that the radiation source be placed
inside of the pipe or vessel.

Figure 15. Radiographic Techniques

The following are the advantages of RT, and these advantages are similar to the advantages of UT:
• RT is extremely sensitive.
• RT can identify both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
• RT can be used on a wide variety of materials.
• RT provides a permanent record that shows the size and location of discontinuities.
• RT can be performed through use of portable equipment.
The following are the major limitations to the use of RT:

• RT can only be performed by highly skilled technicians.
• RT cannot detect discontinuities that are located perpendicular to the rays.
The following conditions may limit the use of RT:

• Weld joint geometry.
• RT exposes personnel who are in the area to radiation.
• Accessibility and geometry of the radiographic technique.
Common applications for radiographic examinations are similar to the application for ultrasonic examinations,
and they include the following:
• Examination of critical full penetration welds in piping and pressure vessels.
• Evaluation of the effects of erosion and corrosion on component and piping wall thickness.
• To check for linear and nonlinear weld indications such as cracks, slag inclusions, lack of
fusion, and porosity.

WORK AID 1: GUIDES FOR DETERMINING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS
This Work Aid is designed to help the Participant perform Exercise 1. Selected weld acceptance criteria from
ASME B31.1, Power Piping, are listed below and are to be used as guides to perform Exercise 1.
Visual Inspection Acceptance Standards
The following discontinuities are unacceptable:
• Cracks on external surfaces.
• Undercut on surface that is greater than 1/32" deep.
• Weld reinforcement greater than the weld reinforcement that is specified in Figure 16.
• Incomplete penetration (applies only when the inside surface is readily accessible.
Maximum Thickness of Reinforcement for

Design Temperature
Thickness of Base Metal, in. > 750oF 350oF - 750oF < 350oF
Up to 1/8, incl. 1/16 3/31 3/16
Over 1/8 to 3/16, incl. 1/16 1/8 3/16
Over 3/16 to 1/2, incl. 1/16 5/32 3/16
Over 1/2 to 1, incl. 3/32 3/16 3/16
Over 1 to 2, incl. 1/8 1/4 1/4
Over 1 5/32 The greater of 1/4 in. or 1/8 times
the width of the weld in inches
Figure 16. Allowable Weld Reinforcement

Magnetic Particle Examination Acceptance Standards

• Any cracks or linear indications.
• Rounded indications with dimensions that exceed 3/16".
• Four or more rounded indications that are in a line and that are separated by 1/16" or less from
edge to edge.
• Ten or more rounded indications in any 6 sq. in. of surface where the major dimension of this
area does not exceed 6" and where the area that is chosen is in the most unfavorable location
relative to the indications being evaluated.
Liquid Penetrant Examination Acceptance Standards

• Any cracks or linear indications.
• Rounded indications with dimensions that exceed 3/16".
• Four or more rounded indications that are in a line and that are separated by 1/16" or less from
edge to edge.
• Ten or more rounded indications in any 6 sq. in. of surface where the major dimension of this
area does not exceed 6" and where the area that is chosen is in the most unfavorable location
relative to the indications being evaluated.

Radiography Examination Acceptance Standards

Welds that are shown by radiography to have any of the following types of discontinuities are unacceptable:
• Any type of crack or zone of incomplete fusion or penetration.
• Any other elongated indication that has a length greater than:
– 1/4" for t up to 3/4" inclusive
– 1/3 t for t from 3/4" to 2-1/4" inclusive
– 3/4" for t over 2-1/4" where t is the thickness of the thinner portion of the weld
NOTE: t is the thickness of the weld being examined. If a weld joins two members with different
thicknesses at the weld, t is the thinner of these two thicknesses.
• Any group of indications in line that have an aggregate length that is greater than t in a length
of 12t, except where the distance between the successive indications exceeds 6L, where L is
the longest indication in the group.

GLOSSARY
capillary action Tendency of a liquid to enter small cracks in the test object because of the
difference in cohesive forces between the liquid (penetrant) and the surfaces
of the crack.
defect An unacceptable discontinuity as defined by the code.
discontinuity An interruption of the typical structure of a material; for example, a lack of
homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics.
electromagnetic Accelerated electric charges called photons whose energy is related to the
frequency of the wavelength.
examination The procedure or method that is used to conduct a destructive or a
nondestructive test.
foot candles Unit of measure for the amount of light that is present in a given area. One
foot candle equals 1 lumen per square foot.
inspection The interpretation of the results that were obtained from a nondestructive
examination.
nonporous Materials that are free of pores or porosity and that are nonpermeable to
liquids.
nonrelevant An indication that is obtained during a nondestructive test and that is a result
of a normal or known condition in a material and that is not the result of a
discontinuity or defect.
oscilloscope An instrument that is used to trace the electronic signal that is generated by
UT. The signal is displayed on the screen of a cathode-ray tube (CRT) to
provide an instantaneous indication.
penetrameter Also called an image quality indicator (IQI), the penetrameter is a device that
is placed in the area that is being radiographed, and it is used to determine
the quality and sensitivity of the radiograph.
piezoelectric Property of certain crystals to produce an electric current when a mechanical
stress is applied.
radioactive isotope Unstable elements whose decay produces radiation.
shielding Material (typically lead or concrete) that is used to stop or to reduce the
amount of radiation that is generated by a gamma or an x-ray source.
stay time The length of time that a person can stay in an area before he receives too
much radiation.
test object A component or weldment that is being subjected to a destructive or a
nondestructive test.

Engineering Encyclopedia: Identifying Weld Discontinuities

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Identifying Weld Discontinuities

Chapter : Welding For additional information on this subject, contact

DETERMINING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND

IDENTIFYING NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS USED TO DETECT

Visual Inspection ..................................................................................................................10

Magnetic Particle ..................................................................................................................14

WORK AID 1: GUIDES FOR DETERMINING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

Visual Inspection Acceptance Standards ..............................................................................25

Magnetic Particle Examination Acceptance Standards .........................................................26

Liquid Penetrant Examination Acceptance Standards...........................................................26

Radiography Examination Acceptance Standards.................................................................27

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DETERMINING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

• Maximum weld reinforcement (root and face).

• Maximum concavity and convexity of a fillet weld.

• Maximum mismatch in groove welds.

• Minimum weld transition requirements between members of unequal thickness.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Figure 1. Cracks in Welds

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Figure 2. Slag Inclusions

Figure 3. Lack of Fusion

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Figure 4. Incomplete Root Penetration

Figure 5. Weld Undercut

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Figure 6. Cold Lap

Figure 7. Root Concavity

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Figure 8. Crater Pit

Figure 9. Arc Strike

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Figure 10. Weld Porosity

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

IDENTIFYING NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS USED TO DETECT

• Straight Edges and Rulers

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Common applications for visual inspection include the following:

• To inspect in-process welds and completed welds prior to additional NDT.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

• Application of the penetrant to the surface that is to be inspected.

• Removal of the excess penetrant.

• Visual inspection for indications.

Figure 11. Principles of PT

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

• Wide range of uses

The following are the major limitations of PT:

• Extensive surface preparation required.

• The lengthy dwell time (sometimes up to 45 minutes) of liquid penetrant examinations.

The following are common applications for liquid penetrant examinations:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Figure 12 illustrates the following basic principles of MT:

• The test object is evaluated for gathered magnetic particles.

Figure 12. Principles of MT

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

The following are the major advantages of MT, in comparison to PT:

• After the initial investment, MT is less expensive to perform.

• MT can detect some subsurface defects.