Name :- Sibgat ul hassan

Roll No:- 16713

Assignment no:-2

Class Btech cse

Semester:- 4th
A). Datagram
A datagram is a unit of transfer assoicated with networking. Data is transmitted from source to
destination without guarantee of delivery. Data is frequently divided into smaller pieces and transmitted
without a defined route or guaranteed order of delivery. A datagram is primarily used for wireless
communication and is self-contained with source and destination addresses written in the header. It is
similar to a packet, which is a small piece of data transmitted through a connectionless protocol; but a
datagram cannot handle prior or subsequent data communication. Data is transmitted from source to
destination without guarantee of delivery. Data is frequently divided into smaller pieces and transmitted
without a defined route or guaranteed order of delivery.

B) fragmentation
IP fragmentation is an Internet Protocol (IP) process that breaks datagrams into smaller pieces
(fragments), so that packets may be formed that can pass through a link with a smaller maximum
transmission unit (MTU) than the original datagram size. The fragments are reassembled by the
receiving host.

Transparent Fragmentation - the router doing the fragmentation breaks up oversized packets and
addresses them all to the same exit router. The exit router re-assembles the fragments and forwards
original packet. This is called transparent fragmentation because it is invisible to the other networks in
the path and to the hosts.

C) Framing
Framing in the data link layer separates a message from one source to a destination, or from other
messages to other destinations, by adding a sender address and a destination address. The destination
address defines where the packet is to go; the sender address helps the recipient acknowledge the
receipt.Although the whole message could be packed in one frame, that is not normally done. One
reason is that a frame can be very large, making flow and error control very inefficient. When a message
is carried in one very large frame, even a single-bit error would require the retransmission of the whole
message. When a message is divided into smaller frames, a single-bit error affects only that small frame

C) IPv4
IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol version 4. It is the underlying technology that makes it possible for us
to connect our devices to the web. Whenever a device access the Internet (whether it's a PC, Mac,
smartphone or other device), it is assigned a unique, numerical IP address such as 99.48.227.227. To
send data from one computer to another through the web, a data packet must be transferred across the
network containing the IP addresses of both devices.

Without IP addresses, computers would not be able to communicate and send data to each other. It's
essential to the infrastructure of the web.
E) ICMP ( Internet Control Message Protocol)
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) in a network model is a mechanism used by hosts and I
gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP in a network model sends
the query and error reporting messages.

F) IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol)

The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) in a network model is used to facilitate the simultane transmission of
a message to a group of recipients

G) Direct and Indirect Delivery

Forwarded IP packets use at least one of two types of delivery based on whether the IP packet is
forwarded to the final destination or whether it is forwarded to an IP router. These two types of delivery
are known as direct and indirect delivery.

Direct delivery occurs when the IP node (either the sending node or an IP router) forwards a packet to
the final destination on a directly attached network. The IP node encapsulates the IP datagram in a
frame format for the Network Interface layer (such as Ethernet or Token Ring) addressed to the
destination's physical address.

Indirect delivery occurs when the IP node (either the sending node or an IP router) forwards a packet to
an intermediate node (an IP router) because the final destination is not on a directly attached network.
The IP node encapsulates the IP datagram in a frame format, addressed to the IP router's physical
address, for the Network Interface layer (such as Ethernet or Token Ring).

H) Routing table
A routing table is a type of data file that acts as a map and is often installed on a router, networked computer or
other hardware. The routing table contains information about various routes between devices in order to present
the most efficient paths for data packets.

I ) Unicast Multicast Broadcast

1 ) unicast addresses – represent a single LAN interface. A unicast frame will be sent to a specific device,
not to a group of devices on the LAN.

2)multicast addresses – represent a group of devices in a LAN. A frame sent to a multicast address will
be forwarded to a group of devices on the LAN.

3)broadcast addresses – represent all device on the LAN. Frames sent to a broadcast address will be
delivered to all devices on the LAN.
J) Distance vector routing
Distance vector routing is a simple routing protocol used in packet-switched networks that utilizes distance to
decide the best packet forwarding path. Distance is typically represented by the hop count.

A routing protocol is a set of rules used by routers to determine the most appropriate paths into which they
should forward packets towards their intended destinations. A packet is the most fundamental unit of data
transmission on the Internet and other TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) networks. A router
is an electronic device and/or software that connects at least two networks, such as two LANs (local area
networks) or WANs (wide area networks), and forwards packets between them. A hop is the trip that a packet
takes from one router to another as it traverses a network on the way to its destination. is a simple routing
protocol used in packet-switched networks that utilizes distance to decide the best packet forwarding path.
Distance is typically represented by the hop count.

A routing protocol is a set of rules used by routers to determine the most appropriate paths into which they
should forward packets towards their intended destinations. A packet is the most fundamental unit of data
transmission on the Internet and other TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) networks. A router
is an electronic device and/or software that connects at least two networks, such as two LANs (local area
networks) or WANs (wide area networks), and forwards packets between them. A hop is the trip that a packet
takes from one router to another as it traverses a network on the way to its destination.

K) Link state routing

Link state routing protocols maintain complete road map of the network in each router running a link state routing
protocol. Each router running a link state routing protocol originates information about the router, its directly
connected links, and the state of those links. This information is sent to all the routers in the network as multicast
messages. Link-state routing always try to maintain full networks topology by updating itself incrementally
whenever a change happen in network. Each router in the network keeps a copy of it, without changing it. After
obtaining the complete picture of network topology, each router will independently calculate its own best paths to
reach the destination networks.

L) Process-to-Process Delivery
Real communication takes place between two processes (application programs). We need process-to-process
delivery. However, at any moment, several processes may be running on the source host and several on the
destination host. To complete the delivery, we need a mechanism to deliver data from one of these processes
running on the source host to the corresponding process running on the destination host. The transport layer is
responsible for process-to-process delivery-the delivery of a packet, part of a message, from one process to
another. Two processes communicatein a client/server relationship,

M) Node-to-Node Delivery
The data link layer is responsible for delivery of frames between two neighboring nodesover a link. This is called
node-to-node delivery.
N) Host-to-Host Delivery
The network layer is responsible for delivery of datagrams between two hosts. This is called host-to-host delivery.
Communication on the Internet is not defined as the exchange of data between two nodes orbetween two hosts.

O) Intra and Inter-domain Routing

Domain is a simply a set of networks - and network devices - under the control of the same company or entity. An
ISP, or a big Enterprise, might have multiple domains

An intra-domain routing protocol (like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF or IS-IS) focusea on distributing routes based on link
quality (bandwidth, latency) or load balancing. With that, each router might know a specific route for all the
subnets in your network.

BGP is the only interdomain routing protocol in use today. It basically does the same thing: gives your router
information about how to reach other networks. However, it consider the number of domains traversed.
Furthermore, with BGP you can customize routing choices based on administrator settings, rather than best-route
approach. You can use it, as an example, to connect to two providers (multihomed scenario).

P) User Datagram Protocol

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) in a network model is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP transport
protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error control, and length
information to the data from the upper layer.

Q) Features of Tcp
Connection oriented: An application requests a “connection” to destination and uses connection to transfer
data,,Stream Data transfer:- It is the duty of TCP to pack this byte stream to packets, known as TCP segments,
which are passed to the IP layer for transmission to the destination device. ,,Reliable:- It recovers data from
Network layer if data is damaged, duplicated or corrupted.,,Point to Point:- TCP connection provides end to end
delivery.,Interoperability:- It eliminates the cross-platform boundaries.,Error and flow control:- error-checking,
flow-control, and acknowledgement functions.,Name resolution:- It helps in solving human readable name into IP
address.,Routability:- TCP/IP is a routable protocol,,It helps in resolving logical address.,Full Duplex:- It provides
connection in both the directions

R) Connection-oriented vs Connectionless
Two distinct techniques are used in data communications to transfer data. Each has its own
advantages and disadvantages. They are the connection-oriented method and the connectionless
method:

Connection-oriented Requires a session connection (analogous to a phone call) be established before

any data can be sent. This method is often called a "reliable" network service. It can guarantee that data
will arrive in the same order. Connection-oriented services set up virtual links between end systems
through a network, as shown in Figure 1. Note that the packet on the left is assigned the virtual circuit
number 01. As it moves through the network, routers quickly send it through virtual circuit 01.

Connectionless Does not require a session connection between sender and receiver. The sender simply
starts sending packets (called datagrams) to the destination. This service does not have the reliability of
the connection-oriented method, but it is useful for periodic burst transfers. Neither system must
maintain state information for the systems that they send transmission to or receive transmission from.
A connectionless network provides minimal services.

S) RELIABLE Vs UNRELIABLE
End stations running reliable protocols will work together to verify the transmission of data to ensure
accuracy and integrity of the data. A reliable system will set up a connection and verify that: all data
transmitted is controlled in an orderly fashion, is received in the correct order and is intact. Reliable
protocols work best over physical medium that loses data, and is prone to errors. The error correction,
ordering and verification mechanisms require overhead in the data packets and increase the total
ammount of bandwidth required to transmit data. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a typical
reliable protocol. TCP often usually adds an average of 42-63 bytes of overhead to datagrams. For a
Telnet connection which transmits each keystroke individually, this is horribly inefficient because up to
64 bytes of data are transmitted to communicate just 1 byte of useful information.

Unreliable protocols make no effort to set up a connection, they don't check to see if the data was
received and usually don't make any provisions for recovering from errors or lost data. Unreliable
protocols work best over physical medium with low loss and low error rates. User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) is an example of an unreliable protocol. UDP makes no provisions for verifying whether data
arrived or is intact. However, UDP adds a minimum of overhead when compared to TCP and is thus
much faster for data transfers over high quality physical links that are high speed and exhibit little or no
errors in communication.

T) Congestion
A state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it slows down network
response time.
Effects of Congestion
 As delay increases, performance decreases.
 If delay increases, retransmission occurs, making situation worse.

U) Scheduling :- Packets from different flows arrive at a switch or router for processing. A good
scheduling technique treats the different flows in a fair and appropriate manner. Several schedulingtechniques are
designed to improve the quality of service. We discuss three of them here:

FIFO queuing, priority queuing, and weighted fair queuing.

V) FIFO Queuing
In first-in, first-out (FIFO) queuing, packets wait in a buffer (queue) until the node (router or switch) is
ready to process them. If the average arrival rate is higher than the average processing rate, the queue
will fill up and new packets will be discarded. A FIFO queue is familiar to those who have had to wait for
abus at a bus stop. shows a conceptual view of a FIFO queue

W) Priority Queuing
In priority queuing, packets are first assigned to a priority class. Each priority class hasits own queue. The
packets in the highest-priority queue are processed first. Packets in the lowest-priority queue are
processed last. Note that the system does not stop serving a queue until it is empty. Figure shows
priority queuing with two priority levels (for simplicity). A priority queue can provide better QoS than
the FIFO queue because higher- priority traffic, such as multimedia, can reach the destination with less
delay. However, there is a potential drawback. If there is a continuous flow in a high-priority queue, the
packets in the lower-priority queues will never have a chance to be processed. This is a condition called
starvation.

X) Leaky Bucket
A leaky bucket algorithm shapes bursty traffic into fixed-rate traffic by averaging the data rate. It may
drop the packets if the bucket is full. If a bucket has a small hole at the bottom, the water leaks from the
bucket at a constantrate as long as there is water in the bucket. The rate at which the water leaks does
not depend on the rate at which the water is input to the bucket unless the bucket is empty. The input
rate can vary, but the output rate remains constant. Similarly, in networking, a technique called leaky
bucket can smooth out bursty traffic. Bursty chunks are stored in the bucket and sent out at an average
rate. Figure shows a leaky bucket and its effects.
 Bursty flow

Fixed flow

Y) QoS (QUALITY OF SERVICE)

Quality of service (QoS) is an internetworking issue that has been discussed more than defined. We can
informally define quality of service as something a flow seeks to attain.

Flow Characteristics

Traditionally, four types of characteristics are attributed to a flow: reliability, delay, jitter, and
bandwidth, as shown in Figure

Reliability

Reliability is a characteristic that a flow needs. Lack of reliability means losing a packet or
acknowledgment, which entails retransmission. However, the sensitivity of application programs to
reliability is not the same. For example, it is more important that electronic mail, file transfer, and
Internet access have reliable transmissions than telephony or audio conferencing.

Delay

Source-to-destination delay is another flow characteristic. Again applications can tolerate delay in
different degrees. In this case, telephony, audio conferencing, video conferenceing, and remote log-in
need minimum delay, while delay in file transfer or e-mail is less important.

Jitter

Jitter is the variation in delay for packets belonging to the same flow. For example, if four packets depart
at times 0, 1, 2, 3 and arrive at 20, 21, 22, 23, all have the same delay, 20 units oftime. On the other
hand, if the above four packets arrive at 21, 23, 21, and 28, they will have different delays: 21,22, 19,and
24. For applications such as audio and video, the first case is completely acceptable; the second case is
not. For these applications, it does not matter if the packets arrive with a short or long delay as long as
the delay is the same for all packets. For this application, the second case is not acceptable. Jitter is
defined as the variation in the packet delay. Highjitter means the difference between delays is large; low
jitter means the variation is small. we show how multimedia communication deals with jitter. If the jitter
is high, some action is needed in order to use the received data.

Bandwidth

Different applications need different bandwidths. In video conferencing we need to send millions of bits
per second to refresh a color screen while the total number of bits in an e-mail may not reach even a
million.