Closure properties of context-free languages
Proof, cont.: Then the languages L1 ∪ L2 and L1 L2 are generated
Theorem (Closure properties of the context-free languages)
The class of context-free languages is closed under union,
concatenation, and Kleene closure, i.e.,
(i) if L1 and L2 are context-free, then L1 ∪ L2 is context-free,
(ii) if L1 and L2 are context-free, then L1 L2 is context-free,
(iii) if L is context-free, then L∗ is context-free,
Subsequently, we give a general form of the theorem and its proof
in terms of substitutions of languages.
Proof. (i), (ii) For given context-free languages L1 and L2 , let
G1 = (N1 , T1 , P1 , S1 ) and G2 = (N2 , T2 , P2 , S2 ) be context-free
grammars where L1 = L(G1 ) and L2 = L(G2 ).
Closure properties of context-free languages
Theorem (Closure properties of the context-free languages)
The class of context-free languages is neither closed under
intersection nor under complement, i.e.,
(i) L1 and L2 context-free does not imply L1 ∩ L2 context-free,
(ii) L context-free does not imply that L is context-free.
Proof. (i) The languages
L1 = {0m 1m 0n : m, n > 0} and L2 = {0m 1n 0n : m, n > 0},
are both context-free but have the non-context-free intersection
L1 ∩ L2 = {0m 1m 0m : m > 0}.
(ii) The context-free languages are closed under union, hence
closure under complement would imply closure under intersection
by de Morgan’s law L1 ∩ L2 = L1 ∪ L2 . t
u every a in some alphabet TSand some context-free language L
It can be shown by specifying an appropriate grammar that the
complement of the language {0m 1m 0m : m > 0} is context-free.
Closure properties of context-free languages
by the context-free grammars
(N1 ∪ N2 ∪ {S}, T1 ∪ T2 , P1 ∪ P2 ∪ {S → S1 |S2 }, S) and
(N1 ∪ N2 ∪ {S}, T1 ∪ T2 , P1 ∪ P2 ∪ {S → S1 S2 }, S),
respectively, where S is a new variable symbol and one has to
assume that N1 and N2 are disjoint.
(iii) For a given context-free language L, let G = (N, T , P, S) be a
context-free grammar where L = L(G ).
Then the language L∗ is generated by the context-free grammar
(N ∪ {S 0 }, T , P ∪ {S 0 → SS 0 |λ}, S 0 )
where S 0 is a new variable symbol. t
u
Closure properties of context-free languages
Definition (Substitution with context-free languages)
Let T be an alphabet and for every a ∈ T let La be a language.
Then given a word w = a1 · · · an where a1 , . . . , an ∈ T , n > 0, let
Lw = La1 ···an = La1 · · · Lan , and Lλ = {λ}.
i.e., the language Lw is obtained by concatenating languages of
the form La according to the symbols of w .
S
For a language L over T , we refer to w ∈L Lw as the language
obtained from L by substitution of La for a.
Theorem (Closure under substitution)
The class of context-free languages is closed under substitution by
context-free languages. I.e., given contex-free languages La for
over T , then the language w ∈L Lw is context-free.
Closure properties of context-free languages Closure properties of context-free languages
Sketch of proof. Let a context-free grammar G = (N, T , P, S) and Recall that a homomorphism is a mapping h : Σ∗1 → Σ∗2 that
context-free languages La for every a ∈ T be given. Let L = L(G ). satisfies h(uv ) = h(u)h(v ) and is hence already determined by the
We construct a context-free 0 0 0 values h(a) for all a ∈ Σ1 .
S grammar (N , T , P , S) that
generates the language w ∈L Lw .
Corollary (Closure properties of the context-free languages)
For each a ∈ T , pick a context-free grammar Ga = (Na , Ta , Pa , Sa )
The class of context-free languages is closed under union,
where La = L(Ga ) such that the sets Na are mutually disjoint and
concatenation, Kleene closure, and homomorphisms.
are all disjoint from N.
Replace in the rules of P each a ∈ T by Sa and for the new set P Proof. The corollary follows easily by the theorem on closure under
let substitutions, as we show for the last two assertions.
[ [ [ Let L be a contextfree language L over some alphabet Σ.
P0 = P ∪ Pa , N 0 = N ∪ Na , and T 0 = Ta .
a∈T a∈T a∈T The Kleene closure of L can be expressed via the
S substitution of L
∗ ∗
for a in {a} , i.e., we let La = L and get L = k≥0 Lak .
By convention Lλ = {λ}, hence the new grammar must generate λ
Moreover,Sgiven a homomorphism h, then h[L] = {h(w ) : w ∈ L} is
in case G does. The latter requirement is satisfied because rules
equal to w ∈L Lw if we let La = {h(a)} for all a ∈ Σ. t
u
of G that may be used to generate λ remain unchanged. t
u

Closure properties of context-free languages Closure properties of context-free languages

Recall that given a homomorphism h : Σ∗1 → Σ∗2 , the inverse

Proof, cont. For the PDA A1 = (Q1 , Σ1 , Γ, ∆1 , s1 , Z , F1 ) meant to
homomorphism h−1 maps any langugage L over Σ2 to the language
recognize the language L1 = h−1 [L] we let
h−1 [L] = {w ∈ Σ∗1 : h(w ) ∈ L}.
Q1 = Q2 × E where E = {v ∈ Σ∗2 : h(a) = uv
for some a ∈ Σ1 and u ∈ Σ∗2 }
Theorem (Closure under inverse homomorphisms)
s1 = (s2 , λ), F1 = {(q, λ) : q ∈ F2 }.
The class of context-free languages is closed under inverse
homomorphisms. The transition relation ∆1 satisfies for all q ∈ Q2 , a ∈ Σ2 ,
and X ∈ Γ
Proof. Let h : Σ∗1 → Σ∗2 be a homomorphim and let L2 be a ((q, λ), a, X ) ∆1 ((q, h(a)), X ).
context-free language over Σ2 , which is recognized by some
PDA A2 = (Q2 , Σ2 , Γ, ∆2 , s2 , Z , F2 ) via final state. This way, during the simulation of A2 , the next symbol a of the
input can be read in order to provide the word h(a) as part of the
We construct a PDA A1 that recognizes L1 = h−1 [L2 ] via final input h(w ) of the simulated computation.
state by simulating on input w the PDA A2 on input h(w ).
Closure properties of context-free languages
Proof, cont. Furthermore, for all q, q 0 ∈ Q2 , b ∈ Σ2 , v ∈ Σ∗2 ,
X ∈ Γ, and γ ∈ Γ∗ we let
((q, v ), ε, X ) ∆1 ((q 0 , v ), γ) ⇔ (q, ε, X ) ∆2 (q 0 , γ),
((q, bv ), ε, X ) ∆1 ((q 0 , v ), γ) ⇔ (q, b, X ) ∆2 (q 0 , γ).
This way, the computation of A2 is simulated by reading the bits of
the virtual input h(w ) from the second component of the current
state of A1 .
It can be shown by induction over the word length that for
all w ∈ Σ∗1 , all q ∈ Q and all γ ∈ Σ∗2 the following are equivalent
M1 ,∗
(i) ((s2 , λ), w , Z ) =⇒ ((q, λ), λ, γ),
M2 ,∗
(ii) (s2 , h(w ), Z ) =⇒ (q, λ, γ),
hence M1 recognizes h−1 [L2 ]. t
u ((q, p), a, X ) ∆⊗ ((q 0 , p 0 ), γ) ⇔ (q, a, X ) ∆ (q 0 , γ) and δ(p, a) = p 0 .
Closure properties of context-free languages
Proof, cont. On any given input w , the PDA M⊗ simulates the
PDA M and the DFA A in parallel.
The simulated computation of A proceeds only when the simulated
computation of M, hence also M⊗ , reads a symbol from the input.
For all w ∈ Σ∗ , q ∈ QM , p ∈ QA , γ ∈ Γ∗ , and n ≥ 0 the two
following assertions are equivalent
M⊗ ,n
(i) ((sM , sA ), w , Z ) =⇒ ((q, p), λ, γ),
M,n
(ii) (sM , w , Z ) =⇒ (q, λ, γ) and δ(sA , w ) = p.
The equivalence holds by construction of M⊗ and can be shown by
induction on n.
From the equivalence it is immediate that M⊗ accepts exactly the
inputs accepted by M and by A, i.e., the inputs in L ∩ R. t
u
Closure properties of context-free languages
Theorem (Closure under intersection with a regular language)
The class of context-free languages is closed under intersection
with regular languages, that is, for every context-free language L
and regular language R, the language L ∩ R is context-free.
Proof. Let the language L be context-free and the language R be
regular, where
L = Lf (M) for some PDA M = (QM , Σ, Γ, ∆, sM , Z , FM ),
R = L(A) for some DFA A = (QA , Σ, δ, sA , FA ).
Then the PDA M⊗ = (QM × QA , Σ, Γ, ∆⊗ , (sM , sA ), Z , FM × FA )
accepts L ∩ R by final state if ∆⊗ is defined such that for
all q, q 0 ∈ QM , p, p 0 ∈ QA , a ∈ Σ, X ∈ Γ, and γ ∈ Γ∗ , we let
((q, p), ε, X ) ∆⊗ ((q 0 , p), γ) ⇔ (q, ε, X ) ∆ (q 0 , γ),
Closure properties of context-free languages
Corollary (Difference of a context-free and a regular language)
Let the language L be context-free and the language R be regular.
Then the language L \ R = {w ∈ L : w ∈ / R} is context-free.
Proof. We have L \ R = L ∩ R, where the set R is regular. t
u
Example (Another language that is not context-free)
The language L = {ww : w ∈ {0, 1}∗ } is not context-free.
For a proof, consider the regular language
R = {0t1 1t2 0t3 3t4 : t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 ≥ 0}.
Using the pumping lemma for context-free languages it can be
shown that
{0m 1n 0m 1n : m, n ≥ 0} = L ∩ R,
is not context-free. So if L were context-free, this would contradict
the theorem above. t
u
Closure properties of context-free languages

Remark (Closure under mirror languages)

The class of context-free languages is closed under transition to the
mirror language, i.e., if a context-free language L is context-free,
then the mirror language LR = {w R : w ∈ L} is context-free, too.
For a proof, let the language L be context-free.
Choose a context-free grammar G = (N, T , P, S) where L = L(G ).
Then the language LR is generated by the context-free grammar
G R = (N, T , P R , S) where

P R = {X → w R : X → w ∈ P}.

It can be shown by induction over n for all words w ∈ (N ∪ T )∗

G ,n G R ,n
and all n that we have S =⇒ w if and only if S =⇒ w R .