Building Social Capital through State Initiative: Participatory Planning in Kerala

Author(s): M. S. John and Jos Chathukulam

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 37, No. 20 (May 18-24, 2002), pp. 1939-1948
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4412134
Accessed: 05-09-2018 03:18 UTC

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Economic and Political Weekly is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend
access to Economic and Political Weekly

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Building Social Capital through State Initiative
Participatory Planning in Kerala
While the people's planning programme that began in 1996 is credited for the proliferation
of grass roots level institutions in Kerala, this only added to the dense network of
associational life that was built up in the state through years of social mobilisation and
concomitant state action. This paper, based on a study of a village panchayat in Kottayam,
looks at the objectives and trends that characterised this 'institutional revolution' and
assesses its implications for social capital formation and the building up of a vibrant civil
society capable of playing a vital role in local governance.

M S JOHN, Jos CHATHUKULAM

Introduction a corrective and supportive role in theation (1995) although its importance was
functioning of the local bodies. The studystressed much earlier by a number of
T here has been a proliferation of in- is based on empirical data collected from theorists of mass politics subscribing to
stitutions at the grass roots level in a village panchayat (elected rural local Tocquevillean values, which associate
Kerala on a scale not witnessed body) located in the district of Kottayamgroup bonding with political development.
anywhere in the country since 1996, in Kerala. Methods of data collection Mention may be made of Kornhauser who
synchronising with the ongoing decentra- employed in the study include question- said that in an era of atomisation and
lised participatory planning programme naire, focus group discussions and inter-alienation people have a disposition to
known popularly as 'people's planning' or with key informants. Because
views the in extreme behaviour to escape
engage
'people's campaign for the ninth plan'. data collected relates to very recent pheno-
from tensions and without "a multiplicity
One of the major goals of decentralisation
mena that have emerged in the lastoffive independent and often conflicting forms
years and is still in an evolving stage,
anywhere is to create institutions and groups ofthe
association, people lack the resources
which provide an enabling environment paper does not attempt to go beyond iden-to restrain their own behaviour"(1959,
for the functioning of local bodies as
tifying p 32). Social capital means "features of
some general patterns and trends
agencies of self-government and to ensure social organisation such as networks,
that may assist more deep and longitudinal
studies in future.
local level development on a sustainable norms, and trust that facilitate coordina-
basis. The 'people's campaign' has further
The paper is organised into four sec- tion and cooperation for mutual benefit"
added to the already dense network of The first section deals with the
tions. [Putnam 1993].l Even though identical
associational life that Kerala has, which policies aimed at promoting democracy
conceptual issues relating to social capital
was assiduously built up through years
and ofcivil society and discusses the nature and development may be undertaken, the
social mobilisation accompanied by andcon-characteristic features of associational degree of success in realising these goals
life in Kerala. The second section deals with
comitant state action [Heller 1996]. Some is determined by the fecundity of social
of the new forms of group formation some
wereof the salient features of the exercise capital that exists in individual situations.
envisaged ostensibly to lend support
of to
decentralised planning and maps the According to Putnam, social capital fos-
participatory institutions like gram sabha
new institutions that have come into being ters reciprocity, facilitates information
(village assembly of all adults) and towake. The third section, after provi- flows for mutual benefit and creates trust,
in its
assist in the implementation of projects
ding a brief socio-economic description of and once these are in place, they tend to
executed under the participatory planning
the village panchayat under study, proceeds be self-generating as future generations
programme.Yet othersemerged in response
to find out the nature, variety and pattern are inducted into these norms through
to the opportunities that the 'plan cam- of institutional growth and associational socialisation. The trust and cooperation
paign' and the other central and state life in the panchayat. This will be followed engendered through social capital assumes
government schemes threw up. This study by a conclusion in the final section. significance particularly .in. local level
is moulded within the current discourse on development and poverty alleviation. It is
social capital formation and building up. expected to have a positive effect on
of civil society, which commentators say, Social Capital for Sustainable economic performance especially growth.
will contribute to democratic deepening at Local Development In other words "social capital enhances the
the local level [Putnam 1993]. The paper benefits of investment in physical and
and Democracy
seeks to highlight the intensity, purpose human capital" [Putnam 1993]. It has also
and trends in the institutional revolution The concept of social capital is a recent been found that the discourse on social
that Kerala has witnessed in recent yearsaddition to the literature on local level capital, by not recognising the conflict-
and assess their implications for socialdevelopment. The concept was developed oriented notions such as power, class and
capital formation and the building up of by Robert Putnam in his study of Italy gender, among others, provides a neutral
a vibrant civil society capable of playing (1993) and then employed in the US situ- discursive space in which interests of all

Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002 1939

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
hues can communicate. High stocks of those of the macro kind, had politicalemergence of broader solidarities that were
social capital, it is claimed, will lead to origins. But these macro associations af- forged from a history of conflict"(2000,
active civic engagement and the rise of an filiated to political formations like thosep 519). However, in view of the liberali-
active civil society. Civil society high- of the agricultural workers known as Keralasation policies being adopted throughout
lights the role of interest groups, social State KarshakaThozhilali Union (KSKTU)India, state patronage for organised soci-
movements, organised private, non-profit, affiliated to the Communist Party of Indiaetal groups as in the state-society synergy
self-governing and voluntary agencies, (Marxist) with broad spheres of political model, can no longer be taken for granted.
which occupy or create social space action did not contribute to more localised There is marked difference between
beyond the full control of the state ap- forms of civic engagement capable ofpanchayats and wards within a single
paratus. influencing local governance structures. It panchayat in the extent and spread of the
ForPutnam "civil associations contribute is true that social mobilisation assisted and growth of the new institutions. The 'plan
to the effectiveness and stability of demo- supported by one or the other of the two campaign' since 1996 has brought a wider
cratic government" and have an internal ruling coalitions which alternated in powersection of women hitherto excluded from
effect on the individual members by de- at the state level makes the state-societyKerala's associational life into the centre
veloping "habits of cooperation, solidarity gap less pronounced in Kerala. stage of rural civic life. Not only is the
and public mindedness". Correspondingly, However, it is premature to say that classinstitution of gram sabha new to Kerala,
it also has an external effect on the wider mobilisation along universalistic lines had but, following the rise of neighbourhood
polity by creating dense networks of sec- a salubrious effect on civil society seen asgroups (NHGs) at the sub-gram sabha level
ondary associations with attendant posi- an arena of freedom.While statist respon-known as 'Ayalkoottams', a new dimen-
tive implications for articulation and ag- siveness to societal demands does providesion to decentralisation and participation
gregation of interests [Putnam 1993: 89- an enabling environment and a safety valve,has been added in the state. Institutions
90]. The propensity of individuals to form they also arrest the natural evolution of like NHGs are ostensibly for checking the
and join a wide range of organisations social capital unmediated by external actors.arbitrary functioning on the part of the
especially horizontal ones spontaneously Even Heller admits that the "Kerala CPM' s panchayat, which has allegedly become
is generally the reference point of Putnam. critical role has been less a function of its
powerful in view of the substantial funds
The generation of social trust and reciproc- governance capacity than of its mobili- devolved to them by the state from 1997-
ity, in this view, will remove hurdles to sational capacity. Having found itself 98 onwards. Even though the formation
collective action and economic and periodically in the opposition, the CPM of the NHGs is not mandatory, more and
political negotiations. has retained much of the social movement more panchayats are found to be favourably
dynamics from which it was born by having disposed to their formation thereby adding
Social Capital Formationto continually reinvigorate its political to a growth in associational life in
in Kerala agenda. As a social movement party, the Kerala.Unlike many of the traditional
communists have thus busied themselves
organisations owing allegiance to political
The example of Kerala is often cited to with the task of occupying the trenches ofparties of which dense networks already
exist, these new institutions are largely
civil society, building mass-based organis-
lend support to the theory that social capital
formation and the emergence of civil societyations, raising demands, and cultivating non-political,
a although not altogether free
need not take place independent of state from the influence of dominant political
noisy but effective politics of contention.
action. Heller (2000) says "Civil society This has provided a continuous presence groups.
in Kerala arose neither from deep civic and effectiveness for subordinate groups
traditions nor from the associational and even when out of power" (pp 510-11). II
gentlemanly impulses that Montesquieu This, Heller thinks, had a bandwagon effect
'Peoples' Planning,
attributed to commercial life. Instead, thewith the other parties also embracing
birth of a vibrant and effective democracymobilisational politics. He concludes by A government spearheading a campaign
in Kerala must be located in its politicalsaying that "Effective democratic gover- to mobilise lakhs of people for planning
history of conflict and social mobilisation,nance has in other words had less to do may be unheard of in other states in India.
the interplay of these dynamics with thewith the institutional character of the However, this is what happened in Kerala
where the investment made in human,
process of state building, and the resultingpolitical party system than with the dynamic
transformation of social structure"(p 502). interaction of political and civil society"
material and epistemic terms for the cause
Trust, in Kerala, has "shifted from inter- (p 511), which is a far cry from the insti-
of participatory planning does not perhaps
personal networks rooted in categoricaltutionalist model of political development have parallels anywhere in the developing
social inequalities to investing in statethat Huntington (1968) had envisaged. world. This is in some ways an example
institutions, an investment informed bySome of the results of mobilisation such of the operation of state-society synergy.
iterated experiences with the state and aas land reforms created the need for further
The Marxists who returned to power in
resulting faith that state authorities willstate-initiated measures like group farm-1996 renounced the politics of class con-
fulfil their commitments"(p 513). While iting to offset the diseconomies of scale inflict in favour of a harmony model and
is true that the state has been more respon-agricultural production. spoke of the need for a new political and
sive to societal demands and has often development
Heller says that "the logic of class politics culture above partisan
come forward with solutions which tend politics.Kerala's 'peoples' campaign' was
has strengthened civil society - not through
to reinforce its visibility, this has also hadthe small group dynamic of trust and
carried out under the stewardship of the
a strangulating effect on civic life. It is truereciprocity emphasised by many civilState Planning Board, which was until
that many civic associations, especially society theorists, but rather through the
then a purely technical body, and the plans

1940 Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
formulated with people's participation were the methods commonly employedlittle in space for variant experiments and
operationalised from the financial year participatory rural appraisal) and so experiences
on. to emerge.
1997-98 onwards. Its return to power in The outputs of all these exercises were Commenting on the 'plan campaign',
May 1996 coincided with the preparatory integrated into a printed development Heller says that "If the political opening
period of the ninth plan of the state. Seizing report, which was later discussed infor a decentralisation was orchestrated by
the opportunity, the state government panchayat-level meeting of around 250-300
the CPM from above, it is civil society that
announced the ninth plan of the state as persons known as development seminars.provided the critical ideological and
'peoples' plan', and took a significant This was followed by formation of taskmobilisational resources for the campaign.
decision to devolve 35 to 40 per cent of forces in each development sector withThe
all campaign's discourse of autonomy,
the development funds of the state to the members of the panchayat heading onelocal
or initiative, transparency, sustainability
three-tier panchayats and municipalities, the other of these task forces. Each task and accountability is the language of
primarily on the basis of the criterion of force was expected to prepare projects and social movements, not of technocrats or
population, with due weight given to the panchayat selected the projects to beLeninists. Most of the techniques and
panchayats having sizeable population included in the annual plan. This was thefavoured projects of the campaign come
belonging to scheduled castes and tribes pattern that was followed in the first year.from a repertoire of practices that NGOs
(depressed classes). The exercise was often From the second year onwards the role of and proactive local governments have been
interpreted as akin to a post-literacy de- task forces was extended to assigning marks developing for years...Most critically, it
velopment education in the already highly is through overlapping membership ties
to beneficiaries of individual-based projects
literate state of Kerala and the campaign also. From then onwards the panchayat between the CPM and the independent,
organisation was mainly patterned along plan had to be placed before the gramgrass roots KSSP that CPM reformers could
the lines of the earlier literacy campaign. sabha, so also the list of benefiqiaries.experiment with ideas outside the some-
As in the literacy campaign, the Kerala After the panchayat and the gram sabha what doctrinaire straitjacket of the party
Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), the lead- have approved a plan document, it is sentitself and build political support for a
ing pro-left non-governmental organi- to a block level expert committee consist-
strategy of mobilisation that reaches be-
sation, provided the required epistemic ing of retired and serving officials for yond the party's traditional base of sup-
and organisational support for the port" (p 516).
vetting the individual projects and grant-
programme. The campaign was influenced ing technical sanction.Once this is done, One of the direct results of the 'peoples'
by a number of experiments in collective the plan document is sent to the districtplanning' exercise was the unprecedented
and local level synergistic action for local growth registered in the number of rural
planning committee for its approval. It is
development and planning undertaken in institutions. These new associational forms
only after this stage that the plan imple-
some panchayats in Kerala under the aegis mentation procedures start.Works are towere created for meeting certain require-
of the KSSP after the collapse of the Soviet be carried out by beneficiary committees ments of the planning exercise. Institu-
regime.These experiments drew heavily (BCs) for which the department of local tions like task forces and beneficiary
on the methodology developed by the non- committees were created for the purpose
administration issued enabling orders. The
governmental organisations and the campaign also stressed principles like of project formulation and project imple-
'peoples' planning' is a case of run off mentation respectively. In addition, many
transparency, right to information, social
scaling up. Instead of amending the 1994 audit, peoples' participation and equity.panchayats, especially those held by the
Panchayat Act before initiating the plan [Issac 1997, Issac and Harilal 1998, leftist parties have neighbourhood groups
campaign, the organisers decided to start Government of Kerala 2000, Issac 2000, (NHGs) known as 'Ayalkoottams'. Each
with planning and plug the loopholes in Kannan 1999, Franke and Chasin 2000 NHG has a number of self-help groups
the Panchayat Act as the process of plan- and 1997, Chathukulam and Thomas 1997]. (SHGs) of women functioning within it.
ning moved forward. A committee on The Planning Board had issued guide- In addition, new institutions which func-
decentralisation was simultaneously con- lines relating to sectoral ceilings in spend- tion almost like a core committee of the
stituted, which went into the possible areas ing to ensure minimum level investment gram sabha known as ward development
where amendments would be needed. The in the productive sectors given the ten- committees also have been formed in some
committee was influenced by the course dency of most panchayats to concentrate panchayats. It may be appropriate at this
and content of the campaign as reflected on the infrastructural sectors. Women's stage to discuss them one by one.
in the final report [Government of Kerala issue figured prominently in the campaign
1997, Chathukulam and John 1998]. and was a theme in every training session. Beneficiary Committees
The campaign sought to address the From the second year (1998-99) onwards,
theme of the unsustainability of the envi- it was made mandatory that 10 per centThe perceived logic behind beneficiary
able gains made by Kerala in the social of the plan funds should be set apart by committees (BCs) is to prevent leakages
sector and the increasing stagnation in the panchayats at all levels for projects meant
accruing from the intervening role of the
productive sectors by means of participa- exclusively for women. The 'peoples' contractors in public construction works.
tory planning. The process started with campaign' has a strict time schedule for The committee consists of seven to 15
sector-based need identification in the the completion of annual projects with members with representation for women
gram sabhas. This was followed by par- disincentives in the form of reductions in and scheduled castes. Chairperson and
grants for those panchayats which fail to convenors are generally males. All the
ticipatory secondary data collection about
reach a threshold level of spending each projects have beneficiary committees on
these sectors from local offices, genera-
tion of local general and development year.The plan exercise was a highly con- paper. They are given an advance of one-
history, conduct of transect walks (onetrolled,
of and standardised one allowing very fourth of the project cost subject to a

Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002 1941

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
maximum of Rs 50,000 before works are Sen Committee on panchayat reforms Further, there are task forces for project
initiated. The amount is drawn in the name formulation and plan implementation, in
whose recommendations were incorporated
of the convenor of the beneficiary com- into the amended Panchayat Act 1999
all panchayats. Ward development com-
mittee. When these committees actually envisaged neighbourhood groups mittees
as a and user committees also have
started functioning they faced numerous come up in some panchayats.
support structure to strengthen gram sabha
difficulties. The presence of the govern- and called upon the government to encou-
ment engineer continued to be conspicu- rage constitution of these bodies and 'Kudumbasree'
ous in roles such as supervision, measure- provide them some 'autonomous area of
ment and check measurement, verification, Kudumbasree is a government pro-
functioning' [Government of Kerala 1997].
preparation of bill and the final payment. Each NHG is to elect by consensus gramme
two for poverty alleviation of wome
There are numerous hurdles that these conveners, a male and a female. The NHGs
experimented first in an urban setting i
can form a number of subcommittees and
committees face given their lack of where- Alappuzha, which was later scaled up t
withal, technical know how and skilled each subcommittee should have two selected panchayats. In this scheme women
workers. In addition they have to please conveners, a male and a female. Inrepresentatives
this of all the neighbourhood
the engineers often with bribes. In view way, each neighbourhood group willinhave
a ward are grouped into an area devel
of these difficulties, in many places, con- 10 to 20 conveners or office bearers who opment society(ADS) chaired by the
tractors have appeared under the guise of constitute a pool from which new leader-panchayat member. The ADS of all th
beneficiary committees. The beneficiary ship at the grass roots level can emergewards in a panchayat are federated into
committees now merely serve as facilitat- [Parameswaran 1998]. It has been claimed panchayat level development committe
ing mechanisms of the contractors forfaster that the formation of NHGs "...has been chaired by the panchayat president. In othe
payments rather than as genuine people's words, this is a programme for povert
a spontaneous response from below to the
project implementation committees. Since limitations of the gram sabhas" [Issacalleviation that seeks to bring all poo
75 per cent of the funds should be spent 2000:316].This is a far-fetched claim notwomen organised for micro-credit unde
before the end of each financial year in borne out by empirical reality. The role ofthe governmental umbrella. Removal o
order to become eligible to receive the agency, especially that of developmentpoverty by the year 2007 is declared go
allocation for the ensuing year in full, most projects, and expectation of benefits from of this programme. The programme look
panchayats depend on the contractors to them, have been crucial motivating factors upon the NHGs as similar to SHGs oblivi
meet the targeted expenditure and dead- in the formation of the NHGs.4 However, ous of the different contexts in which the
lines. Genuine BCs, which are very few, some of these NHGs with appropriatearose. The net result is confusion and a
have never taken a second work if the leadership have, over time, transformed kind of immobilism. The programme is a
experience of Kottayam district is any themselves into institutional forms capablemechanism to bring the SHGs under the
indication. Transition from a BC to a of cultivating neighbourhood conscious- government umbrella and to give them
maintenance committee does not take place ness and mutuality transcending primor- access to a package of benefits that come
at all. The emergence of contractors is dial
notand class loyalties.5 in its wake including financial assistance.
a distinct contribution of the 'plan cam- Approximately 40-50 households is theOne of the panchayat staff is exclusively
paign'. The contractors have been active ideal size of an NHG, but the actual numberassigned for this purpose in each panchayat.
since the inception of the Jawahar Rozgar The intention of this is to bring the SHGs
varies according to natural boundaries like,
Yojana, a rural development programme canals, rivulets, roads and beaten tracks.under the regulatory control of the state,
sponsored by the central government Neighbourhood
in groups serve as quick especially given the fact that many of them
information
early 1990s, which stipulates that nominees outlets about panchayat have come into existence through NGO
of the local beneficiaries should undertake intervention. There have been resistance
development projects. They also resolve
work. Although BCs have been substitu- a number of neighbourhood conflicts many on the part of the SHGs created through
ted by contractors in most of the panchayats, of which would have otherwise gone to the mediation of NGOs to such moves for
the quality of work has improved to some courts. To that extent, it reduces the burden
incorporation. The Kudumbasree project
extent.2 This has also shown the limits of of the panchayat member in local dispute is a strategy of the state to appropriate civic
people's involvement in the implementa- management. space and bring it under administrative
tion of projects involving some technical
and construction content.
INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE
Neighbourhood Groups Nagarabhavi PO: BANGALORE-560 072
The concept of NHGs often elicits feel- Applications are invited from suitable candidates for the post of Econ
ings of nostalgia and smacks of an effort (equivalent to Associate Professor) on contract basis, to work in a
to revive communitarian ideals. In a highly project on "Roles of Local Organisations" for a period of one year.
individualised society like Kerala having will be commensurate to the qualification and experience. Intereste
a settlement pattern which tends to rein- may apply within ten days from the date of publication of this adv
force this individualism, this has particular giving full details of qualification, experience, publications etc., to
relevance. A number of individuals in signed at the above address.
Sd/-
Kerala influenced by communitarian ideas
had experimented with NHGs before the M N Ranganathan
idea was taken on board by the KSSP.3 The Registrar

1942 Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
surveillance capitalising on the general of rural local government in Kerala.Sri Chithira Thirunal Cheramar
public faith in government institutions. Movement of the agricultural labourers forMahasabha, Kerala Cheramar Sabha,
The new state government led by the land reforms, and agitations against land-Viswa Karma Sabha, Kudumbi Samudaya
Congress Party in the middle of 2001 alsolordism and the proposal to fill the back- Seva Sangham, Pulayar Mahasabha also
is committed to the continuance of the waters adjoining the panchayat contri- have their local units in the panchayat area.
programme.However, since the new gov- buted to a realignment of the class forces
ernment does not see decentralisation as in favour of the left parties in the panchayat. New Institutions in
The panchayat is currently ruled by the
an exercise involving a campaign effort, Chempu Panchayat
CPM-led coalition which holds six out of
there has been greater bureaucratic control
over the Kudumbasree programme. the nine seats. The main opposition partyThe context within which the NHGs
is the Congress. Leadership of the were formed in Chempu panchayat is the
Ill panchayat generally alternates between the initiative made in this regard by the Nirmal
Socio-Economic Profile Marxist-led Leftist and Congress-led coa- 2000, a total sanitation project implemented
litions. The panchayat has local units of by the Kottayam district administration
of Chempu Panchayat
all major political parties in Kerala. even as the 'plan campaign' was going on.
Chempu village panchayat is located in There are five libraries in the panchayat A precondition for the implementation of
Vaikom Taluk of Kottayam district. It hasaround which associational life takes place. the project was the formation of NHGs.
an area of 18.42 square kilometres and aLocal goverance and other such matters, Because 35.5 per cent of the households
population of 18,828 as per 1991 Census.national and international issues and so on in Chempu do not have latrines, the
There are 9,490 males and 9,338 females are discussed in these library settings by panchayat responded to the project enthu-
in the panchayat. It has nine wards ( 11 afterthe local people and, in two libraries, siastically and formed NHGs. It was only
the most recent delimitation of electoral resource persons from outside the pan- in November 1999 that the first NHGs
constituencies). There are a large numberchayat engage classes every month on were formed. There are now 79 NHGs in
of fishermen and fish vendors as well as subjects of current importance. Women the panchayat. For every 40 to 50 houses
coir workers in the panchayat. It is one of are conspicuously absent in these fora. there is a neighbourhood group. NHGs
the backward panchayats in the district and There are 19 youth clubs in the panchayatexist in all the wards although full cov-
the benefits of social development thatand they are found in all the wards.erage has not been attained in some. There
characterise most parts of Kerala have not However, women are not members of these is one ward which has drawn all the
reached the area. majority of the peopleyouth clubs. Traditionally, associational households into the neighbourhood group
have been beneficiaries of the land reforms life among women was confined to the 12 framework. All the SHGs, which are ex-
initiated by the communist governments'mahila samajams' (women's clubs) exist- clusively of women, function under th
that came to power in the state. Of theing in the village, which were also created NHGs. The NHG also has a subcommittee
4,423 houses in the panchayat, 1,160 are under state and parastatal patronage. Fol- to take care of activities related to the 'total
thatched ones. There are 414 concrete lowing the 'plan campaign', these sanitation programme'. Two representa-
houses. Excepting one ward, all the other'samajams' have been transformed intotives, a male and female, are elected from
self-help groups. There are also 12 riceeach neighbourhood group to serve on the
wards are in low-lying areas that are marshy.
The density of population is very high if committees in the panchayat. These ward development committee present in
fields
we take the inhabitable areas alone into committees originally constituted by the each ward presided over by the panchayat
account. Coconut and paddy are cultivatedgovernment influenced by the group farm- member representing that ward. It also has
ing idea (a strategy which retains owner- an elected convenor, elected from the 30
in the panchayat. The literacy rate of males
ship and benefits in the hands of the land- representatives of the neighbourhood
is 96 per cent and that of females, 84 per
cent. Scheduled caste population in the holder but engages in cooperative and co- groups. NHGs have a minimum of two and
panchayat is 10.2 per cent. As per 1997 ordinated action to offset the diseconomies a maximumof three self-help groups func-
of scale caused by the fragmentation of tioning under them. In 80 per cent of the
figures 1,571 houses (35.5 per cent) do not
have latrines, which makes sanitation an
land following land reforms and maximise NHGs, either the president or secretary is
important felt need, a problem that most
returns) now merely function as outlets for a woman.
the distribution of subsidies and other
other panchayats in the district have ad- The sanitation committee identifies first
dressed already. The Panchayat had a gross
benefits to the paddy cultivating farmers. those who do not have latrines and assis-
income from all sources amounting They to meet only twice in a year and they tance from the Nirmal 2000 project routed
Rs 14,66,653.85 (US $ 30,556) during function under panchayat level agricul- through the panchayat is provided to those
tural office. In addition to that, there iswho
1995-96 financial year, a year before the an do not have the means to construct
'peoples' plan campaign' was launched. association of coconut farmers also at the latrines. The committee also supervises
panchayat level that also works along the construction of latrines. All financial
The plan funds devolved by the state during
2000-2001 to the panchayat account for similar lines. The potential of the existingtransactions are made through the convenor
Rs 39.89 lakh. In addition to this, the committees of the farmers to function as of the committee.The accounts and progress
panchayat has its own income from taxa-beneficiary committees was not explored reports are presented in the monthly NHG
tion, licensing and assets and also fundsfully in the 'plan campaign'. Aside frommeeting by the convenor. The NHG com-
from central government rural develop- these, caste and religious organisationsmunicates about gram sabha meetings. In
ment schemes. It also gets its share oflike the Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana addition, it also lets the members know
development schemes initiated by the blockYogam, Nair Service Society, Jamat Com- about the projects implemented by the
and district panchayats, the other two tiersmittee, Dheevara Vamsodharani Sabha, panchayat and distributes application

Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002 1943

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
forms. The applications collected from each are unable to be active at the NHG level
an increase in the participation level of
neighbourhood group are then entrusted to since the forum is based on discussion,
both males and females.
the ward development committee (WDC). debate and transparency for which partyThe percentage of women in the develop-
The beneficiaries are not selected at the ment seminars in 1997-98 was 21.28 of
training in democratic centralism is found
wanting. Small wonder that some of the
neighbourhood group level. Although there the total. This increased to 33.51 per cent
was a suggestion that this should be done,
non-Marxists in the neighbourhood groups during 1999-2000, which is also a refle-
statutory provisions have not been made ction of the role of NHGs and SHGs in
are more successful in interacting with the
NHGs more creatively.
in this regard. It is the WDC chaired by enhancing participation, at least in quan-
the ward member which selects the bene- One of the features of the NHGs is that titative terms.
ficiaries based on the criteria laid downpeople particularly certain minority groups The beneficiary committees (BCs) car-
by the panchayat by assigning marks who or were wary of socialising along inter- ried out all the construction works ex-
weight for each application proportionate group basis have now improved their day- ecuted in the Chempu panchayat. This
to its eligibility. The intermediary role to-day
of interaction with other com- makes the panchayat an exceptional one.
munities.This has resulted in better inter-
the WDC, which is often dominated by the In none of the sixty nine BCs found in the
supporters of the ruling group in the
religious communication and association panchayat women serve as chairpersons or
in the panchayat.
panchayat, is often seen as an irritant, and conveners. There are a number of reasons
allegations of political favouritism are not why BCs succeeded in this panchayat.
rare. The beneficiary lists submitted by the Effect on Participation First, the presence of a woman engineer
WDCs of each ward are consolidated at in the Gram Sabha appointed on an ad hoc basis by the
the panchayat level and presented to the panchayat was found to be one reason. The
gram sabha for approval. None of the gram sabhas in Chempu second was that in each BC the panchayat
The relationship between the NHGs and panchayat had to be postponed so farcould due find at least one person from the
the panchayat is yet to be crystallised, toso
absence of quorum. While gram sabhas locality who had the technical knowledge,
also the potential and value of the NHGs take approximately two to three hours materials
in and manpower to undertake the
in local governance. The neighbourhood other panchayats, in some wards of Chempu work. In many cases, such persons them-
groups, in addition to monitoring the SHG panchayat, the gram sabhas extended selves for became the convenors of the BCs.
activity and implementing the sanitation more than five hours, and on some occa- This enabled the expertise and speed often
programme, have been found to be serving sions, business was transacted in lantern possessed by local contractors to be inte-
an important function in local level light. There has been an upward trend in
grated with the BC work without allowing
conflict resolution. The procedure adopted for quality to suffer and leakage to take
the average participation in the gram sabha
is thus. The aggrieved person submits a
during place. However, there has not been any
successive years after the 'people's
written petition to the executive commit- planning programme' was launched. monitoring
The of the work or the transition
tee of the neighbourhood detailing the average number of participants, which of wasthese committees into maintenance
issue at hand. The committee discusses the 125 in 1997-98, increased to 132 in 1998- committees. There are no user committees
matter and adopts an appropriate proce- 99. It became 142 in 1999-2000 and 178 in Chempu panchayat.
dure for resolving conflicts. A joint sitting during 2000-2001. In other words, thereOne feature of the work done by the BC
of the contending parties in the presence has been a rise of 5.6 per cent in 1998-99, in Chempu panchayat is that between 5 to
of the committee members themselves often 8.33 during 1999-2000 and 24.48 per cent 10 per cent of the total project cost is
takes place. There is not much space for during 2000-2001 over the successive mobilised from the local beneficiaries. This
negotiations. The collective will of the years. It may be noted that the gram sabhas takes place in two forms. With regard to
community is brought to bear on the held after NHG formation recorded the road projects, the able-bodied locals con-
conflicting parties and a formula for set- highest increase of 24.48 per cent. Overall, tribute most of this in the form of manual
tling the conflict is evolved. In this way participation has increased since 1997-98 labour. Here the role of clubs, NHGs and
several conflicts have been resolved ami- by 42.4 per cent. It may be noted that theSHGs is crucial.6 One reason why the
cably and quickly. Although neighbour- SHGs came during 1998-2000 period and projects have a high construction work
hood groups are expected to be inclusive NHGs during 2000-2001. content is because the area is very under-
bodies, the rich, educated and salaried class If we take the proportion of participationdeveloped in infrastructure and there is
have not participated in the neighbour- some degree of consensus and congruence
of women, it is found that there is a steady
hood meetings except during the forma-increase. The percentage of females, which between different sections about address-
tion stage making it increasingly an all was 30.32 in the first year, jumped to 46.6ing this need urgently. In addition, the
poor assembly. Most of those who come during the second year and further to 55.72thickness of associational life in the
to attend the meetings are drawn from the in the third year. During 2000-2001 it was
non-political and voluntary sector, espe- 42.30. It may be noted that the higher Table:1 Beneficiary Committees and the
cially literacy workers, members of youthproportion of participation of women Amount Spent Annually
clubs and women's forums or 'mahila during 1999-2000 could be attributed to the
Year Number of Number of Amount

samajams'. formation of self-help groups a year before Construction BCs Spent

on an extensive scale. During 2000-2001,
Although the panchayat is a stronghold 1997-98 8 8 492000
of the CPM and the NHGs were formed following the formation of NHGs, the 1998-99 17 17 825379
1999-2000 42 42 3228721
proportion of males participating in the
thanks partly to the party initiative; the
Total 69 69 4546100
gram sabha registered an increase. Simi-
local party functionaries, given their con-
ventional party training and orientation, Source: Survey Data.
larly, in absolute terms also, there has been

1944 Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Chart: Yearwise Formation of SHGs
per cent. This has affected 28.05 per cent
of the groups. Majority (56.11 per cent)
of the self help groups have their accounts
ro
o in cooperative banks. By appointing afield
o

154 officer exclusively for the assistance of

self-help groups, the Syndicate Bank, which
.n
O does not belong to the cooperative sector,
(D has succeeded in getting the accounts of
() -O o
30.22 per cent of the self-help groups
operated through it. Twenty-seven percent
of the total deposits of the SHGs is de-
Z/
I ,1
I38
posited in the banks. The SHGs have loaned
out 71.56 per cent of the total deposits as
loans to the members. They have collected
1997 1998 1999 2000
an average amount of Rs 15,957.78 (US$
Year 334) and, of this,Rs 4,307.92 (US$ 90) is
the average amount deposited in the bank
by each self-help group.The average de-
posit per person is Rs1,017. The average
panchayat also facilitates the articulationfrom the facilitating environment offered
of these needs and the aggregation ofby the 'Plan Campaign'.7 weekly contribution of a SHG member is
demands for meeting them. Although There has been a high degree of uneven- Rs 11. The total number of members in
the 210 SHGs is 3,295. In other words,
estimates of works are displayed throughness in the distribution of self-help groups
notice boards, expenditure statements havein Chempu panchayat between wards. For 35.28 per cent of the women population
not found a place on such boards or onexample, it ranges between 2.16 per cent of the panchayat have been brought under
the work sites. Table 1 shows the number in ward no 1 and 20.86 in ward no 3 SHG framework. If we leave out girls
of BCs and the amount spent by them(Table 2). below 18 and those above 70 from the
each year. The spectacular rise in the formation women's
of population, the percentage is
estimated to reach 66.42 per cent. One
self-help groups during 1998-99 financial
Self-Help Groups hundred and thirty six SHGs in the
year, which synchronises with the second
panchayat have so far received assistance
year of participatory planning, is a direct
There has also been a proliferation of result of the planning process. It was from
from either the district or block or village
SHGs in the last three years in all the this year onwards that 10 per cent of panchayat
the or a combination of two or all
panchayats in Kerala. During 1997, some funds was to be mandatorily allocated to for
the tune of Rs 5,01,860. All the SHGs
panchayats that allocated funds for women projects exclusively meant for women function on the basis of their own indi-
failed to come up with viable projects. The (Chart). vidual by-laws prepared in accordance
formation of SHGs on a rapid scale from Most of the reasons cited for the forma- with a model by-law and all are registered
1998 onwards enabled the panchayat mem- tion of the self-help groups are related to with the village panchayat.
bers to allocate substantial portions of the survival needs of women. The panchayat Subjects like education of children,
10 per cent of the funds for assisting SHGs has been the major motivating factor in the immunisation programme, panchayat
in their productive ventures. Another fac- formation of these self-help groups. Mem- schemes, gram sabha, etc, are discussed
tor that contributed to SHG formation was bers of self-help groups are drawn from in the SHGs. There has not been network-
the'group approach' adopted by the govern- the economically lower strata with major- ing among the SHGs in the panchayat so
ment of India for rural development projects ity of them coming from occupation areas far which enables collective bargaining at
from 1999 onwards [Government of India such as construction work, coconut pro- the panchayat level.
1999]. Unlike in other parts of the country cessing, mat weaving, coir work, sand Women who have participated in the
where non-governmental organisations collection, agricultural labour, fish catch- gram sabha belong to all the 210 SHGs.
(NGOs) have been in the forefront of SHG ing and fish vending, rearing cows and Members of SHGs have become part of
formation, in Kerala, the intervening role goats, preparation of snacks, handloom, the decision-making structures of other
of the grama panchayat, and to a lesser tailoring, curry powder manufacture and
extent, block panchayat members, has been rubber tapping. Table 2: Wardwise Distribution of SHGs
the major factor accounting for the rise of The lowest number of members in the
Ward Number of SHGs Percentage
these groups on an extensive scale. The self-help groups under study is nine and
1 5 2.16
mushrooming of SHGs of the poor has the highest, 27. The average number is 16. 2 23 10.79
unsettled the existence of SHGs formed It is found that 77.71 per cent of the 3 44 20.86
by NGOs in certain pockets, which often members of the SHGs come from the below 4 39 18.70
5 20 9.35
had a mixed composition. In Chembu
poverty line segment.8 Further, 31.54 per
6 22 10.79
panchayat, all the SHGs have been formed
cent of the SHG members are found to go 7 15 7.19
in the wake of the 'people's campaign'. out of the precincts of their home for 8 21 10.07
It has been found that need for credit andemployment and 54.68 per cent of the 9 21 10.07
Total 210 100.00
small savings served as the major moti- SHGs have such members. The drop out
vating factors for SHG formation apart from SHG membership rate so far is 5.41 Source: Survey Data.

Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002 1945

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
institutions such as NGHs, task forces and suggest. The strength and sustainability of
confidential and publicised during the gram
beneficiary committees. Because the SHGs the new forms of social capital created
sabha meeting to prevent pressure exerted
are at once linked to the, 'Kudumbasree', by individuals for inclusion of their names
through governmental initiative, especially
the state-sponsored programme, and at the in the list. It has been found that when the
those in which women predominate, in an
same time are beneficiaries of the centrally era of globalisation and withdrawal of
list is presented to the grama sabha, no-
sponsored programme known as Suvarna body objects to it given the objectivity of patronage will depend largely on the
state
Jayanthi Swarozgar Yojana (SJSY) and the selection process. Most of the WDC resilience of these new institutions having
the three-tier panchayats, a crowding ef- members value their membership highly an opportunistic origin.
fect on their beneficiary status take place. and this institution now serves as a quasi
This makes it necessary that they deal with decision-making body between the IV
the officials of all three of these agencies. panchayat and the gram sabha at the ward Conclusion
The members of the SHGs have taken a level. Each WDC can have sub-commit-
sum of Rs 31,05,498 as loan from their tees it deems necessary to engage in more Associational life in Kerala has received
own deposits at interest rates ranging focused actions in identified areas. Be- an unprecedented fillip following partici-
cause of the existence of the WDC as an
between 24 per cent and 60,with the benefits patory planning. In Chempu, these insti-
intermediate mechanism, the gram sabha
of the interest payments being distributed tutions have assisted the process of par-
among the members equally. The percent- in the panchayat merely functions asticipatory a planning considerably. But they
age of SHGs engaged in productive acti- body that grants approval to the decisions are also aimed at creating sites which could
vities (21 such activities have been iden-
taken by the WDC. serve as a check on the functioning of the
tified) in addition to small savings is 87.In spite of all these new institutions, thepanchayat. While the NHGs relation with
Sixty eight percentage of the total mem- role of political parties in the panchayat the panchayat is yet to be crystallised, it
bers of the SHGs are engaged in employ- continues to be the most pronounced. is A the intermediary organisation of ward
ment in these ventures and they earn notional demarcation between the areas in development committee, which is becom-
between Rs 150 and Rs 600 every month.9 which the political parties and these newing more powerful given its elected char-
Only 8.26 per cent of the SHGs have takeninstitutions concentrate has come about. acter. Hence, the ability of the panchayat
loans from banks and this amounts to Family and land disputes are increasingly member to carry the ward development
Rs 3,17,500. The total investment made being taken up by NHGs, which werecommittee with him/her is crucial for
for the different ventures is Rs. 8,87,019
earlier handled by political parties. The smooth conduct of gram sabha. Instead of
low political issues are handled by NHGs
and average investment per unit is Rs 4,847. the beneficiary committees, which have a
Only 18.7 per cent of the membersand purely ad hoc character, lasting until the
of the high political ones, by the political
SHGs have got training of one kind orparties.
the There has been greater interest in completion of a particular project, if the
other the running of micro-institutions.celebrating
All local festivals in recent days.functions are assigned to the WDC, this
Parent-Teachers Associations (PTAs) have
the others function on their own by sharing will pave the way for less duplication of
ideas and consulting those who have been re- active in the schools situated in the institutions and lend them more legiti-
ceived training. A self-assessment testpanchayat
of for long and in primary schoolsmacy. Only such elected committees can
the SHG members conducted by the mothers're- forums also exist. However, theseevolve user committees. Further, women' s
institutions, after a couple of years, lan-share in associational life has increased
searchers showed a definite positive trend
in self-confidence, goal directedness guish
and although they do not disappear alto- several times and their weekly meetings
high motivation levels.10 gether. There has been a sudden increase show greater regularity and frequency.
Perhaps the most powerful and presti- in the number of participatory institutionsSimilarly, their representation in ward
gious body that has come into place fol-with overlapping membership a very com-development committees is half of the
lowing the 'plan campaign', though with-mon feature of the associational life that total membership with potential for its
prevails in the panchayat. Further, theretranslation into women-friendly develop-
out a statutory status, is the ward devel-
opment committee (WDC), which is com- has been an enhancement of participationment policies.
in marriages and during death ceremonies The phenomenal rise of micro-level
posed of two elected representatives (one
male and the other female) from eachinof recent years. institutions in Kerala in the last five years,
The absence of any NGO activity in thealthough holds out lot of promises in terms
the NHGs present in the ward. In Kalliasseri
where such committees were created first,
panchayat even after five years of partici- of their potential for strengthening social
patory planning is a notable feature. Thecapital and through it also civil society, has
it does not stop with the ward and reaches
situation is not in any way different in otherhad a crowding effect on the rural scenario.
up to the panchayat level. The chairperson
panchayats in the district. The KSSP had
or president of the WDC is the ward member The rise of these new institutions is not
and a secretary/convenor is elected froma unit in the panchayat which is now spontaneous. They are either created as
among the representatives of the NHGs. defunct.What we witness in Chempunecessary elements of the planning pro-
The selection of beneficiaries belonging panchayat is a kind of feminisation ofcess or are formed at the initiative of the
to the ward is done by the WDC. During social capital. The older forms of socialpanchayat members. In some ways, the rise
2000-2001 period the beneficiaries were capital which was shaped through adver- of WDCs as powerful institutions has led
selected by one of the WDCs by beingsarial in politics accompanied by comple-to eroding the status of the panchayat as
session continuously for five days with mentary
full state action does not seem to bea local government. However, such ero-
quorum. There have not been any allega- capable of addressing the developmentalsion is accommodated within the leftist
tions regarding corruption in the prepara-problems faced by Kerala as the experi-paradigm of participatory development.
ence of five years of 'plan campaign' The composition of such bodies through
tion of the beneficiary list. The list is kept

1946 Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
elections invests them with a legitimacy to be bridged. In other words what we need in Kanjikkuzhi in the same district. In
that may pose a potential threat to the is a strong and efficient institution of Kunnothuparambu panchayat, a water conser
vation project implemented under the
legitimacy of the panchayat members. It panchayat and a vibrant associational leadership of the district collector of Kannu
is therefore necessary that the relation of life which survives without state patro- also formed NHGs to introduce participatory
the panchayat development committees and nage. This is a challenge that the managers elements. In Peringome-Vykara panchaya
the NGHs with the panchayat are spelt out of the 'plan campaign' should address where an animal husbandry project was
in less ambiguous terms so that they func- if the gains of the planning exercise are implemented by the Kerala Veterinary
to endure. 1G2 Surgeons' Service Association, neighbour
tion under the overall leadership of the
hood groups were formed [Issac 2000]. In
panchayat and not effect further diffusion Kottayam district, Kumarakom was one of the
and erosion in the local government with Notes selected panchayats and NHGs were existenc
attendant implications for effective gov- [The authors would like to thank A K Mathew,
in the panchayat even before the plan campaign
had started. All these NHGs were formed in
ernance and also for accountability. With Research Officer, Centre for Rural Management,
the context of introducing participatory
so many institutions in place and the Kottayam, for providing research support for the
elements in project management rather than
duplication caused by programmes like preparation of this paper and the Kerala Research
spontaneously.
Kudumbasree, the viability and sustain- Programme on Local Level Development
5 NHGs do not always function as organisations
(KRPLLD), Thiruvananthapuram for funding the
ability of many of these institutions are of the local community in the ideal sense.
study.] Studies conducted in Vithura and Nanniode
doubtful. While it is true that class mobili-
sation and state formation worked in tan- 1 The World Bank defines social capital as the village panchayats in Thiruvanathapuram
"norms and social relations embedded in the district in Kerala have concluded that "though
dem with the state in Kerala responding social structures of societies that enable people their (NHGs') formation is a step towards
to aggregated demands so as to effect state- to coordinate action to achieve desired goals" more participative planning, they are not free
society synergy, and also that there is greater (see: (www.worldbank.orglpoverty/scapital/ from the danger of becoming instrumental in
index.htm). future politicisation of the system" [Nair
faith in the machinery of the state and its
2 However, the samples represented the BCs 2000:43].
pre-eminent position in controlling differ- 6 It has also been found that cash contribution
and not the average BCs. The results of the
ent walks of life to offset the market, such
survey do not agree with the data relating to the tune of 3 lakh and labour amounting
strategies may not work in an era ofglobali- to the BCs that the researchers have collected to three lakh has been envisaged for the
sation. The people's planning exercise was from different parts of the district of Kottayam construction of a local bridge the total cost
initiated from the above with the assis- where the BCs themselves are increasingly of which is Rs 54 lakh, and half the targeted
being turned into fake or namesake resource mobilisation has already been
tance of a pro-government NGO, which achieved. Further, it was the BC members
institutions with almost all work being
had become a part of the state-society undertaken by the contractors. themselves who lobbied the other tiers of
synergy framework especially during the3 Originally, the concept of NHGs was practised panchayats, state government departments
rule of the CPM. in Kanjippadam, Ambalppuzha, since the late and members of Parliament to fund the pro-
While a number of institutions having seventies, thanks to the personal initiative and ject to the tune of Rs 37 lakh. The remaining
inspiring and selfless leadershipof a Gandhian Rs 11 lakh is allocated by the village
opportunistic origins have been put in place,
activist D Pankajakshan. It was mainly a
panchayat.
the plan campaign is seemingly closing the mutual help institution aimed at fostering 7 It is generally found that panchayat members
space for the emergence of private and communitarian values [Pankajakshan 1989]. belonging to the Left are more enthusiastic
NGO sectors leaving the civil society to It did not have any economic content, which in forming some of these institutions like the
we often tend to associate with such bodies NHGs compared to members belonging to the
that extent less vibrant. Society consists
now. Taking his cue from Pankajakshan, and Congress-led coalition, because these have
of elements of self-interest, self-realisation
based on experience of community work under been earlier experimented in panchayats held
and social solidarity, i e, individuals are Malanadu Development Society (a local by the CPM front with the active involvement
simultaneously self-seekers, group affi- NGO), NHGs were formed in Nalpathimala of the KSSP. A study conducted in Madhya
liators, and civic actors. Civil society cannot adjacent to Mahatma Gandhi University, Pradesh has shown that "SHG formation has

eliminate the role of political authority. Kottayam, underthe aegis of National Students been more successful where a "credit plus"
Service by Thomas Abraham, who was the approach has been adopted, that is savings
Civil society is sustained in conditions of
then Programme Coordinator [Abraham and credit activities have been part of an
effective rule and not in an environment
1993]. Constantine Manalel, inspired by the integrated package of activities rather than
in which mobilisation is strong and the Christian initiatives in Latin America the sole intervention" [Unicef 1998].
institutions of the local government are also experimented with this concept 8 IninIndia poverty line calculated on the basis
Pullarikkunnu in Kottayam district. All these of annual income stands at Rs 21,000 or US
weak. Correspondingly, while these insti-
tutions have been created as a kind of were experiments, which tried to bring together$ 438 approximately.
all sections of society in a neighbourhood 9 List of ventures include, sale of household
check and balance on the panchayat, the without being exclusivist in focus. provisions, choir making, fish vending,
panchayat continues to be an institution 4 The NHG experiment under KSSP leadership preparation ofpappads, sale of dry fish, making
total unprofessional in its orientation and was carried out in Kalyasseri panchayatofin sweets, manufacture of curry powder, ready
far removed from being described as aKannur district. An agency known as the made dress, sale of coir products, sale of
Kalyasseri Development Society consisting prawn, mat sale, soap manufacturing, rice
local government. It is doubtful that
of representatives of 200 NHGs was formed selling, vegetables, paddy, tailoring, firewood,
mobilisation from above will sustain civil
in the panchayat [Isaac et al 1995]. Similarly,curd manufacture and sale, pickle manufacture
society. While, it may be necessary as a and sale.
NHGs were formed in twenty-one Panchayats
catalyst, its persistence can act as a fetter under the Kerala Research Programme in the basis of a set of criteria developed by
10 On
on the unfolding of civil life, for, ulti- Local Level Development project funded the
by authors, which include self-assessment of
a Netherlands agency. Neighbourhood groupsthe performance of the SHG by members
mately, civil society stands for the "capac-
themselves, ability to include all women in
of beneficiaries of public taps were formed
ity of a society to organise itself without the neighbourhood in the SHG, ability to go
in Trikkunnapuzha in Aleppey district under
being organised by the state" [Calhoun a Dutch assisted drinking water projectbeyond
as collection of savings, participation in
1993:391]. It is this critical gap that needs the activities carnled out by the panchayat,
well as under a vegetable cultivation project

Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002 1947

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 ability to resolve conflicts among members to the Malayalee People', Economic and Isaac, Thomas with Richard Franke, (2000): Local
and the manner of involvement, activities Political Weekly, 31, NolO. Democray and Development: People's
other than lending that the SHGs have under- Government of India (1999): SGSY Guidelines Campaign for Decentralised Planning in
taken, unity of effort and the nature of leader- 1999, Ministry of Rural Development, New Kerala, Leftword, New Delhi.
ship, regularity in the meetings and election Delhi. Kannan, K P (2000) 'People's Planning: Kerala's
of new members, etc, the following results Government of Kerala (1997): Final Report of the Dilemma', Seminar, January, 485, pp 92-97.
have been obtained. Those who get a positive Committee on Decentralisation of Powers, Korhauser, William (1959) The Politics of Mass
score of 15 and below were rated as below Trivandrum. Society, Free Press, Glencoe, I11.
average, those getting more than 15 but less - (1999): Gunaphokthrusamithy Pravarthana Nair, Gopinathan N D (2000): 'People's Planning
than 20 were rated as average and those who Margarekha, State Planning Board, in Kerala: A Case Study of Two Village
score 20 or above were ranked as high in the Trivandrum. Panchayats, Kerala Research Programme on
- (2000): Economic Review 1999, State Planning
rating. Accordingly it was found that 14.38 per Local Level Development', Discussion Paper
cent of the SHGs had a score of below average, Board, Trivandrum. No 16, February, Centre for Developing
58.27 per cent average and the remaining
Heller, Patrick (1996): 'Social Capital as Product Studies, Trivandrum.
27.35 high. In other words, more than 85.62 of Class Mobilisation and State Intervention: Pankajakshan, D (1989): Puthiya Lokam, Puthiya
per cent of the SHGs had satisfactory or good Industrial Workers in Kerala, India', World Vazhi (Malayalam), Kanjippadam, Alleppey.
achievement scores, which speak of reasonably Development 24, No 6. Parameswaran, M P (1998): 'Going Local:
good prospects for social capital. - (2000): 'Degrees of Democracy: Some Creating Community Sustainability and Self-
Comparative Lessons from India', World Reliance in the Global Age', Paper presented
at the 4th Mid-Atlantic Environmental
References Politics, 52 (July), pp 484-519
Hungtingon, P Samuel (1968): Political Order in Conference, April 25, RAMAPO College of
Calhoun, Craig (1993): 'Nationalism and Civil Changing Societies, Yale University Press, New Jersey.
Society: Democracy, Diversity and Self- New Haven. Putnam, Robert D (1993): Making Democrac
Determination', International Sociology, 8, 4,Isaac Thomas( 1997):Jankeeyasuthranam: Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy,
pp 387-411. Sidhanthavum Prayogavum (Malayalam), Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Chathukulam, Jos and M S John (1998): Kerala State Planning Board. - (1995): 'Bowling Alone: America's Declinin
Panchayati Rajum Sen Committium Isaac, Thomas and Harilal (1997): 'Planning for Social Capital', Journal of Democracy, Vol
(Malayalam), Centre for Rural Management, Empowerment: People's Campaign for (1), January pp 65-78.
Kottayam. Decentralised Planning in Kerala', Economic Thomas, Abraham C (1993): Nalpathimalay
Chathukulam, Jos, Jose T Thomas (1997): 'Power and Political Weekly, January, pp 53-58. Pareekshanam (Malayalam), Mahatma Gandh
to the People: Peoples Campaign for Ninth Isaac, Thomas T M et al (1995): Kalliasseri University, Kottayam.
Plan in Kerala', Kurukshetra, June, pp 34-37. Experiment in Local Level Planning, KRPLLD,Unicef (1998): Self Help Groups in Madhy
Franke, Richard and BararaChasin (1997): 'Power Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum. Pradesh, Bhopal.

Discussion

and female children are 'identical in all

Exercises on IMR respects'. In such a situation the associa-

tion between the two will be given by a
simple identity Y = X where without loss
SATISH B AGNIHOTRI tion. He goes on to assert that "even forof generality y is taken as female IMR and
a very large sample of observations, therex as male IMR. There is no other way for
K Saha (2002) has raised some is evidence that IMR may not be a normalthe two to relate to each other whether
methodological issues regarding variate".
my This is not correct. In Agnihotri temporally or longitudinally.
analysis ofIMR variations and gendergaps (2001a) I have referred to both my book In reality, as I have submitted, the two
therein [Agnihotri 2001]. The objections [Agnihorti 2000] and my paper in the are not identical. Therefore, as a first
Journal ofDevelopment Studies [Agnihotriapproximation, deviation from the simple
are primarily related to the validity of using
linear regression technique to look at1999] the where IMRs and under-5 MRs areidentity above will be given by a linear
association between male and the female shown to follow a normal distribution. association, i e, Y = Y0 + mX. The inter-
IMRs in general and use of male IMR as This is certainly so in the case of district-
cept and the slope will tell the story of the
an independent variable in particular.level estimates, i e, large samples. PKS and gender bias if any. One could quite legiti-
Similar concerns have been raised during any interested reader may refer to these. mately postulate the reverse relationship
a couple of my presentations elsewhere The second point is about use of linear or X = X0 + qY. The slope and the intercept
and I think it is appropriate that these regression. Here I have approached the will differ in the two cases.
concerns are addressed, especially so since
issue from a fundamentally different stand- In some quarters (not PKS) I was asked
I do consider this method of inferring point. The analysis does not seek to 'fore- as to why I did not consider higher order
gender bias from available child mortalitycast' female mortality rates on the basis terms,e g, x2, x3' x4 etc? The reason is very
data as useful for further research. of male mortality rates. It essentially ex- simple. For the mortality ranges that we
To begin with PKS is concerned as to plores if it is possible to infer gender bias are concerned with today, data reveal that
whether the IMR is a normal variate, i e, from the mortality data. It therefore beginsa linear relationship fits very well and the
whether these follow a normal distribu- higher order terms are not significant.
with a hypothetical situation where male

1948 Economic and Political Weekly May 18, 2002

This content downloaded from 132.174.251.192 on Wed, 05 Sep 2018 03:18:49 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms