Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

CHAPTER 1

A. Introduction

A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to

create a reservoir on its upstream side for impounding water for various purposes. A dam

and a reservoir are complements of each other. A distinction should be made between a

weir and a dam. A weir is also a structure built across a river; however, its purpose is not

to store water but to divert it. Thus there is no reservoir on the upstream of a weir. If there

is a small storage reservoir on its upstream, the weir is called a storage weir. Dams are

generally constructed in the mountainous reach of the river where the valley is narrow

and the foundation is good. Generally, a hydropower station is also constructed at or near

the dam site to develop hydropower. Sometimes, a pickup weir is constructed on the

downstream of a dam quite away from it in the boulder reach or the alluvial reach of the

river to divert the water released from the dam into canals for irrigation and other

purposes. Dams are probably the most important hydraulic structure built on the rivers.

These are very huge structure. Thousands of workers and engineers work for a number of

years in the construction of a dam.

Dam, structure built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain water. Dams are built

to provide water for human consumption, for irrigating arid and semiarid lands, or for use

in industrial processes. They are used to increase the amount of water available for

generating hydroelectric power, to reduce peak discharge of floodwater created by large

storms or heavy snowmelt, or to increase the depth of water in a river in order to improve

navigation and allow barges and ships to travel more easily. Dams can also provide a lake

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for recreational activities such as swimming, boating, and fishing. Many dams are built for

more than one purpose; for example, water in a single reservoir can be used for fishing,

to generate hydroelectric power, and to support an irrigation system. Water-control

structures of this type are often designated multipurpose dams.

Auxiliary works that can help a dam function properly include spillways, movable gates,

and valves that control the release of surplus water downstream from the dam. Dams can

also include intake structures that deliver water to a power station or to canals, tunnels,

or pipelines designed to convey the water stored by the dam to far-distant places. Other

auxiliary works are systems for evacuating or flushing out silt that accumulates in the

reservoir, locks for permitting the passage of ships through or around the dam site, and

fish ladders (graduated steps) and other devices to assist fish seeking to swim past or

around a dam.

A dam can be a central structure in a multipurpose scheme designed to conserve

water resources on a regional basis. Multipurpose dams can hold special importance in

developing countries, where a single dam may bring significant benefits related to

hydroelectric power production, agricultural development, and industrial growth.

However, dams have become a focus of environmental concern because of their impact

on migrating fish and riparian ecosystems. In addition, large reservoirs can inundate vast

tracts of land that are home to many people, and this has fostered opposition to dam

projects by groups who question whether the benefits of proposed projects are worth the

costs.

In terms of engineering, dams fall into several distinct classes defined by structural

type and by building material. The decision as to which type of dam to build largely

depends on the foundation conditions in the valley, the construction materials available,

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the accessibility of the site to transportation networks, and the experiences of the

engineers, financiers, and promoters responsible for the project. In modern dam

engineering, the choice of materials is usually between concrete, earthfill, and rockfill.

Although in the past a number of dams were built of jointed masonry, this practice is now

largely obsolete and has been supplanted by concrete. Concrete is used to build massive

gravity dams, thin arch dams, and buttress dams. The development of roller-compacted

concrete allowed high-quality concrete to be placed with the type of equipment originally

developed to move, distribute, and consolidate earthfill. Earthfill and rockfill dams are

usually grouped together as embankment dams because they constitute huge mounds

of earth and rock that are assembled into imposing man-made embankments.

Water-resources engineering is concerned with the utilisation of water, control of

water, and water quality management. Water is utilised for various beneficial purposes

such as irrigation, water supply, hydropower and navigation. Water is controlled and

regulated for a variety of purposes such as flood control, land drainage, sewerage and

bridges so that it does not cause damage to property, inconvenience to the public, or loss

of life. Water-quality management or pollution control is also an important phase of water

resources engineering to maintain the required quality of water for municipal and

irrigation uses and to preserve the environment and ecological balance. The development

of water resources of a region requires the conception, planning, design, construction,

and operation of various facilities to utilise and control water, and to maintain water

quality. Because each water-development project is unique, it is not possible to give a

standard solution. The special conditions of each project should be tackled through an

integrated application of the fundamental knowledge of many disciplines. The Planning

of a water-resources development project involves systematic consideration of the

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original statement of purpose, evaluation of alternatives and the final decision. It forms

the basis for the decision to accept or to reject a particular project. It involves a thorough

study of various alternatives, selecting the best alternative and the methods for the

implementing the same to achieve the optimum benefits. It is the most important aspect

of the total engineering for the project. Planning is relatively easier if there is only one

objective to be achieved. In multiple objectives, the planning becomes more difficult. The

planning of the entire river-basin consisting of a number of projects is even more difficult

because whatever is done at one site, it would affect other projects elsewhere in the basin.

Water is the most important natural resource for all living species. The origin of civilization

is closely interconnected with water use and throughout history humans have developed

technologies to exploit water for use in agriculture, households, transport, recreation,

industry, and energy production. This guide focuses on the role of water as an energy

resource.

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B. History

Ancient dams

The Middle East

The oldest known dam in the world is a masonry and earthen embankment at Jawa in the

Black Desert of modern Jordan. The Jawa Dam was built in the 4th millennium BCE to hold

back the waters of a small stream and allow increased irrigation production on arable land

downstream. Evidence exists of another masonry-faced earthen dam built about

2700 BCE at Sadd el-Kafara, about 30 km (19 miles) south of Cairo, Egypt. The Sadd el-

Kafara failed shortly after completion when, in the absence of a spillway that could

resist erosion, it was overtopped by a flood and washed away. The oldest dam still in use

is a rockfill embankment about 6 metres (20 feet) high on the Orontes River in Syria, built

about 1300 BCE for local irrigation use.

The Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians built dams between 700 and 250 BCE for water

supply and irrigation. Contemporary with these was the earthen Maʾrib Dam in the

southern Arabian Peninsula, which was more than 15 metres (50 feet) high and nearly 600

metres (1,970 feet) long. Flanked by spillways, this dam delivered water to a system of

irrigation canals for more than 1,000 years. Remains of the Maʾrib Dam are still evident in

present-day Maʾrib, Yemen. Other dams were built in this period in Sri Lanka, India,

and China.

The Romans

Despite their skill as civil engineers, the Romans’ role in the evolution of dams is not

particularly remarkable in terms of number of structures built or advances in height. Their

skill lay in the comprehensive collection and storage of water and in its transport and

distribution by aqueducts. At least two Roman dams in

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southwestern Spain, Proserpina and Cornalbo, are still in use, while the reservoirs of

others have filled with silt. The Proserpina Dam, 12 metres (40 feet) high, features a

masonry-faced core wall of concrete backed by earth that is strengthened by buttresses

supporting the downstream face. The Cornalbo Dam features masonry walls that form

cells; these cells are filled with stones or clayand faced with mortar. The merit of curving

a dam upstream was appreciated by at least some Roman engineers, and the forerunner

of the modern curved gravity dam was built by Byzantine engineers in 550 CE at a site

near the present Turkish-Syrian border.

Proserpina DamProserpina Dam, Spain.JMN—Cover/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Early dams of East Asia

In East Asia, dam construction evolved quite independently from practices in the

Mediterranean world. In 240 BCE a stone crib was built across the Jing River in the Gukou

valley in China; this structure was about 30 metres (100 feet) high and about 300 metres

(1,000 feet) long. Many earthen dams of moderate height (in some cases of great length)

were built by the Sinhalese in Sri Lanka after the 5th century BCE to form reservoirs or

tanks for extensive irrigation works. The Kalabalala Tank, which was formed by an earthen

dam 24 metres (79 feet) high and nearly 6 km (3.75 miles) in length, had a perimeter of

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60 km (37 miles) and helped store monsoon rainfall for irrigating the country around the

ancient capital of Anuradhapura. Many of these tanks in Sri Lanka are still in use today.

In Japan the Diamonike Dam reached a height of 32 metres (105 feet) in 1128 CE.

Numerous dams were also constructed in India and Pakistan. In India a design employing

hewn stone to face the steeply sloping sides of earthen dams evolved, reaching a climax

in the 16-km- (10-mile-) long Veeranam Dam in Tamil Nadu, built from 1011 to 1037 CE.

In Persia (modern-day Iran) the Kebar Dam and the Kurit Dam represented the world’s

first large-scale thin-arch dams. The Kebar and Kurit dams were built early in the 14th

century by Il-Khanid Mongols; the Kebar Dam reached a height of 26 metres (85 feet),

and the Kurit Dam, after successive heightenings over the centuries, extended 64 metres

(210 feet) above its foundation. Remarkably, the Kurit Dam stood as the world’s tallest

dam until the beginning of the 20th century. By the end of the 20th century, its reservoir

had almost completely silted in, causing floodwaters to regularly overtop the dam and

cause serious erosion. A new, larger dam was built just above the old one in order to

create a new reservoir and redirect floodwaters away from the ancient structure.

Forerunners of the modern dam

The 15th to the 18th century

In the 15th and 16th centuries, dam construction resumed in Italy and, on a larger scale,

in Spain, where Roman and Moorish influence was still felt. In particular, the Tibi

Dam across the Monnegre River in Spain, a curved gravity structure 42 metres (138 feet)

high, was not surpassed in height in western Europe until the building of the Gouffre

d’Enfer Dam in France almost three centuries later. Also in Spain, the 23-metre- (75-foot-

) high Elche Dam, which was built in the early 17th century for irrigation use, was an

innovative thin-arch masonry structure. In the British Isles and northern Europe, where
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rainfall is ample and well distributed throughout the year, dam construction before

the Industrial Revolution proceeded on only a modest scale in terms of height. Dams were

generally limited to forming water reservoirs for towns, powering water mills, and

supplying water for navigation canals. Probably the most remarkable of these structures

was the 35-metre- (115-foot-) high earthen dam built in 1675 at Saint-Ferréol, near

Toulouse, France. This dam provided water for the Midi Canal, and for more than 150

years it was the highest earthen dam in the world.

The 19th century

Up to the middle of the 19th century, dam design and construction were largely based

upon experience and empirical knowledge. An understanding of material and structural

theory had been accumulating for 250 years, with scientific luminaries such

as Galileo, Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Robert Hooke, Daniel

Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, and Claude-Louis Navier among

those who made significant contributions to these advancements. In the 1850s, William

John Macquorn Rankine, professor of civil engineering at the University of Glasgow in

Scotland, successfully demonstrated how applied science could help the practical

engineer. Rankine’s work on the stability of loose earth, for example, provided a better

understanding of the principles of dam design and performance of structures. In mid-

century France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly led the way in developing the mathematical

analysis of vertically faced masonry gravity dams, and François Zola first utilized

mathematical analysis in designing a thin-arch masonry dam.

Development of modern structural theory

Masonry and concrete dam design is based on conventional structural theory. In this

relationship, two phases may be recognized. The first, extending from 1853 until about
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1910 and represented by the contributions of a number of French and British engineers,

was actively concerned with the precise profile of gravity dams in which the horizontal

thrust of water in a reservoir is resisted by the weight of the dam itself and the inclined

reaction of the dam’s foundation. Starting about 1910, however, engineers began to

recognize that concrete dams are monolithic three-dimensional structures in which the

distribution of stress and the deflections of individual points depend on stresses and

deflections of many other points in the structure. Movements at one point have to be

compatible with movements at all others. Because of the complexity of the stress pattern,

model techniques were gradually employed. Models were built in plasticine, rubber,

plaster, and finely graded concrete. Utilizing virtual models,

computers facilitate engineers’ use of finite element analysis, by which a monolithic

structure is mathematically conceived as an assembly of separate, discrete blocks. Study

of both physical models and computer simulations permits deflections of a dam’s

foundations and structure to be analyzed. However, while computers are useful in

analyzing designs, they cannot generate (or create) the dam designs proposed for specific

sites. This latter process, which is often referred to as form making, remains the

responsibility of human engineers.

During the 100 years up to the end of World War II, experience in design and construction

of dams advanced in many directions. In the first decade of the 20th century, many large

dams were built in the United States and western Europe. In succeeding decades,

particularly during the war years, many impressive structures were built in the United

States by federal government agencies and private power companies. Hoover Dam, built

on the Colorado River at the Arizona-Nevada border between 1931 and 1936, is an

outstanding example of a curved gravity dam built in a narrow gorge across a major river

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and employing advanced design principles. It has a height of 221 metres (726 feet) from

its foundations, a crest length of 379 metres (1,244 feet), and a reservoir capacity of 37

billion cubic metres (48 billion cubic yards).

Among earthen dams, Fort Peck Dam, completed in 1940 on the Missouri

River in Montana, contained the greatest volume of fill, 96 million cubic metres (126

million cubic yards). This volume was not exceeded until the completion in 1975 of Tarbela

Dam in Pakistan, with 145 million cubic metres (190 million cubic yards) of fill.

Fort Peck Dam on the Missouri River creates Fort Peck Lake, near Glasgow, northeastern Montana.

Construction began in 1933 and was finished in 1940.Travel Montana

Construction of the massive Three Gorges Dam in China began in 1994, with most

construction completed in 2006. However, interest in the project extended back several

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decades, and American engineer J.L. Savage, who had played an important role in the

building of Hoover Dam, worked on preliminary designs for a large dam on the Yangtze

River (Chang Jiang) in the mid-1940s before the Communist Party took control of

mainland China in 1949. Planning for the existing structure commenced in earnest in the

1980s, and construction began after approval by the National People’s Congress in 1992.

Built as a straight-crested concrete gravity structure, Three Gorges Dam was constructed

using a trestle-and-crane method of transporting and casting concrete similar to that

used in the 1930s for the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River in the northwestern

United States.

Three Gorges Dam is 2,335 metres (7,660 feet) long with a maximum height of 185 metres

(607 feet); it incorporates 28 million cubic metres (37 million cubic yards) of concrete and

463,000 metric tons of steel into its design. When it became fully operational in 2012, the

dam’s hydroelectric power plant had the largest generating capacity in the world, 22,500

megawatts. The reservoir impounded by the dam extended back up the Yangtze River for

more than 600 km (almost 400 miles).

Rise of environmental and economic concerns

The effect of dams on the natural environment became an issue of public concern at the

end of the 20th century. Much of this concern was energized by fears that dams were

destroying the populations of migrating (or spawning) fish, which were being blocked or

impeded by the construction of dams across rivers and waterways. ( See below Fish

passes.) In more general terms, dams were often perceived—or portrayed—as not simply

transforming the environment to serve human desires but also obliterating the

environment and causing the destruction of flora and fauna and picturesque landscapes

on a massive scale. Dams were also blamed for inundating the cultural homelands of

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native peoples, who were forced to relocate out of reservoir “take” areas created by large-

scale dams. None of these concerns sprang up without warning, and they all have roots

that date back many decades.

The environmental problems associated with dams have been exacerbated as dams have

increased in height. However, even relatively small dams have prompted opposition by

people who believe that their interests are adversely affected by a particular structure. For

example, in colonial America, legal action was often taken by upstream landowners who

believed that the pond impounded by a small mill dam erected downstream was

flooding—and thus rendering unusable—land that could otherwise be used for growing

crops or as pasture for livestock. By the late 18th century, when many mill dams were

beginning to reach heights that could not easily be jumped or traversed by spawning fish,

some people sought to have them removed because of their effect on fishing. In such

situations, opposition to dams is not driven by an abstract concern for the environment

or the survival of riparian ecosystems; rather, it is driven by an appreciation that a

particular dam is transforming the environment in ways that serve only certain special

interests.

In the 1870s one of the first wide-scale efforts to block the construction of a dam because

of misgivings about its potential effect upon the landscape came in the Lake District of

northwestern England. The Lake District is recognized as one of the most picturesque

regions of England because of its mountains and rolling hills. However, this same

landscape also offered a good location for an artificial reservoir that could feed high-

quality water to the growing industrial city of Manchester almost 160 km (100 miles) to

the south. The city’s Thirlmere Dam was eventually built and generally accepted as a

positive development, but not before it aroused impassioned opposition among citizens

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throughout the country who feared that part of England’s natural and cultural heritage

might be defiled by the creation of a “water tank” in the midst of the Lake District.

In the United States a similar but even more impassioned battle erupted in the early 20th

century over plans by the city of San Francisco to build a reservoir in Hetch Hetchy Valley.

Located more than 900 metres (3,000 feet) above sea level, the Hetch Hetchy site offered

a good storage location in the Sierra Nevada for water that could be delivered without

pumping to San Francisco via an aqueduct nearly 270 km (167 miles) long. Hetch Hetchy,

however, is also located within the northern boundaries of Yosemite National Park. The

renowned naturalist John Muir led the way in fighting the proposed dam and—with

assistance from Sierra Club members and other citizens across the United States who

were concerned about the loss of natural landscapes to commercial and municipal

development—made the fight over the preservation of Hetch Hetchy Valley a national

issue. In the end, the benefits to be provided by the dam—including the development of

at least 200,000 kilowatts of hydroelectric power—outweighed the costs to be exacted by

the inundation of the valley. Approved by the U.S. Congress in 1913, the construction of

the dam, known today as O’Shaughnessy Dam in honour of the city engineer who oversaw

its construction, was a defeat for the Sierra Club and landscape preservationists, who

continued to use it as a symbol and rallying cry for mid-20th-century environmental

causes.

After World War II, plans were made by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamationto build a

hydroelectric power dam across the Green River at Echo Park Canyon within the

boundaries of Dinosaur National Monument in eastern Utah. Many of the same issues

raised at Hetch Hetchy were again debated, but in this instance opponents such as the

Sierra Club were able to block construction of the dam through a concerted effort to

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lobby Congress and win support from the American public at large. However, in its effort

to save Echo Park, the Sierra Club dropped opposition to the proposed Glen Canyon

Dam across the Colorado Rivernear the Arizona-Utah border, and this 216-metre (710-

foot) high concrete arch dam, built between 1956 and 1966, eventually came to be seen

by environmentalists as being responsible for destroying a beautiful pristine

landscape encompassing thousands of square kilometres. Anger over the Glen Canyon

Dam energized the Sierra Club to mount a major campaign against additional dams

proposed for construction along the Colorado River near the borders of Grand Canyon

National Park. By the late 1960s, plans for these proposed Grand Canyondams were

politically dead. Although the reasons for their demise were largely the result of regional

water conflicts between states in the Pacific Northwest and states in the American

Southwest, the environmental movement took credit for saving America from the

desecration of a national treasure.

Glen Canyon DamConstruction of the Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River formed Lake Powell in

Arizona.© Tom Grundy/Shutterstock.com

In developing parts of the world, dams are still perceived as an important source of

hydroelectric power and irrigation water. Environmental costs associated with dams have

nonetheless attracted attention. In India the relocation of hundreds of thousands of

people out of reservoir areas generated intense political opposition to some dam projects.

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Xiling Gorge, in the Three Gorges section of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang), as it appeared before

completion of the Three Gorges Dam, Hubei province, China.© Wolfgang Kaehler

In China the Three Gorges Dam (constructed from 1994 to 2006) generated significant

opposition within China and in the international community. Millions of people were

displaced by, and cultural and natural treasures were lost beneath, the reservoir that was

created following erection of the 185-metre- (607-foot-) high concrete wall, some 2,300

metres (7,500 feet) long, across the Yangtze River. The dam is capable of producing 22,500

megawatts of electricity (which can reduce coal usage by millions of tons per year),

making it one of the largest hydroelectric producers in the world.

Dams still unquestionably have an important role to play within the world’s social,

political, and economic framework. But for the foreseeable future, the specific character

of that role and the way that dams will interrelate with the environment will likely remain

a subject of contentious debate.

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C. Related Literature

A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to create a

reservoir on its upstream side for impounding water for various purposes. These purposes

may be Irrigation, Hydropower, Water-supply, Flood Control, Navigation, Fishing and

Recreation. Dams may be built to meet the one of the above purposes or they may be

constructed fulfilling more than one. As such, Dam can be classified as: Single-purpose

and Multipurpose Dam.

Different parts & terminologies of Dams:

Dam illustration

 Crest: The top of the Dam. These may in some cases be used for providing a

roadway or walkway over the dam.

 Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on

the crest.

 Heel: Portion of Dam in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.

 Toe: Portion of dam in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.

 Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of dam for the

passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.

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 Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left &

right end of dam are fixed to.

 Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at

transverse or longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water.

These are generally provided for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage

holes. These may also be used to accommodate the instrumentation for studying

the performance of dam.

 Sluice way: Opening in the dam near the base, provided to clear the silt

accumulation in the reservoir.

 Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the

top of the dam.

 Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be

withdrawn.

 Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to

bypass the dam construction site. The dam is built while the river flows through

the diversion tunnel.

Various types of dams

Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of classification of dams

are mentioned below:

Based on the functions of dam, it can be classified as follows:

Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there

is a large flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later use in dry

summers. Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or improved habitat for fish and

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wildlife. They may store water for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a flood

control project. Storage dams are the most common type of dams and in general the dam

means a storage dam unless qualified otherwise.

Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the

river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure for pushing

water into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. Such shorter dams are used for

irrigation, and for diversion from a stream to a distant storage reservoir. A diversion dam

is usually of low height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion

dam is a sort of storage weir which also diverts water and has a small storage. Sometimes,

the terms weirs and diversion dams are used synonymously.

Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam

retards the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water.

Thus the effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The water retained in the

reservoir is later released gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying capacity

of the channel downstream of the detention dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam

is protected against flood.

Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and drift

wood flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively

clear.

Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude water

so that the construction can be done in dry. A cofferdam is thus a temporary dam

constructed for facilitating construction. A coffer dam is usually constructed on the

upstream of the main dam to divert water into a diversion tunnel (or channel) during the
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construction of the dam. When the flow in the river during construction of the dam is not

much, the site is usually enclosed by the coffer dam and pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer

dam on the downstream of the dam is also required.

Based on structure and design, dams can be classified as follows:

Gravity Dams: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or stone

masonry. They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using concrete, the

weight of the dam is actually able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against

it. This is why it is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the

ground, stopping water from toppling it over.

Gravity dams are well suited for blocking rivers in wide valleys or narrow gorge ways. Since

gravity dams must rely on their own weight to hold back water, it is necessary that they

are built on a solid foundation of bedrock.

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Examples of Gravity dam: Grand Coulee Dam (USA), ( Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (India) and

Itaipu Dam ( Between Brazil and Paraguay).

Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive

layers of earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core and placing more

permeable substances on the upstream and downstream sides. A facing of crushed stone

prevents erosion by wind or rain, and an ample spillway, usually of concrete, protects

against catastrophic washout should the water overtop the dam. Earth dam resists the

forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Although the weight of

the earth dam also helps in resisting the forces, the structural behavior of an earth dam is

entirely different from that of a gravity dam. The earth dams are usually built in wide

valleys having flat slopes at flanks (abutments).The foundation requirements are less

stringent than those of gravity dams, and hence they can be built at the sites where the

foundations are less strong. They can be built on all types of foundations. However, the

height of the dam will depend upon the strength of the foundation material.

Examples of earthfill dam: Rongunsky dam (Russia) and New Cornelia Dam (USA).

Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An

impervious membrane is placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the

seepage through the dam. The membrane is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic

concrete. In early rockfill dams, steel and timber membrane were also used, but now they

are obsolete.

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Mohale dam, Lesoto Africa

A dry rubble cushion is placed between the rockfill and the membrane for the distribution

of water load and for providing a support to the membrane. Sometimes, the rockfill dams

have an impervious earth core in the middle to check the seepage instead of an

impervious upstream membrane. The earth core is placed against a dumped rockfill. It is

necessary to provide adequate filters between the earth core and the rockfill on the

upstream and downstream sides of the core so that the soil particles are not carried by

water and piping does not occur. The side slopes of rockfill are usually kept equal to the

angle of repose of rock, which is usually taken as 1.4:1 (or 1.3:1). Rockfill dams require

foundation stronger than those for earth dams.

Arch Dams: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side.

An arch dam transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by

arch action. An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which are

capable of resisting the thrust produced by the arch action.

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Hoover Dam, USA

The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity dam but the section

is comparatively thinner. The arch dam may have a single curvature or double curvature

in the vertical plane. Generally, the arch dams of double curvature are more economical

and are used in practice.

Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types : (i) Deck type, (ii) Multiple-arch type,

and (iii) Massive-head type. A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported

by buttresses. Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure

from the deck slab to the foundation. Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses

are typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 metre, depending upon the size and

design of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the

buttresses do not form a solid wall stretching across a river valley.The deck is usually a

reinforced concrete slab supported between the buttresses, which are usually equally

spaced.

Buttress Dam

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In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by horizontal arches

supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of small span and made of concrete. In a

massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck, the upstream

edges of the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span the distance between

the buttresses. The buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams. But they are

not necessarily cheaper than the gravity dams because of extra cost of form work,

reinforcement and more skilled labor. The foundation requirements of a buttress dam are

usually less stringent than those in a gravity dam.

Steel Dams: A steel dam consists of a steel framework, with a steel skin plate on its

upstream face. Steel dams are generally of two types: (i) Direct-strutted steel dams, and

(ii)

Steel Dam

Cantilever type steel dams. In a direct strutted steel dam, the water pressure is transmitted

directly to the foundation through inclined struts. In a cantilever type steel dam, there is

a bent supporting the upper part of the deck, which is formed into a cantilever truss. This

arrangement introduces a tensile force in the deck girder which can be taken care of by

anchoring it into the foundation at the upstream toe. Hovey suggested that tension at the

upstream toe may be reduced by flattening the slopes of the lower struts in the bent.

However, it would require heavier sections for struts. Another alternative to reduce
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 Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

tension is to frame together the entire bent rigidly so that the moment due to the weight

of the water on the lower part of the deck is utilised to offset the moment induced in the

cantilever. This arrangement would, however, require bracing and this will increase the

cost. These are quite costly and are subjected to corrosion. These dams are almost

obsolete. Steel dams are sometimes used as temporary coffer dams during the

construction of the permanent dams. Steel coffer dams are supplemented with timber or

earthfill on the inner side to make them water tight. The area between the coffer dams is

dewatered so that the construction may be done in dry for the permanent dam.

Timber Dams: Main load-carrying structural elements of timber dam are made of wood,

primarily coniferous varieties such as pine and fir. Timber dams are made for small heads

(2-4 m or, rarely, 4-8 m) and usually have sluices; according to the design of the apron

they are divided into pile, crib, pile-crib, and buttressed dams.

Timber Dam

The openings of timber dams are restricted by abutments; where the sluice is very long it

is divided into several openings by intermediate supports: piers, buttresses, and posts.

The openings are covered by wooden shields, usually several in a row one above the other.

Simple hoists—permanent or mobile winches—are used to raise and lower the shields.

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CHAPTER 2

A. Layout / Schematic diagram

Perspective view

Front view
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B. Basis of the Design

Design standard

Height. The design height of the walls of the dam must be high enough to prevent

overtopping with the design hydrograph. The design height is defined as “the vertical

height from the lowest normal ground point along the centerline of the dam and the top

of the dam.” (USDA, 2000). The height must also be high enough to allow for a certain

amount of freeboard in the reservoir (NRCS, 2005). Other than local standards, the depth

of the dam depends on the amount of storage required by the irrigation needs.

Top Width of embankment. The bank width may depend on state and local standards,

roadway access, and structural stability (NRCS, 2005). According to SLO county Standards,

the bench around the perimeter of the basin must be at least 5 feet wide (SLO County

Public Works, 2011) Although wider embankments reduce the chances of the

embankment failing when overtopped (NRCS, 2005). The top width of the embankment

for NRCS pond standards can be determined from the table in figure 1 (USDA, 2000).

Table. 1

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Embankment Stability. All earth fill dams and reservoirs should be designed in order to

be safe during the course of its life. According to the Department of Water Resources,

these design considerations must be followed (DWR, 1993):

1. The slopes must be stable under all possible conditions. This includes rapid

reservoir drawdown.

2. Seepage must be controlled in the reservoir so that erosion does not occur in the

interior of the embankments.

3. The embankments must be designed in order to not overtop.

4. The reservoir must be able to withstand earthquakes.

5. The embankment slopes must not be affected or damaged by rain.

The borrow material must be suitable for safe embankments. Course bower material shall

be placed at the outer slope of the embankment, while finer material such as clay should

be placed towards the center of the dam. The embankment material should also be

compacted to about 97% (DWR, 1993). The embankment stability must be evaluated for

a few different design conditions. At the end of construction, the soil in the embankment

will have large pore pressures. Shear tests should be done to determine sufficient sizing

of embankments. For embankments, a safety factor of 1.3 should be used for slope

stability calculations. In the case of rapid drawdown, there is a chance of the walls

collapsing due to the sudden pressure change. A minimum

safety factor of 1.2 should be used for these calculations. To design for steady seepage, a

safety factor of 1.5 should be used (NRCS, 2005).

Side Slopes. The side slopes should be “no flatter than those needed to obtain slope

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 Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

stability.” The side slope of reservoirs is a function of the soil type present. The side slopes

based on embankment materials can be seen in figure 3 (USDA, 2000).

Table. 2

Slope Bank Protection. Embankments need to be protected from erosion. Vegetation

can be an effective means for erosion control if the vegetation has good coverage and

can be sustained without irrigation. Structural protection such as rip rap can be used

where vegetation is not possible. It is also very useful for the outlet or spillway of the

reservoir to reduce the erosive energy (NRCS, 2005).

Overflow path. The engineer of drainage basins and storage reservoirs must identify the

overflow path and determine the best strategy for erosion control. The overflow path

should be designed so that during the 100-year storm, the outflow does not cause erosion

(SLO County Public Works, 2011). The purpose of an overflow path is to keep the water

under a certain level. The recommended freeboard for a pond is 1 ft or more from the

water surface to the top of bank (USDA, 2000). When the water reaches the design

overflow level, it will enter the spillway and exit the reservoir (NRCS, 2005). Spillways can

either be made of earth, concrete, or conduit. A common type of spillway is the drop inlet

spillway as seen in Figure 4.

Spillway Sizing. For a drainage area of 20 or less acres with an embankment height of

less than 20 ft, the minimum design storm for the spillway is a 10 year storm with a 24

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 Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

hour duration (NRCS, 1997). The rational method is a very common method to determine

peak

flows for hydrologic designs. The rational method considers the entire drainage area as

one unit and estimates the peak flow at the point furthest downstream.

Q=CIA (4)

Where: Q= max runoff (cfs)

C=Runoff Coefficient

I=Average Intensity

A= Area (acres)

The runoff coefficient values are tabulated. These values depend on the type of land use

and the type of soil and slope (Knox, 2008). the SLO County Design Standards (SLO County

Public Works, 2011). Now the max runoff, Q, can be determined.

Table. 3

Once the maximum flow is determined, the spillway can be designed. For earthen and

vegetative spillways, the discharge head, Hp, and the discharge velocity, V, can be

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 Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

determined from figure 5 if the ground slope and flow are known (NRCS, 1997).

The discharge head determines how high the embankment must be above the spillway in

order to keep a design freeboard. For example, if the freeboard of a pond is 2 feet and

the discharge head is 1 foot, then the spillway should be made 3 feet below the

embankment. The width of the spillway can be determined with the head, velocity, and

flow of the system.

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C. Design computation and result

Design of dam

Storage Size = 10 arc foot

Footprint = 2.0 Acres

Interior Embankment Slope = 2 to 1

Exterior Embankment Slope = 4 to 1

Bench Width = 5 feet

Depth = 8 feet

Freeboard = 2 feet

WS Elevation = 15 feet

Top of Bank = 16 feet

Reservoir Bottom = 15 feet

Max Cut= 5 feet

Max Fill = 8 feet

Spillway Sizing Calculations

For a 10 year storm with a 10 hour duration and embankment height of less than 20 feet.

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 Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

Q=CIA

C= 1 Assuming zero infiltration

A= 2 acres

I= 0.5 from table H-4 SLO County Design Standards for 20" annual rainfall

Q= 1 cfs

Q= 448.8 gpm

For a 25 year with a 10 hour duration.

Q=CIA

C= 1 Assuming zero infiltration

A= 2 acres

I= 0.62 from table H-4 SLO County Design Standards for 20" annual rainfall

Q= 1.24 cfs

Q= 556.512 gpm

Additional Flow to be handled by auxiliary spillway = 0.24 CFS

Drainage calculation

Hydrology Calculations

From Table H-2 in SLO County Standards

Rational Method Runoff Coefficients

Relief= 0.25

Infiltration= 0.08

Cover= 0.14

Surface Storage= 0.1

Runoff Coefficient, C= 0.57

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 Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

Drainage area approximately: 17 acres

Intensity from Table H-4 assuming

18 to 21 inches of annual rainfall: 0.5 for 10 year, 10 hour storm event

Q=CIA

Q= 4.845 cfs

Drainage Channel

Riprap Calculations

d = 0.126V2

where:

d = rock diameter, v = velocity

w = 0.0000568V2

v = 2.99 fps

d = 0.126(2.99)2

d= 0.11 feet

d= 1.35 inches

w = 0.0000568V2

where:

W = stable rock weight, v = velocity

w = 0.0000568V2

W= 0.040586

Choose 10 inch D50 rock (Smallest that NRCS recommends)

Spillway

V= 3.12 fps

d = 0.126V2

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 Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

d = 0.126(3.12)2

d= 0.12 feet

d= 1.47 inches

w = 0.0000568V2

w = 0.0000568(3.12)2

W= 0.052393

Choose 10 inch D50 rock

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 Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

CHAPTER 3

A. Cost analysis

A cost analysis of this design was completed in order to provide the information

to decide whether constructing this dam is feasible or not. The first step in

the cost analysis was to determine the quantities of all of the items that were needed to

construct the dam. The total quantities of earthwork, excess material, rip rap and liner

were determined. The types of permits required for this project were also determined.

Then, a unit cost analysis was done for all of the items. The earthwork cost includes all of

the equipment, labor and fuel costs. The prices of the other items were determined from

various other online sources. A cost analysis of a design reservoir is determined cost

estimation.

B. Observation / comments

In ancient times, dams were built for the single purpose of water supply or irrigation. As

civilizations developed, there was a greater need for water supply, irrigation, flood control,

navigation, water quality, sediment control and energy. Therefore, dams are constructed

for a specific purpose such as water supply, flood control, irrigation, navigation,

sedimentation control, and hydropower. A dam is the cornerstone in the development

and management of water resources development of a river basin. The multipurpose dam

is a very important project for developing countries, because the population receives

domestic and economic benefits from a single investment.

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 Standard design of a dam for hydro electric-power plant

Demand for water is steadily increasing throughout the world. There is no life on earth

without water, our most important resource apart from air and land. During the past three

centuries, the amount of water withdrawn from freshwater resources has increased by a

factor of 35, world population by a factor of 8. With the present world population of 5.6

billion still growing at a rate of about 90 million per year, and with their legitimate

expectations of higher standards of living, global water demand is expected to rise by a

further 2-3 percent annually in the decades ahead.

But freshwater resources are limited and unevenly distributed. In the high-consumption

countries with rich resources and a highly developed technical infrastructure, the many

ways of conserving, recycling and re-using water may more or less suffice to curb further

growth in supply. In many other regions, however, water availability is critical to any

further development above the present unsatisfactorily low level, and even to the mere

survival of existing communities or to meet the continuously growing demand originating

from the rapid increase of their population. In these regions man cannot forego the

contribution to be made by dams and reservoirs to the harnessing of water resources.

Most of the dams are single-purpose dams, but there is now a growing number of

multipurpose dams. Using the most recent publication of the World Register of Dams,

irrigation is by far the most common purpose of dams. Among the single purpose dams,

48 % are for irrigation, 17% for hydropower (production of electricity), 13% for water

supply , 10% for flood control, 5% for recreation and less than 1% for navigation and fish

farming.

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C. Recommendations

The designer engineer’s responsibility is to provide safety. The designed structures must

act with integrity giving due consideration to the purpose of the project and the ultimate

effects of the project on fellow human beings.

At the same time the Engineers are responsible to the community for the cost of the

structure. There is always a limit to the finance, so any cut in cost must not sacrifice safety.

The Engineers also carries a legal responsibility, and are responsible at all times for both

what they do and what they say.

To design such structure there are many aspects to look into. Firstly is the geotechnical

design which considers the soil beneath the dam. Then the hydrological design which

looks into the surface water in the catchment area. The hydraulic design considers the

impact of water on various hydraulic structures in the project. Then of course the structural

design of the dam itself (load and settlement) due to many forces. Other important points

are the financial part, viability, risk.

D. Conclusion

Dams are important because they provide water for domestic, industry and irrigation

purposes. Dams often also provide hydroelectric power production and river

navigation. Dams and their reservoirs provide recreation areas for fishing and boating.

They help people by reducing or preventing floods.

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Dams are said to be an important source of water supply and high importance for

various other reasons. They supply the water for the various means including domestic

use, irrigation purposes and also for the industrial uses.

Dams are also involved in the hydroelectric power generation and in the river

navigation. The application of these dams is much more important in daily activities

including cooking, cleaning, bathing, washing, drinking water, for the gardening and for

the cultivation purpose.

The big dams and the reservoirs also provide recreational areas for the purpose of fishing

and also boating. They also cater the insecurity needs of humans by reducing or by

preventing the floods. During the times of excess flow of water, the dams store the water

in the reservoir; later they release that water during the times of low flow, also when the

natural flows of water are inadequate to meet the demand. When engineer designs and

also maintains the dams, they are keenly expected to make sure to keep all purposes in

their mind.

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APPENDICES

REFERENCES

 https://www.britannica.com/technology/dam-engineering
 http://www.uotechnology.edu.iq/dep-

building/LECTURE/dams%20and%20water/fourth_class/Design,%20Operation%2

0and%20Safety%20of%20Dams/Dams-%20Introduction.pdf

 http://www.civileblog.com/types-of-dams/
 file:///C:/Users/Administrator.WIN-
0BBRBK8KF4A/Downloads/Documents/43035255.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/Administrator.WIN-
0BBRBK8KF4A/Downloads/Documents/i1531e02.pdf

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