VARIABLE LOAD PROBLEMS

1. Terms Related to Loading Conditions

Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various
subdivisions of a system, or part of a system, to the maximum demand of the whole system, or part,
under consideration. The particular subdivision under consideration may be one substation where
there are several in a system or may be group of residential customers supplied by one transformer.
As stated, the diversity factor will be a number greater than unity. At times the diversity factor is
given as the reciprocal of that stated above.
Sum of individual maximum demands
Diversity factor 
Maximumdemand of the system
Demand factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part of a system, to the total
connected load of the system, or part of the system, under consideration. Thus, in a residence the
maximum demand would not be the sum of all lighting and appliance loads but would be some
value less than that, since it would extremely unlikely that all lights and appliances would be in
operation at the same time.
Maximumdemand of the system
Demand factor 
Total connected load
Load factor is the ratio of the average load over a designated period of time to the peak load
occurring in that period. The average load may be determined for any specified length of time such
as day, month, or year. The maximum demand may also be measured over various lengths of time
such as a 15-min period, half-hour period, or an hour period. The first two are the most common.
Average load
Load factor 
Peak load
Capacity factor is the ratio of the average load on a machine or equipment, for the period of time
considered, to the rating of the machine or equipment. When applied to a plant, this factor is called
plant factor or plant-capacity factor.
Average load
Capacity factor 
Rating of Equipment
Actual Energy Output
Capacity factor 
Rating of Equipment Specified Period
Output factor, or use factor, is the ratio of the actual energy output, in the period of time
considered, to the energy output which would have occurred if the machine or equipment had been
operating at its full rating throughout its actual hours of service during the period.
Actual Energy Output
Use factor 
Rating of Equipment  Actual hrs operation
Load curve is a curve of power versus time, showing the value of a specific load for each unit of the
period covered. The abscissa is usually time in hours, days, weeks, months, or years, and the
ordinate is kilowatts generated. The most common period of time is hours.

1
Load duration curve is a curve showing the total time, within a specified period, during which the
load equaled or exceeded the power values shown. Kilowatts are used as the ordinate, and
normally, the 8760 hr of the year is the abscissa.
Peak load is the maximum load consumed or produced by a unit or group of units in a stated period
of time. It may be the maximum instantaneous load or the maximum average load over a
designated interval of time.
Utilization factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part of a system, to the rated
capacity of the system, or part of the system, under consideration. The similarity between this factor
and the demand factor should be noted. Their difference lies in the fact that the utilization factor is
usually applied to the generating system, while the demand factor is usually applied to equipment
using electric current.
MaximumDemand
Utilization factor 
Rating of Equipment
Connected load on a system, or part of a system, is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load-
consuming apparatus connected to the system, or part of the system, under consideration.
Operation factor is the ratio of the duration of the actual service of a machine or equipment to the
total duration of the actual service of a machine or equipment to the total duration of the period of
time considered.
Duration of the actual service
Operation factor 
Duration of the period of time considered
Dump power is hydro power in excess of load requirements that is made available by surplus water.
Firm power is the power intended to be always available even under emergency conditions.
Prime power is the maximum potential power (chemical, mechanical, or hydraulic) constantly
available for transformation into electric power.
Cold reserve is that reserve generating capacity available for service but not in operation.
Hot reserve is that reserve generating capacity in operation but not in service.
Reserve equipment is the installed equipment in excess of that required to carry peak load.
Reserve equipment not in operation is sometimes referred to as standby equipment.
Spinning reserve is that reserve generating capacity connected to the bus and ready to take load.
System reserve is the capacity, in equipment and conductors, installed on the system in excess of
that required to carry the peak load.
Run-of-river station is a hydroelectric generating station which utilizes the stream flow without
storage.
Spare equipment is equipment complete or in parts, on hand for repair or replacement.
Generating station auxiliary power is the power required for operation.
House turbine is a turbine installed to provide a source of auxiliary power.

2
2. Solved Problems
2.1 A unit is rated at 80,000 kW. It operates for 6950 hrs during the year and generates 350,000,000
kW-hr. With a peak load of 75,500 kW, calculate the capacity factor.
Given:
Rating of Equipment = 80,000 kW
Specified period = 1 year = 8760 hrs
Required:
Capacity factor
Solution:
Actual Energy Output = 350,000,000 kW=hr
Actual Energy Output
Capacity factor 
Rating of Equipment Specified Period
350 ,000 ,000
Capacity factor   0.50  50% (answer)
80 ,000  8760
2.2 A 25,000 kW plant has a utilization factor of 71% and a load factor of 39.6%. What is the average
load on the plant in kW?
Given:
Rating of Equipment or Plant = 25,000 kW
Utilization factor = 0.71
Load factor = 0.396
Required:
Average Load
Solution:
MaximumDemand
Utilization factor 
Rating of Equipment
MaximumDemand
0.71 
25,000
Peak load = Maximum Demand = 17,750 kW
Average load
Load factor 
Peak load
Average load
0.396 
17,750
Average load = 7029 kW (answer)
2.3 A steam cycle produces 40 MW of power, 50 MW of process heat and rejects 60 MW of heat.
What is the utilization factor for this cycle?
Given:
40 MW of power, 50 MW of process heat and rejects 60 MW of heat
Required:
Utilization factor
Solution:
MaximumDemand
Utilization factor 
Rating of Equipment
Maximum Demand = 40 MW + 50 MW = 90 MW
Rating of Equipment/Cycle = 40 MW + 50 MW + 60 MW = 150 MW

3
 90
Utilization factor   0.6  60% (answer)
150
2.4 For a certain power plant, the load factor is 48%. The plant capacity is 42 MW. If the reserve
over peak is 5 MW and the number of hours the plant not in service per year is 420, calculate
the plant capacity factor.
Given:
Load factor = 0.48
Plant capacity = 42 MW
Reserve over peak = 5 MW
Number of hours not in service = 420
Required:
Plant Capacity Factor
Solution:
Average load
Plant Capacity factor 
Plant capacity
Average load
Load factor 
Peak load
Peak load = Plant Capacity – Reserve over peak
Peak load = 42 MW – 5 MW = 37 MW
Average load
0.48 
37
Average load = 17.76 MW
Average load
Plant Capacity factor 
Plant capacity
17.76
Plant Capacity factor   0.423  42.3% (answer)
42
2.5 The reserve over and above the peak load of a power station is 20 MW. For an annual factors as
follows: load, 75% and capacity, 60%; determine the rated capacity of the power plant.
Given:
Load factor = 0.75
Capacity factor = 0.60
Reserve = 20 MW
Required:
Rated capacity of the power plant
Solution:
(Load Factor)(Peak Load) = (Capacity Factor)(Rated Capacity) = Average Load
(0.75)(Peak Load) = (0.60)(Rated Capacity)
Rated Capacity – Peak Load = 20 MW = Reserve
(0.75)(Rated Capacity – 20) = (0.60)(Rated Capacity)
Rated Capacity = 100 MW (answer)
2.6 A power plant is to have had a use factor of 46.5% and a capacity factor of 40.5%. Determine the
number of hours did the plant operated during the year.
Given:
Plant use factor = 0.465
Plant capacity factor = 0.405

4
 Specified period = 1 year = 8760 hrs
Required:
Actual hrs of operation
Solution:
Average load
Plant Capacity factor 
Plant capacity
Actual Energy Output
Plant Use factor 
Plant Capacity Actual hrs operation
Average load  Specified period
Plant Use factor 
Plant Capacity Actual hrs operation
Average load  Plant Capacity factor  Plant capacity
Plant Use factor  Plant Capacity Actual hrs operation
Average load 
Specified period
Plant Use factor  Plant Capacity Actual hrs operation
Plant Capacity factor  Plant Capacity 
Specified period
Plant Use factor  Actual hrs operation
Plant Capacity factor 
Specified period
0.465  Actual hrs operation
0.405 
8760
Actual hrs of operation = 7630 hrs (answer)

3. Exercises

3.1 A generating station has a maximum demand of 25 MW load factor of 60% a plant capacity
factor of 50% and a plant use factor of 72%. What is the maximum energy that could be
produced daily?
3.2 A generating station has a maximum demand of 25 MW load factor of 60% a plant capacity
factor of 50% and a plant use factor of 72% what is the reserve capacity of the plant if the plant
while running as per schedule were fully load?
3.3 A generating station has a maximum demand of 50MW a load factor of 60%, a plant capacity
factor of 45% and if the plant while running as per schedule were fully loaded. What is the daily
energy produced?
3.4 The load duration curve for a system is 8 hours 30MW, 16 hours 25 MW and 24 hours 20MW.
What is the load factor?
3.5 A power station supplies the peak load of 50 MW, 40 MW and 70 MW to three localities. The
annual load factor is 0.50 and the diversity factor of the load at the station is 1.55. What is the
maximum demand on the station and average load respectively will be?
3.6 What is the diversity factor of a power station which supplies the following loads?
Load A motor load of 200 kW between 10 AM to 7 PM.
Load B lighting load of 100 kW between 7 PM to 11 PM.
Load C pumping load of 110 kW between 3 PM to 10 PM.
3.7 The yearly load duration curve of a power plant is a straight line the maximum load is 750 MW
and the minimum load is 600 MW the capacity of the plant is 900 MW. What is capacity factor?

5
 3.8 A consumer consumes 600 kWh per day at a load factor of 0.40 if the consumer increases the
load factor of 0.70 without increasing the maximum demand what is the consumption of energy
in kWh?
3.9 What is maximum value of a load which consumes 500 KWh per day at a load factor of 0.40 if
the consumer increases the load factor of 0.50 without increasing the maximum demand?
3.10 The maximum demand on a power station is 100 MW. If the annual load factor is 40%. Calculate
the energy generated in a year?
END