Accepted Manuscript

Late Triassic granites from Bangka, Indonesia: a continuation of the Main Range
granite province of the South-East Asian Tin Belt

Samuel Wai-Pan Ng, Martin J. Whitehouse, Muhammad H. Roselee, Claudia

Teschner, Sayed Murtadha, Grahame J.H. Oliver, Azman A. Ghani, Su-Chin
Chang

PII: S1367-9120(17)30099-8
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.03.002
Reference: JAES 2999

To appear in: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

Received Date: 16 September 2016

Revised Date: 27 February 2017
Accepted Date: 1 March 2017

Please cite this article as: Wai-Pan Ng, S., Whitehouse, M.J., Roselee, M.H., Teschner, C., Murtadha, S., Oliver,
G.J.H., Ghani, A.A., Chang, S-C., Late Triassic granites from Bangka, Indonesia: a continuation of the Main Range
granite province of the South-East Asian Tin Belt, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2017), doi: http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.03.002

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 Late Triassic granites from Bangka, Indonesia: a continuation of the Main Range

granite province of the South-East Asian Tin Belt

Samuel Wai-Pan Nga*, Martin J. Whitehouseb, Muhammad H. Roseleec, d,

Claudia Teschnere, Sayed Murtadhaf, Grahame J.H. Oliverg, Azman A. Ghanic,

Su-Chin Changa
a
Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam Road, Hong

Kong (Email: waipanng@hku.hk)

b
Swedish Museum of Natural History, and Nordic Center for Earth Evolution, Box 50007,

SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden

c
Geology Programme, School of Environmental Science & Natural Resources, Malaysian

National University, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

d
Department of Geology, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
e
Department for Earth and Environmental Sciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität

München, Theresienstr. 41, 80333 Munich, Germany

f
Department of Geology, Syiah Kuala University, Jln. Teuku Nyak Arief, Darussalam, Banda

Aceh, Aceh 23111, Indonesia

g
Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue,

Singapore 639798, Singapore

*
Corresponding author: Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu

Lam Road, Hong Kong (Mobile: +852 9631 6282, Email: waipanng@hku.hk)

1
Highlights

 The plutons on Bangka were emplaced in two phases, at ca. 225 Ma on the north-east of

the island and at ca. 220 Ma on the south-west, both within the period of Main Range

magmatism.

 The geochemistry and Nd isotope composition of granites on Bangka show Main Range

affinity.

 The unexposed Paleo-Tethyan suture is inferred therefore to lie to the east.

2
Abstract

The South-East Asian Tin Belt is one of the most tin-productive regions in the world.

It comprises three north-south oriented granite provinces, of which the arc-related Eastern

granite province and the collision-related Main Range granite province run across Thailand,

Singapore, and Indonesia. These tin-producing granite provinces with different mineral

assemblages are separated by Paleo-Tethyan sutures exposed in Thailand and Malaysia. The

Eastern Province is usually characterised by granites with biotite ± hornblende. Main Range

granites are sometimes characterised by the presence of biotite ± muscovite. However, the

physical boundary between the two types of granite is not well-defined on the Indonesian Tin

Islands, because the Paleo-Tethyan suture is not exposed on land there. Both hornblende-

bearing (previously interpreted as I-type) and hornblende-barren (previously interpreted as S-

type) granites are apparently randomly distributed on the Indonesian Tin Islands. Granites

exposed on Bangka, the largest and southernmost Tin Island, no matter whether they are

hornblende-bearing or hornblende-barren, are geochemically similar to Malaysian Main

Range granites. The average ɛNd(t) value obtained from the granites from Bangka (average

ɛNd(t) = -8.2) falls within the range of the Main Range Province (-9.6 to -5.4). These granites

have SIMS zircon U-Pb ages of ca. 225 Ma and ca. 220 Ma, respectively that are both within

the period of Main Range magmatism (~226-201 Ma) in the Peninsular Malaysia. We suggest

that the granites exposed on Bangka represent the continuation of the Main Range Province,

and that the Paleo-Tethyan suture lies to the east of the island.

Keywords

South-East Asian Tin Belt, Indonesia, Bangka, tin granite, Sibumasu, Main Range

3
1. Introduction

The South-East Asian Tin Belt has produced more than half of the world tin metal

used since 1800. It extends over 3000 km from Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Malaysia,

Singapore, to Indonesia (Fig. 1). The tin belt includes the Eastern, Main Range and Western

granite provinces (Hutchison, 1973; Schwartz et al., 1995; Hutchison and Tan, 2009). The

Western Province extends from Upper Peninsular Thailand into Myanmar. The Eastern

Province contains mainly Early Permian to Late Triassic “I-type” arc-related biotite ±

hornblende granites, associated with Cu-Au deposits, and subordinate hornblende-barren

plutons hosting limited Sn-W deposits. The Main Range Province consists of mainly Late

Triassic “S-type” collision-related biotite granites, associated with Sn-W deposits, and

subordinate muscovite-bearing and hornblende-bearing granites. The two granite provinces

are separated by lineaments of serpentinite and deep-marine sediments which have been

collectively interpreted as remnants of the Paleo-Tethyan suture zone (Hutchison, 1975, 1977;

Cobbing et al., 1986, 1992; Hutchison and Tan, 2009). However, the trace of the suture south

of Malacca and down towards the Riau Archipelago, Bangka and Belitung (Indonesian Tin

Islands) is not clear. Both biotite ± hornblende and biotite ± muscovite granites, which were

previously interpreted as I-type arc-related and S-type collision-related granites respectively

(Cobbing et al., 1986, 1992; Cobbing, 2005), outcrop randomly on these islands, and makes it

difficult to draw the boundary between the Eastern Province and the Main Range Province. In

Malaysia and Thailand, granites from both provinces can have similar mineral assemblages

although they can be distinguished by geochemistry, isotope composition, and radiometric

age (Ghani et al., 2013b; Ng et al., 2015a, b; Gardiner et al., 2016). Hence, the Chappell and

White (1974) I-S generic classification of granites is not a useful system to separate the two

granite provinces from one another. In this paper, the geochemistry, Nd isotope composition,

and age of the granites on Bangka will be re-evaluated. Their magmatic relationship with the

4
Malaysian tin granites and their tectonic relationship with the Paleo-Tethyan suture will be

discussed.

2. Outline of regional geology

The Eastern and the Main Range Provinces were emplaced into two different

Gondwana-related continental blocks, namely Indochina – East Malaya and Sibumasu

respectively.

The Indochina – East Malaya Block was separated from Gondwana in the Early

Devonian (Metcalfe, 1984, 1988, 1996, 2002, 2005, 2011; Usuki et al., 2013). Some workers

such as Metcalfe (1988) and Hutchison (2007) proposed that the East Malayan Block was

later separated from Indochina by Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic rifting in the Gulf of Thailand

but this is still controversial. The Indochina – East Malaya Block comprises Mesoproterozoic

basement overlain by fossiliferous Late Carboniferous to Triassic limestones, sandstones,

shales, and volcanic rocks, terminated by a disconformity (Hutchison, 2007; Metcalfe, 2013;

Ng et al., 2015a). Continental red beds were deposited in the Late Triassic, which mark the

complete uplift of East Malaya during the Indosinian Orogeny (Lee, 2009; Oliver and Prave,

2013). In the Indochina – East Malaya Block, Permo-Triassic (~290-220 Ma) arc-related

biotite ± hornblende granites are younger in the west than in the east, collectively termed as

the Malaysian Eastern Province (Liew, 1983; Liew and McCulloch, 1985; Oliver et al., 2014;

Ng et al., 2015b). This province comprises small batholithic bodies up to 1000 km2 in size.

They are characterised by rocks with relatively potassic and weakly peraluminous

compositions (Cobbing et al., 1992; Ng et al., 2015a). These batholiths are occasionally cut

by Late Jurassic to Cretaceous doleritic dykes (Ghani et al., 2013a). Both Cu-Au and Sn-W

deposits are associated with the Eastern Province magmatism (Yeap, 1993).

The Sibumasu Block is a north-south oriented continental slice which was separated

from Gondwana in the Early Permian (Şengör, 1984; Metcalfe, 2011). It is bounded to the

5
east by the Paleo-Tethyan sutures. Whereas the Sibumasu Block has generally been regarded

as a single entity, bounded on its west by the Sagaing Fault in Myanmar, Ridd (2015) has

suggested that it comprises two blocks, largely coinciding with the Western and Main Range

Provinces, and each with distinctive Paleozoic stratigraphic successions. In western

Peninsular Malaysia, Lower Peninsular Thailand and much of central and northern Thailand,

the Sibumasu Block exposes collision-related biotite granite, with a subordinate amount of

muscovite-bearing and hornblende-bearing granites (Cobbing et al., 1992; Ghani et al., 2013b;

Ng et al., 2015a; Quek et al., 2015; Gardiner et al., 2016). They are collectively grouped in

the Malaysian Main Range Province. Main Range granites are more voluminous than Eastern

Province granites as they were emplaced as large batholithic bodies, covering up to several

thousands of square kilometres in area. Main Range granites are solely peraluminous and

more sodic than Eastern Province granites (Cobbing et al., 1992; Ghani, 2000, 2005, 2009;

Ghani et al., 2013b; Ng et al., 2015a).

The two continental blocks are separated by lineaments of serpentinite and deep-

marine sediments which have been collectively interpreted as remnants of the Paleo-Tethyan

suture zone (Hutchison, 1975, 1977; Cobbing et al., 1986, 1992; Hutchison and Tan, 2009).

These lineaments include the Chiang Rai Line in Thailand (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008;

Gardiner et al., 2016), and the Bentong – Raub Line in the Peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 1)

(Hutchison, 1975, 1977, 2009; Metcalfe, 2000; Ng et al., 2015a). The position of the Paleo-

Tethyan Bentong – Raub suture south of Malacca remains unclear: In the absence of outcrops,

Mitchell (1977) postulated that it ran south-east in between Bangka and Belitung, while

Cobbing et al. (1992), Hutchison (2007), Metcalfe (2009, 2011, 2013) and Searle et al. (2012)

place it to the west of Bangka. Metcalfe (1988, 1994) and Schwartz et al. (1995) drew the

suture across south-eastern Sumatra to join up with the Sumatra Fault Zone. The ambiguous

geochemistry of the Indonesian tin granites is another reason why the location of the Paleo-

6
Tethyan suture is not well-understood in Indonesia: granites with Eastern Province affinity

and those with Main Range Province affinity are apparently randomly scattered around the

Indonesian Tin Islands with no apparent terrane control on their distribution (Cobbing et al.,

1992; Schwartz et al., 1995).

3. Field relationship and petrography

Granites on Bangka are distributed at the southernmost part of the South-East Asian

Tin Belt. They were emplaced into deep marine sedimentary rocks of the Pemali Group and

turbidites of the Tempilang Group (Fig. 2) (Ko, 1986). The age of these sedimentary

sequences is not well constrained. Late Triassic fossils were reported in fragmented limestone

of the Tempilang turbidite, which was later tectonised by local fault movement (Fig. 2) (De

Neve and De Roever, 1947). Sedimentary sequences with similar ages can be found on both

East Malaya Block and Sibumasu Block. However, no direct correlation has been made

between these strata. This paper adopts another approach by comparing the geochemistry, Nd

isotopic composition, and the age of the emplaced granites.

Unlike the Malaysian tin granites, the Indonesian tin granites were not emplaced in a

batholith. Instead, the Indonesian tin granites outcrop as individual plutons (Fig. 3A). On

Bangka, the granites occur as K-feldspar megacrystic biotite ± hornblende granite (Fig. 3B).

Hornblende is found in Kelapa, Kulur, Toboali, and Nama plutons (Fig. 2). They are more

deformed in the north where they have been stretched, forming a NW-SE trending tectonic

foliation.

K-feldspar megacrysts are usually grey in the granites, and can be up to 3 to 4 cm in

length. Some of the granites exhibit granophyric texture suggesting that the magma was

water rich (e.g. T0104-1, Fig. 3C) (Bussell, 1983). Biotite is the main mafic phase in the

hornblende-bearing plutons (e.g. Kulur, Tobali and Nama in Fig. 2). Biotite and hornblende

together form mafic clots. Chloritisation is quite common in biotite. Quartz occurs as

7
anhedral crystals and crystallised late in the magma. Plagioclase is smaller in size and more

euhedral compared to K-feldspar. Secondary muscovite is present in some of the samples due

to later hydrothermal alteration of feldspars (Fig. 3D). Accessory minerals include sphene,

apatite, allanite, and zircon and mainly occur as inclusions in all main mineral types or are

associated with mafic clots of hornblende and biotite. The major opaque Fe oxide observed in

the granites is ilmenite. This places the granites exposed on Bangka into the ilmenite-series

(Ishihara, 1977) which is a characteristic of Main Range granites rather than the magnetite-

series granites found immediately to the east of the Bentong – Raub Suture (Ishihara et al.,

1979; Ghani, 2009).

4. Analytical methods

4.1. Major and trace element analyses

Fresh samples were collected from quarries, rocky hilltops and shores. They were

crushed and powdered by jaw crusher and cast iron mill in the Department of Geology,

University of Malaya, and then sent to the Bureau Veritas Commodities Canada Ltd., Acme

Labs. The samples were fused into glass beads with LiBO2/Li2 B4O7 flux and then dissolved

in ACS grade nitric acid. The sample solutions were analysed by SPECTRO ACROS FHx

12a Inductively Coupled Plasma – Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES) for major

element composition and ELAN 9000 Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometer

(ICP-MS) for trace element composition. The loss on ignition (LOI) was determined

separately by routine procedures. GS311-1, GS910-4, and SO-19 were used as standards. The

duplicate tolerance and standard tolerance are required to be controlled as < 10% in the lab

system. The full analytical results are presented in Table 1.

4.2. Nd isotopic composition analysis

The Sm-Nd isotopic analyses were carried out at Ludwig-Maximilians-

Universität München on a Spectromat-upgraded MAT 261. Powdered samples were totally

8
 150
spiked with a Nd-149Sm tracer and dissolved in HF-HClO4 in PFA vessels for 3 days at ca.

90 °C. Sm and Nd were separated using chromatographic procedures as outlined in Hegner et

al., 1995, 2010. The Nd and Sm isotopic compositions were measured in static data collection
147 143
mode with the monitoring Sm for interference on Nd isotopes. Nd/144Nd are normalized
146
to Nd/144Nd = 0.7219 and Sm isotopic ratios to 147
Sm/152Sm = 0.56081. The JNdi-1
143
reference material yielded Nd/144Nd = 0.512106 ± 14 (2σ, n = 11) during the period of
147
sample analysis. Errors on Sm/144Nd ratios are estimated at 0.2% (2σ). Procedural blanks

are < 200 pg for Nd and not significant with respect to sample concentrations. The full

analytical results are presented in Table 2.

4.3. SIMS zircon U-Pb dating

High-spatial resolution, high-precision secondary ionization mass spectrometry

(SIMS) was used to analyze the U-Pb isotopic composition of the extracted zircons. The

grains were extracted from rock samples by standard disaggregation, heavy liquid

(bromoform) separation and magnetic separation procedures. Handpicked zircons were then

mounted in epoxy, polished and imaged using a Centaurus cathodoluminescence (CL)

detector, mounted to a Philips XL-30 ESEM-FEG scanning electron microscope (SEM). U-

Pb isotope ratios were collected using a Cameca IMS1280 ion microprobe at the NordSIM

facility, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, following the protocols described

by Whitehouse et al. (1999) and Whitehouse and Kamber (2005).

Fifteen pooled analyses were obtained from the extracted zircons in each rock sample.

Each analysis was sputtered by an O2- primary beam, with incident energy at 23 kV (-13 kV

primary, +10 kV secondary). The primary beam was then operated in aperture illumination

(Köhler) mode with spot size at ca. 15-20 µm. In each run, procedures including pre-

sputtering with a 25 µm raster for 120 seconds. Centering of the secondary ion beam in the

3000 µm field aperture (FA), mass calibration optimisation, and optimisation of the

9
 90
secondary beam energy distribution, were carried out automatically by the SIMS. Zr216O+

species at nominal mass 196 was applied to FA with energy adjustment. All peaks were mass

calibrated in the mono-collection sequence and this was carried out at the start of each

session. Within each run, only those peaks that yield consistently high signals from the zircon

matrix, namely 90Zr216O+, 94Zr216O+ (nominal mass 204), 177

HfO2+ (nominal mass 209), 238
U+
238
and U16O2+, were scanned with mass calibration optimization, while those intermediate

peaks were adjusted by interpolation. To ensure adequate separation of Pb isotope peaks from

nearby HfSi+ species, a mass resolution (M/ΔM) of ca. 5400 was used. The axial ion-

counting electron multiplier was used to detect ion signals. Fully automated chain sequences

were applied in each run of sample.

It is assumed the data reduction follows the power law relationship between Pb+/U+

and UO2+/U+ ratios with an empirically derived slope (Table S1). This is to calculate actual

Pb/U ratios with respect to those in the 91500 standards, which provide references for both U
204
concentrations and Th/U ratio. When Pb counts exceed average background statistically,
207
common Pb is corrected and it is assumed that the Pb/206Pb ratio is 0.83 (Stacey and

Kramers, 1975). The age interpretations were carried out using the Isoplot macros on Excel

(Ludwig, 1998). Given the ubiquitous presence of post-crystallization, possibly recent, Pb-

loss causing a skewed age dispersion towards apparently younger ages, as well as the

presence in some zircons with clear inherited cores, a consistent filtering approach was used

to extract the most probable magmatic crystallization age or metamorphic age. This involved

first excluding any obvious older cores, then rejecting the youngest analyses (238U/206Pb age)

interpreted based on CL images, which most likely reflect Pb-loss. This procedure is repeated

until the remaining group of ages yielded a concordia age, sensu Ludwig (1998). Concordia

ages were obtained from six or more pooled analyses to be robust indicators of the magmatic

crystallization age. All ages are presented at 2σ (or, where appropriate, 95% confidence level)

10
including decay constant errors, with the mean square of weighted deviates (MSWD) value

representing that of both concordance and equivalence following the recommendation of

Ludwig (1998).

5. Analytical results

5.1. Major elemental geochemistry

Granites on Bangka contain 4 – 6 wt% of K2O and 2 – 4 wt% of Na2O, which is

within the range of Malaysian Main Range Province granites and is more potassic than the

Malaysian Eastern Province granites (Fig. 4A) (Cobbing et al., 1992; Ghani, 2005; Ng et al.,

2015a). The granites are considered as peraluminous with an aluminium saturation index

(ASI) higher than unity (Fig. 4B), which is also consistent with the Malaysian Main Range

Province. Granites on Bangka fall into the “S-type compositional field” in Fig. 4A, but “I-

type compositional field” in Fig. 4B. This shows that Chappell and White’s (1974) I-S

generic classification does not work well in classifying Indonesian tin granites. In various

Harker Diagrams, granites on Bangka follow the fractionation trend of the Malaysian tin

granites, with the granites being the more evolved and fractionated (Fig. 5).

5.2. Trace elemental geochemistry

The trace element geochemistry of granites on Bangka largely follows the Malaysian

tin granites. The former is also enriched in high field strength elements (HFSE), such as Zr,

Nb, Ce, Y, and rare earth elements (REE) when compared to the Cordilleran I-S granites in

the Andes (Grosse et al., 2011). Such enrichment is observed in the spider diagrams (Fig. 6),

partly simulating the North-Eastern China A-type granites in HFSE composition (Wu et al.,

2002). However, when compared to the primitive mantle, granites on Bangka recorded more

significant enrichment in HFSE and REE than the Malaysian tin granites. Such enrichment

reflects the source forming the granites on Bangka, which may be more enriched in these

elements. Highly fractionated Indonesian tin granites on Bangka have an apparent positive

11
correlation with high Sn concentration, following the Malaysian tin granites (Ng et al., 2015a)

(Fig. 7A). The granites on Bangka straddle the boundary between syn-collision granite (syn-

COLG) and within plate granite (WPG) in Pearce’s Rb vs. (Y + Nb) plot (Pearce et al., 1984),

which follows the Malaysian Main Range Province granites (Fig. 7B).

5.3. Nd isotopic composition

Nd isotopes could be a powerful discriminator for Malaysian Eastern Province and

Main Range Province granites while Sr isotopes are too mobile to give reliable values (Ng et

al., 2015a). Hence, this paper only provides Nd isotopic compositions of granites on Bangka.

The ɛNd(t) values of the sampled granites lie between -9.1 and -7.4. These values suggested a

close affinity to the Malaysian Main Range Province (-9.6 to -5.4) (Fig. 8) (Cobbing et al.,

1992; Ng et al., 2015a). The ɛNd(t) values of the Malaysian Eastern Province granites range

between -5.8 and -0.7 (Cobbing et al., 1992; Ng et al., 2015a). The Sungailiat pluton of the

Bangka granites gives ɛNd(t) values of -5.3 and -5.4. It is difficult to determine whether it

belongs to the Main Range Province or the Eastern Province, as the Sungailiat samples fell

within the overlapping values.

5.4. Zircon U-Pb ages

The CL images of the extracted zircons are presented in Fig. 9. The extracted zircons

are all magmatic, with size ranging from 50 to 100 µm. They are euhedral prisms with an

aspect ratio ranging from 2:1 to 3:1. In CL, they usually have a CL-dark to CL-medium

magmatic core with oscillatory zoning. Omitting five unusually high U grains out of 224

grains, the U concentration of the magmatic zircon cores are between 45 and 10000 ppm,

with average U concentration 1850 ppm. Such high U concentration is consistent with the

zircon being extracted from the Malaysian tin granites (Ng et al., 2015b). The Th/U ratio lies

in the range from 0.10 to 2.20, with average Th/U ratio 0.6. The complete analytical result is

presented in the supplementary file (Table S1).

12
 Granite samples contain zircon grains with U-Pb ages ranging from 218 ± 2 to 228 ±

2 Ma (Figs. 10 and 11). They were emplaced and crystallised in two major magmatic phases.

The older magmatic phase formed the Belinyu, Kelapa, Pelangsa, and Tanjong Batu plutons.

These plutons are located on the north-eastern side of Bangka, giving an average magmatic

age of ca. 225 Ma. The younger magmatic phase formed the Tempilang, Toboali, Nama, and

Permisan plutons, which are found on the south-western side of Bangka. These younger

plutons give an average magmatic age of ca. 220 Ma. There is no apparent age difference

between the hornblende-bearing and the hornblende-barren granites. The Mangkol pluton

gives a slightly younger age at 205 ± 2 Ma: This is a less reliable age as its age-yielding

group of zircons comprises only four pooled analyses due to severe Pb-loss from other zircon

grains. Granites on Bangka therefore crystallised at the same time as the Malaysian Eastern

Province Central Belt (232 – 222 Ma) or as the oldest granite in the Main Range Province

(226 – 201 Ma, e.g. the Cameron Highland granite at 225 ± 1 Ma and Genting Sempah dacite

at 226 ± 1 Ma) (Ng et al., 2015b).

6. Discussion

6.1. Comparison between granites on Bangka and those in the Malaysian Main Range

Province

Granites on Bangka form the southern termination of the South-East Asian Tin Belt.

Although they can be classified as hornblende-bearing and hornblende-barren granites, these

two types of granites do not have significant differences in major or trace element

geochemistry and Nd isotope composition. The geochemical data shows that the granites on

Bangka share similar sources and fractionation trends with the Malaysian tin granites (Ng et

al., 2015a).

In Malaysia, the tin granites are interpreted as hybrid granites, with their parental

magma displaying significant contributions from both igneous and sedimentary protoliths

13
(Ng et al., 2015a). They were further divided into the Eastern Province arc-related granites

and the Main Range Province collision-related granites with different mixing proportions

between igneous and sedimentary sources, as reflected in ɛNd(t) value. Main Range granites

have more sedimentary source material than those in the Eastern Province. The hybridisation

of igneous and sedimentary sources also promoted tin mineralisation in the resulting granites

(Ng et al., 2015a; Walshe et al., 2011). Granites on Bangka were found having similar

geochemistry and ɛNd(t) values as the Malaysian Main Range granites (Fig. 8) (Cobbing et al.,

1992; Ng et al., 2015a). However, among the plutons on Bangka, the Sungailiat pluton

appears to be an outlier. The ɛNd(t) value obtained from this pluton (ɛNd(t) = -5.4) is higher

than the average of the remaining plutons (average ɛNd(t) = -8.2) and falls within the

overlapping values of the Main Range Province (-9.6 to -5.4) and the Eastern Province (-5.8

to -0.7). By using the bulk earth Rb-Sr data suggested by DePaolo (1988), the initial Sr ratio

of the Sungailiat pluton calculated from the Rb-Sr data provided by Cobbing et al. (1992) is

0.7109. This value is within the Main Range values (0.7062 to 0.7159), while the initial Sr

ratio of the Eastern Province is ranging from 0.7004 to 0.7074 (Ng et al., 2015a). In addition,

the sample collected from the nearby Bukit Bais pluton (T0105-1) yielded a ɛNd(t) value of -

7.4. These data may suggest a Main Range origin for the Sungailiat pluton.

Granites from the Main Range Province are dominantly biotite ± muscovite granites

with the occasional presence of tourmaline (Cobbing and Mallick, 1987; Cobbing et al., 1992;

Ghani, 2000, 2003, 2009; Ghani et al., 2013b; Ng et al., 2015a). Tourmaline is not commonly

observed in granites on Bangka because this mineral forms during the late-stage alteration of

granite, i.e. greisenisation. However, greisen is not commonly observed on Bangka.

Previously, it was assumed that hornblende-biotite granites are characteristic of the Eastern

Province. This work shows that hornblende-biotite granites on Bangka can be assigned to the

Main Range Province. It is worth noting that the Taiping granite (216 ± 2 Ma) in the

14
Malaysian Main Range Province is also hornblende-bearing (Cobbing et al., 1992; Ng et al.,

2015a, b).

6.2. The location of the Paleo-Tethyan suture in Indonesia

The location of the Paleo-Tethyan suture in Indonesia has been a geological mystery.

The tectonic boundaries between the Indochina – East Malaya Block, Sibumasu Block, and

West Sumatra Block are poorly defined. The geochemistry, Nd isotope composition, and the

U-Pb zircon ages reported here have helped to confirm that many granites on Bangka can be

regarded as a continuation of the Malaysian Main Range Province. Hence, the Paleo-Tethyan

suture should be located to the north and east of Bangka (Fig. 1). Moreover, the ages of these

granites are more comparable with those from the eastern part of the Main Range Province

that are closest to the Bentong – Raub Suture. If this is the case in Bangka, then it might be

expected that the suture lies “quite” close to Bangka. It would be interesting to examine the

granites on Belitung to see which side of the suture they lie on.

6.3. South-westward younging granites on Bangka

Granites on Bangka were emplaced in two episodes ca. 225 Ma and ca. 220 Ma, with

the older granites on the north-eastern part of the island and younging away from the

suspected suture. Although the age difference between these two episodes is not apparent,

similar observation is also found in the Malaysian Main Range Province (Ng et al., 2015b).

In Peninsular Malaysia, Ng et al. (2015a) proposed the existence of another subduction

system locating to the present west of the Sibumasu Block is necessary to produce the

voluminous Main Range Province. The younging granites observed in the Malaysian Main

Range Province and on Bangka could be related to the roll-back of this suspected subducting

slab.

7. Conclusions

Granites on Bangka have geochemical and Nd isotopic compositions similar to the

15
Malaysian Main Range granites. They were emplaced and crystallised in two magmatic

episodes, with the older plutons emplaced on the north-eastern side of the island at ca. 225

Ma and the younger plutons on the south-western side at ca. 220 Ma. This age trend is also

observable in the Malaysian Main Range Province. Hence, granites on Bangka represent the

southern continuation of the Main Range granite province. The unexposed Paleo-Tethyan

suture therefore, lies to east of the island.

Acknowledgements

This research is approved by the Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher

Education (RISTEK) of the Republic of Indonesia. It is supported by the Dr. Stephen S. F.

Hui Trust Fund, Chang's HKU startup funding, and Ng’s HKU Small Project Grant. We thank

E. Hegner for constructive discussion and arrangement of the Nd isotope study in the

Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. The NordSIMS facility at the Swedish Museum

of Natural History is currently operated by a consortium of Denmark, Iceland, and Sweden. K.

Lindén and L. Ilyinsky are acknowledged here for their technical support. We would like to

thank M.F. Zhou, M. Searle, and an anonymous reviewer for reviewing this article.

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Figure captions

Fig. 1. The South-East Asian Tin Belt with three granite provinces as defined by Cobbing et

al. (1986, 1992). The green line represents the Bentong – Raub Line, which is the Paleo-

Tethyan suture on the Peninsular Malaysia. The blue dash line represents the Paleo-Tethyan

suture in Indonesian waters suggested in this paper. Tin granites on Riau Archipelago and

Belitung are yet to be re-classified because of their ambiguous petrology and geochemistry.

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of Bangka, after Ko (1986), Cobbing et al. (1992), and

Schwartz et al. (1995). The unclassified granites represent granites not being investigated.

Fig. 3. (A) Fresh samples of granites on Bangka were collected from a local quarry; (B) Most

of the granites on Bangka are biotite granites; (C) Intergrowth of quartz and K-feldspar

appears in the Sungailiat pluton (T0104-1, cross-polarised), the occurrence of granophyre

23
suggests that the formation environment is relatively shallow and water-rich; (D) Secondary

muscovite formed by later hydrothermal alteration is common in the Sungailiat pluton

(T0101-1, cross-polarised).

Fig. 4. (A) Harpum’ (1963) K2O vs. Na2O diagram shows that granites on Bangka are more

evolved than the Malaysian Eastern Province granites, and has a closer proximity with the

Main Range Province. The dash line represents the I-S compositional division defined by

White and Chappell (1983); (B) Comparison of Indonesian tin granites on Bangka and

Malaysian tin granites in terms of aluminium saturation index [ASI = molar Al2O3/(CaO –

1.67P2O5 + Na2O + K2O)], Granites on Bangka are weakly peraluminous, falling in between

the Eastern Province and the Main Range Province. The I-S compositional division is set at

ASI = 1.1 (Chappell and White, 1974).

Fig. 5. Various Harker Diagrams show that granites on Bangka follow the fractionation trend

of the Malaysian tin granites, but are highly fractionated. These granites are also in closer

proximity with the Main Range Province in the Na2O and K2O plots (F and G).

Fig. 6. (A) and (B) are the spider diagrams of the granitic plutons on Bangka (including the

Sungailiat pluton) and the Malaysian Main Range granites while (C) and (D) are those of the

granites on Bangka and Eastern Province granites. They are compared with the Cordilleran I-

S granites in the Andes (red shadow) (Grosse et al., 2011) and the North-Eastern China A-

type granites (brown shadow) (Wu et al., 2002). These diagrams show that granites on

Bangka have trace element geochemistry following the Malaysian tin granites with

enrichment in HFSE. However, such enrichment is more intense as reflected by high

fractionation.

Fig. 7. (A) The Sn vs. Rb/Sr plot shows that the bulk rock Sn concentration can be correlated

to the degree of fractionation of the granites (shown as Rb/Sr); (B) Pearce’s (1984) Rb vs. (Y

+ Nb) diagram shows that granites on Bangka are mostly related to the syn-collision granite

24
as the Malaysian Main Range granites; some fall in the within-plate field because of the

enrichment of HFSE, such as Nb. (VAG = volcanic-arc granite, syn-COLG = syn-collision

granite, WPG = within-plate granite, ORG = ocean ridge granite).

Fig. 8. Nd isotopic evolution diagram shows Indonesian Bangka granites compared to

Malaysian granites. Nd isotopes and the magmatic age of the granites are powerful tools to

separate the Main Range Province from the Eastern Province. The majority of the plutons on

Bangka have a closer proximity to the Malaysian Main Range granites. However, the

Sungailiat pluton of the Bangka granites has ɛNd(t) values in between the Main Range

Province and the Eastern Province. (CHUR = Chondritic Uniform Reservoir).

Fig. 9. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of representative zircon grains extracted

from granites on Bangka.

Fig. 10. (A-K) Tera-Wasserburg concordia diagram for the dated granites on Bangka.

MSWD – Mean square of weighted deviation.

Fig. 11. U-Pb zircon age distribution of granites on Bangka, map after Ko (1986), Cobbing et

al. (1992), and Schwartz et al. (1995).

25
Figure 1
98° 102° 106° 20°
Chiang Rai
Fang
Mae Sariang LAOS 400 km
Khuntan

MYANMAR
Tak
(BURMA)
THAILAND

Ban Rai
INDOCHINA
Khao Daen
BLOCK
BANGKOK
CAMBODIA
SIBUMASU
Hub 12°
BLOCK Kapong Chantaburi

GRANITE PROVINCES
Western Province
Main Range Province
Phuket
Eastern Province
Unclassified tin granite

Malay
Peninsula BENTONG-RAUB
Bt Besi
SUTURE
Sungei Lembing 4°
EAST MALAYA
Malacca
BLOCK
Pelapah Kanan

Sumatra Borneo
Batam Riau Archipelago
Lingga

Tin Islands
Bangka

Belitung

98° 102° 106° 110°

Figure 2

T0105-2
Belinyu
Belinyu T0105-1
0 50 km

Bukit Bais
Tanjong Batu
T0104-1
T0202-1 T0103-1
Pelangsa Bukit Bais
Pemali Sungailiat Bt granite
T0301-1 Kelapa T0101-1
T0301-2 T0101-2
2° S
Hbl-Bt granite
Menumbing
BANGKA
T0401-1 Unclassified granite
T0201-1
T0203-1
Mangkol Diorite
Tempilang
T0303-1
Gabbro
T0402-1
T0404-1
Kulur
Permisan
T0601-1
Pading

SUMATRA
Ranggam Group
Tempilang Group
3° S Toboali
Pemali Group T0501-2 T0503-1
105° E 106° E 107° E
Nama T0503-2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8

10
Malaysian Eastern Province granite
Malaysian Main Range Province granite
Malaysian alkali granite
Malaysian Cretaceous granite
0 CHUR
Indonesian Bangka granite
Indonesian Bangka granite (Sungailiat)
ɛNd(t)

-10

-20
0 100 200 300
Age (Ma)
Figure 9
Figure 10A
Figure 10B
Figure 11

T0105-2 (226.5 ±2.1 Ma)

Belinyu
Belinyu
0 50 km

Bukit Bais
Tanjong Batu
T0202-1
222.8 ±2.4 Ma T0103-1
Bukit Bais 222.3 ±2.8 Ma
T0301-1 Pelangsa Main Range Province
Pemali Sungailiat
219.0 ±1.4 Ma Kelapa

2° S

Menumbing
BANGKA
T0401-1 Unclassified granite
205.5 ±2.1 Ma
T0201-1
T0203-1 225.4 ±1.4 Ma Mangkol
228.2 ±2.4 Ma Tempilang
T0303-1
221.7 ±2.1 Ma

Kulur
Permisan
T0601-1
218.2 ±1.8 Ma Pading

SUMATRA
Ranggam Group
Tempilang Group
3° S Toboali
Pemali Group T0501-2
221.1 ±2.0 Ma T0503-1
105° E 106° E 107° E
Nama 219.6 ±2.0 Ma

216.0 218.0 220.0 222.0 224.0 226.0 228.0 230.0

T0203-1
T0105-2
T0201-1
T0202-1
T0103-1
T0303-1
T0501-2
T0503-1
T0301-1
T0601-1
 TABLE 1. MAJOR AND TRACE ELEMENT OF THE GRANITES ON BANGKA

Sample T0101-1 T0101-2 T0103-1 T0104-1 T0105-1 T0201-1 T0202-1 T0301-1 T0303-1 T0401-1 T0402-1 T0404-1 T0501-2 T0503-1 T0503-2 T0601-1

Latitude S01°57'02.9" S01°57'02.9" S01°52'47.0" S01°48'23.1" S01°42'13.9" S01°54'52.4" S01°54'41.3" S02°00'27.0" S02°07'29.0" S02°10'43.4" S02°36'37.0" S02°36'37.0" S03°00'41.6" S03°06'05.6" S03°06'05.6" S02°34'04.4"
Longitude E106°06'24.8" E106°06'24.8" E106°05'42.5" E106°07'05.7" E105°52'28.7" E105°38'27.0" E105°21'42.0" E105°08'56.3" E105°39'57.4" E106°08'10.5" E106°31'09.4" E106°31'09.4" E106°26'37.7" E106°32'34.9" E106°32'34.9" E105°56'46.1"
Pluton Sungailiat Sungailiat Sungailiat Sungailiat Sungailiat Mancung Pelangsa Menumbing Tempilang Mangkol Pading Pading Toboali Nama Nama Permisan
(Hbl-)Bt (Hbl-)Bt Bt
Rock type Bt granite Bt granite Bt granite Bt granite Bt granite Hbl-Bt granite Bt granite Bt granite Hbl-Bt granite Bt granite Hbl-Bt granite Bt granite Bt granite
granite granite microgranite
Major D.L.
(wt%) (wt%)
SiO2 0.01 76.82 74.20 73.00 73.42 77.54 69.07 71.60 75.22 75.20 78.24 75.87 73.60 71.23 73.99 75.25 73.81
TiO2 0.01 0.05 0.07 0.28 0.27 0.06 0.45 0.41 0.21 0.08 0.05 0.20 0.21 0.35 0.27 0.11 0.22
Al2O3 0.01 12.92 13.98 13.58 13.84 12.23 14.89 13.89 12.76 13.37 11.75 12.19 13.29 13.78 13.43 13.00 13.28
Fe2O3(t) 0.04 1.15 1.64 2.42 2.28 1.42 3.87 3.44 2.72 1.93 1.46 2.45 2.76 3.62 2.14 1.97 3.12
MnO 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.08
MgO 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.57 0.30 0.07 1.31 0.89 0.27 0.08 0.05 0.28 0.30 0.80 0.33 0.15 0.27
CaO 0.01 0.54 0.49 1.77 1.28 0.70 3.30 2.43 1.25 0.80 0.65 1.57 1.37 2.52 1.52 0.93 1.07
Na2O 0.01 3.61 3.45 2.37 3.04 3.28 2.39 2.70 3.02 3.28 2.90 2.25 2.71 2.50 2.71 2.79 2.74
K2O 0.01 4.75 5.92 5.69 5.41 4.60 4.36 4.31 4.34 5.13 4.79 4.95 5.56 4.90 5.36 5.58 5.17
P2O5 0.01 n/d n/d 0.06 0.04 n/d 0.09 0.12 0.05 n/d n/d 0.04 0.03 0.09 0.05 0.03 0.06
LOI 0.50 0.80 0.60 1.00 0.40 0.30 0.80 0.80 0.60 0.70 0.20 0.90 0.80 1.10 0.60 0.70
Sum 99.80 99.70 99.57 99.71 99.81 99.46 99.54 99.66 99.75 99.80 99.62 99.62 99.53 99.67 99.67 99.54

Trace D.L.
(ppm) (ppm)
Sc 1 5 5 6 4 4 9 20 6 2 4 4 7 5 5 21 4
V 8 n/d n/d 16 n/d n/d 37 27 9 n/d n/d 12 14 28 11 n/d 12
Co 0.2 n/d 0.5 2.8 1.4 0.6 6.1 5.0 2.3 n/d 0.6 2.4 4.1 4.1 2.5 1.3 1.9
Ga 0.5 26.4 25.7 15.8 19.8 17.2 17.9 18.0 21.0 20.4 17.4 16.2 20.5 18.8 17.3 19.2 18.1
Rb 0.1 892.6 937.2 295.7 302.5 520.9 214.3 307.9 492.3 369.9 661.9 285.1 362.0 231.2 325.3 425.9 302.9
Sr 0.5 5.9 7.3 135.2 57.7 23.2 165.1 119.2 42.1 16.9 11.6 99.8 59.7 165.2 138.9 36.0 66.5
Y 0.1 197.4 108.8 24.3 40.1 49.0 26.4 32.7 68.6 39.3 103.5 33.7 55.4 36.8 55.8 230.5 51.3
Zr 0.1 84.3 97.4 144.9 218.8 92.5 127.0 232.9 188.6 98.3 101.0 163.4 132.2 166.0 172.0 122.8 189.3
Nb 0.1 30.2 23.3 13.5 16.3 16.0 12.3 19.6 20.6 23.7 23.1 11.9 17.3 11.9 15.8 13.9 14.5
Sn 1 17 18 8 7 36 8 18 23 16 16 2 3 5 4 2 7
Cs 0.1 90.2 93.5 25.1 16.5 24.8 19.2 32.9 55.6 19.9 35.2 8.5 11.3 8.5 10.1 13.8 26.5
Ba 1 14 21 973 232 30 698 357 153 56 25 361 130 635 546 72 466
La 0.1 45.8 46.4 37.6 76.9 15.7 26.1 37.8 70.9 27.7 27.8 70.3 64.2 67.2 79.7 223.5 62.0
Ce 0.1 113.4 115.3 73.3 149.1 37.2 51.7 73.7 144.3 61.9 61.4 137.1 136.5 131.1 155.4 442.4 118.5
Pr 0.02 13.09 13.18 8.25 16.22 4.45 5.70 8.16 15.82 7.22 7.63 14.19 14.22 13.78 15.44 46.69 12.72
Nd 0.3 45.2 45.2 28.6 55.8 18.0 21.5 29.5 53.4 27.4 29.3 47.5 53.8 50.5 54.6 171.7 45.5
Sm 0.05 14.43 13.24 5.32 10.02 5.72 4.58 6.02 12.30 7.23 9.46 8.28 10.26 8.69 10.47 39.48 9.37
Eu 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.87 0.41 0.11 0.96 0.76 0.37 0.25 0.11 0.74 0.43 1.02 0.87 0.79 0.74
Gd 0.05 16.99 13.92 4.55 8.49 6.28 4.39 5.50 11.44 7.39 11.99 7.17 10.06 7.78 10.17 39.68 9.11
Tb 0.01 3.74 2.79 0.71 1.23 1.21 0.73 0.88 1.92 1.18 2.40 1.11 1.57 1.21 1.56 5.92 1.49
Dy 0.05 26.73 18.73 4.07 7.28 8.04 4.56 5.54 12.24 6.92 15.63 6.63 10.19 7.03 9.71 32.78 8.79
Ho 0.02 6.11 3.94 0.87 1.44 1.72 0.90 1.13 2.49 1.29 3.40 1.24 2.00 1.29 1.97 6.15 1.77
Er 0.03 19.45 12.65 2.41 4.13 5.63 2.82 3.49 7.50 3.66 10.29 3.69 5.97 3.79 5.91 17.08 5.48
Tm 0.01 3.09 1.99 0.37 0.59 0.87 0.44 0.53 1.12 0.55 1.50 0.53 0.88 0.55 0.90 2.35 0.79
Yb 0.05 20.57 13.44 2.51 3.85 5.67 2.54 3.65 7.12 3.66 9.94 3.37 5.76 3.64 5.75 14.52 5.07
Lu 0.01 3.02 1.97 0.38 0.57 0.88 0.40 0.57 1.03 0.55 1.44 0.49 0.75 0.55 0.84 2.06 0.75
Hf 0.1 4.9 5.1 4.4 6.9 4.6 3.7 7.4 6.3 4.7 5.0 5.3 4.4 5.3 5.4 4.8 6.0
Ta 0.1 5.8 5.0 1.7 1.4 2.5 1.5 3.2 3.6 3.0 5.7 1.3 1.8 0.8 2.3 2.1 1.5
W 0.5 36.5 24.7 n/d n/d 2.9 35.8 2.3 16.8 6.7 9.1 7.8 n/d 1.0 2.5 0.9 1.1
Th 0.2 37.0 41.4 35.5 54.2 40.9 18.2 38.6 86.5 49.4 55.5 86.1 56.2 35.2 49.4 74.7 39.7
U 0.1 39.1 61.3 9.1 12.8 15.7 7.5 12.7 24.4 15.9 25.5 11.0 11.4 5.8 13.4 17.2 9.0
Note: LOI – Loss on ignition, n/d – Not detected,
Bt – Biotite, Hbl – Hornblende

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 TABLE 2. Sm-Nd ISOTOPIC DATA OF THE GRANITES ON BANGKA
147
Sample Rock type Age (Ma) Sm (ppm) Nd (ppm) Sm/144Nd 143
Nd/144Nd (m.) ɛNd(t) TDM*

T0101-1 Bt granite 222 13.4 42.91 0.1887 0.512345 ± 7 -5.4 -

T0101-2 Bt granite 222 14.6 50.99 0.1734 0.512326 ± 6 -5.3 -
T0105-1 Bt granite 227 8.3 25.62 0.1958 0.512248 ± 8 -7.4 -
T0202-1 (Hbl-)Bt granite 223 6.6 31.49 0.1268 0.512063 ± 9 -9.1 1.7
T0301-2 (Hbl-)Bt granite 219 10.3 44.78 0.1396 0.512122 ± 6 -8.3 1.9
T0501-2 Hbl-Bt granite 221 24.2 96.24 0.1522 0.512131 ± 6 -8.5 -
T0503-2 Bt granite 220 35.3 143.2 0.1490 0.512135 ± 8 -8.3 -
T0601-1 Bt granite 218 9.6 38.93 0.1192 0.512142 ± 7 -7.4 1.4
143
Nd/144Nd ratios (m.= measured) normalized to 146Nd/144Nd = 0.7219.
External precision for 143Nd/144Nd is ~1.4 x 10-5 (2σ, n = 11). Error for 147Sm/144Nd ~0.15% (2σ).
The JNdi-1 reference material yielded 143Nd/144Nd = 0.512106 ± 14 (2σ, n = 11) during the course of this study.

ɛNd calculated with today's chondrite-uniform reservoir composition (CHUR: 143Nd/144Nd = 0.512630; 147Sm/144Nd = 0.1960) of Bouvier er al. (2008).
*Nd model ages after DePaolo (1981) calculated only for crust-derived material with low Sm/Nd ratios.

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